Chapter 2

INTRODUCTION TO
MATRICES AND LINEAR
EQUATIONS

“A mathematical theory is not to be considered complete until you have made it

so clear that you can explain it to the first man whom you meet on the street”.
David Hilbert

2.1 Matrix Theory

In this section we investigate about the concept of matrix and some of it’s
properties.
We will denote a matrix by capital letters A, B, C, D,etc.

Definition 2.1.1. A matrix A is a rectangular array of numbers represented

49
in the form: ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 ... a1n
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22 . . . a2n ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .⎟
⎝ ⎠
am1 am2 . . . amn
The number aij is called an entry or member, which is in row i and column j
of the matrix. A matrix with m rows and n columns is called an m by n matrix,
written m × n. The pair of numbers m and n is called the order or size of the
matrix.

Some Important Matrix Properties:

• A square matrix is one which has the same number of rows as columns
i.e. m × n matrix with (m⎛ = n). ⎞
⎛ ⎞ 1 3 −1
0 8 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
e.g. A = B = ⎜4 −7 1 ⎟ where A is 2 × 2 and B is 3 × 3
12 −1 ⎝ ⎠
1 2 −5
matrices respectively.

• A matrix with all entries equal to zero is called a zero matrix, and is
denoted by 0⎛m×n ; ⎞
0 0 0
e.g. 02×3 = ⎝ ⎠
0 0 0

• An identity matrix denoted by In , is a square matrix with aii = 1 for

all i and zero elsewhere; ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ 1 0 0
1 0 ⎜ ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎜ ⎟
e.g. I2 = and I3 = ⎜0 1 0⎟
0 1 ⎝ ⎠
0 0 1

• A matrix with one row (m=1) is called a row matrix;


A = −8 5 4 2

• A matrix with one column (n=1) is called a column matrix;

50
 ⎛ ⎞
1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
B = ⎜−7⎟
⎝ ⎠
8

• Two ⎛
matrices are equal
⎞ if ⎛
their sizes and⎞corresponding
⎛ entries⎞are equal;
0 8 12 1 3 −1 0 8 12
A=⎝ ⎠; B = ⎝ ⎠; C = ⎝ ⎠, then
−2 5 −1 4 −7 1 −2 5 −1

A = B; B = C; A = C.

• For an m × n matrix A = (aij ), the transpose of A is the n × m denoted

by At = (aji ) which is obtained by interchanging the row and columns of
A; ⎛ ⎞
5 8 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 5 −2 7
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜−2 −1⎟ then At = ⎝ ⎠.
⎝ ⎠ 8 −1 0
7 0
Note: If A is a m × n matrix, then At is an n × m matrix.

• A diagonal matrix is one with at least one non-zero entry in the leading
(main) diagonal and zeroes everywhere;
⎛ ⎞
9 0 0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜0 0 0 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 −2

• A matrix
⎛ A is symmetric
⎞ if At =⎛A; ⎞
5 8 −3 5 8 −3
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜ 8 −1 −4⎟ then At = ⎜ 8 −1 −4⎟.
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
−3 −4 0 −3 −4 0

• Scalar multiple: Given a matrix A and a real number k, then the matrix
kA is a matrix obtained by multiplying each entry of matrix A by k. The
matrix kA is called a matrix multiple of A. When dealing with matrices,
real numbers are often called scalars hence the scalar multiplication
for multiplying A by k.

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 ⎛ ⎞
2 −3 3
E.g.: If A = ⎝ ⎠, then
0 −1 5
⎛ ⎞
−6 9 −9
−3A = ⎝ ⎠
0 3 −15

and ⎛ ⎞
1 1 − 32 3
A=⎝ 2⎠
2 −1 5
0 2 2

2.1.1 Matrix Addition and Subtraction

We can only add or subtract two matrices if they have the same order. The
sum or difference of two matrices is obtained by adding or subtracting the
corresponding entries respectively. If
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 a13 b b12 b13
A=⎝ ⎠ , B = ⎝ 11 ⎠,
a21 a22 a23 b21 b22 b23

then
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 a13 b11 b12 b13 a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13
A+B = ⎝ ⎠+⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠
a21 a22 a23 b21 b22 b23 a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23

Similarly for subtraction

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 a13 b b12 b13 a11 − b11 a12 − b12 a13 − b13
A−B = ⎝ ⎠−⎝ 11 ⎠=⎝ ⎠
a21 a22 a23 b21 b22 b23 a21 − b21 a22 − b22 a23 − b23

Example 2.1.2.
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
−1 8 ⎛ ⎞ 0 −1 ⎛ ⎞
⎜ ⎟ 1 3 ⎜ ⎟ 9 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎠;C = ⎜ ⎟
A=⎜ 5 0 ⎟;B = ⎝ ⎜1 0 ⎟;D = ⎝ ⎠.
⎝ ⎠ 4 −7 ⎝ ⎠ −3 −6
2 −3 −2 −5

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
−1 8 0 −1 −1 + 0 8 + (−1) −1 7
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A+C = ⎜ 5 0 ⎟+⎜ 1 0 ⎟=⎜ 5+1 0+0 ⎟=⎜ 6 0 ⎟.
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 −3 −2 −5 2 + (−2) −3 + (−5) 0 −8

52
 ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 3 9 0 1−9 3−0 −8 3
B−D =⎝ ⎠−⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠=⎝ ⎠.
4 −7 −3 −6 4 − (−3) −7 − 6 7 −13

A ± B; A ± D; B ± C or C ± D do not exist.

2.1.2 Matrix Multiplication

Consider m × n matrix A = (aij ) and p × q matrix B = (bij ). Then the matrix

multiplication AB is defined if and only if n = p. The product AB will be m × q
matrix whose ij-entry is obtained by multiplying the ith row of A by the jth
column of B. i.e.

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 ... a1n b11 b12 ... b1q c11 a12 ... a1q
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ a21 a22 . . . a2n ⎟ ⎜ b21 b22 . . . b2q ⎟ ⎜ a21 a22 . . . a2q ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟=⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ⎟ ⎜. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .⎟ ⎜. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .⎟
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
am1 am2 . . . amn bn1 bn2 . . . bnq am1 am2 . . . amq

n
Where cij = ai1 b1j + ai2 b2j + . . . + ain bnj = k=1 aik bkj .

Note 2.1.3. • If AB exist, it does not mean that BA also exist.

• Also in general matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e. AB = BA

(although in some cases it is possible).

• If both AB and BA exist, they may not be of the same order.

Example 2.1.4.
⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ −3 4 0
−1 −3 5 ⎜ ⎟
A=⎝ ⎠ 2 × 3 matrix; B = ⎜
⎜1 5
⎟
−1⎟ 3 × 3 matrix.
2 0 −4 ⎝ ⎠
2 0 3

53
AB exist since number of column in A is same as number of rows in B.
⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ −3 4 0
−1 −3 5 ⎜ ⎟
AB = ⎝ ⎠⎜ ⎜ 1 5 −1⎟
⎟
2 0 −4 ⎝ ⎠
2 0 3
⎛ ⎞
(−1)(−3) + (−3)(1) + (5)(2) (−1)(4) + (−3)(5) + 5(0) (−1)(0) + (−3)(−1) + 5(3)
=⎝ ⎠
2(−3) + 0(1) + (−4)(2) 2(4) + 0(5) + (−4)(0) 2(0) + 0(−1) + (4)(−3)
⎛ ⎞
10 −19 18
=⎝ ⎠
−14 8 −12

Result of AB is 2 × 3 matrix. BA does not exist since the number of columns

in B is not equal to the number of rows in A.
Verify that BAt exists and
⎛ ⎞
−9 −6
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
BAt = ⎜−21 6 ⎟.
⎝ ⎠
13 −8

Remarks 2.1.5. If A is a matrix. Then An where n ∈ N, is a matrix obtained

by multiplying the matrix A by itself n times, e.g. A3 = AAA.
Check that this only occurs when A is a square matrix.

Some Properties of Matrices

(i) A + B = B + A

(ii) (A + B) + C = A + (B + C)

(iii) A(B + C) = AB + AC

(iv) (AB)C = A(BC)

(v) k(A + B) = kA + kB

(vi) (A + B)t = At + B t

(vii) (AB)t = B t At

54
(viii) AB = BA

Tutorials 2.1.6. 1. Consider

⎛ the following
⎞ matrices: ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ −2 7 ⎛ ⎞ 2 −1 5
2 −3 1 ⎜ ⎟ 3 −3 ⎜ ⎟
A=⎝ ⎠; B = ⎜
⎜2
⎟
0 ⎟; C = ⎝ ⎠ ⎜
; D = ⎜0 1
⎟
0⎟;
5 −1 0 ⎝ ⎠ 0 −6 ⎝ ⎠
3 −4 3 −1 5
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 0 3 5 0 0
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ 
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
E = ⎜−1 1 −1⎟; F = ⎜0 −3 0⎟; G = 4 1 −2 ;
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
5 0 5 0 0 2
⎛ ⎞
0
H = ⎝ ⎠;
−3

(a) Which of the matrices above are: (i) Diagonal matrix; (ii) Square
matrix; (iii) Symmetric; (iv) Identity matrix; (v) Zero Matrix (vi)
Column Matrix; (vi) Row matrix.

(b) Which of the following matrices is matrix addition, subtraction and

multiplication possible?

(c) Which of the following operations are possible? Where the opera-
tions are possible evaluate: AC; B 3 ; C t F ; DEB; At C − B; (3E t )B;
(−3I3 − D)t ; HGB CGt .

(d) Write down the following entries: (i) b22 in B; (ii) e32 in E; (iii) a31
in A; (iv) f23 in F

2. Solve
⎛ for a, b, c and ⎞
d given
⎛ that ⎞ ⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2a − b 3c − d 7 −3 a 3b 3 b−3
(i) ⎝ ⎠ = ⎝ ⎠ (i) 5 ⎝ ⎠+⎝ ⎠ =
c + d a + 4b 0 −4 2c −d 0 −4
⎛ ⎞
2a b−a
⎝ ⎠
3c + d 7d

3. If A is a 5 × 4 matrices and AI = A, what is the size of I, the identity

matrix?

4. If AB = 0 and A is a non-zero matrix, can we conclude that B = 0?

55
 ⎛ ⎞
x 2x xy
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
5. Determine x and y such that the given matrix is symmetric: A = ⎜y −1 x ⎟.
⎝ ⎠
y x2 x

2.2 Echelon Matrices

• Row equivalence matrices: Let the ith row of a matrix A be denoted
by Ri . The following are called elementary row operations:

1. Inter-change any two rows, Ri ↔ Rj

2. Multiply a row by a non-zero constant k, Ri → kRi

3. Add a multiple of any row to another row, Ri → Ri + kRj .

• Let A and B be m × n matrices. Then A is said to be row equivalent

to B if B can be obtained from A by a finite sequence of elementary row
operations.

We shall see how to apply this from next examples as well throughout the
chapter.

Definition 2.2.1. A matrix is said to be in row echelon form if it satisfies

then following properties:

(a) Every non-zero row begin with a leading one.

(b) A leading one in a lower row is further to the right.

(c) Zero rows are at the bottom of the matrix.

Example
⎛ 2.2.2. The⎞ following
⎛ matrices are in
⎞ a row echelon form:
1 0 −2 3 1 8 −2 7 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 −1 −4⎟ ⎜0 0 1 3 1⎟
(a) ⎜
⎜
⎟ (b) ⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎟.
⎟
⎜0 0 1 0⎟ ⎜0 0 0 1 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Definition 2.2.3. A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form if it

is a row echelon form and furthermore it has additional property that:

56
 • every column with a leading one has zeros elsewhere.

Example
⎛ 2.2.4. ⎞The following
⎛ matrices⎞are in a reduced row echelon form:
1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 3
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 0 0⎟ ⎜0 0 1 0 0⎟
⎜
(a) ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟.
⎟ (b) ⎜ ⎟
⎜0 0 1 0⎟ ⎜0 0 0 1 2⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0

Example 2.2.5. Reduce the following matrix and leave your answer in

(a) Row echelon form.

(b) Reduced row echelon form.

⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1
3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜2 1 1 1 2 4⎟
⎜ ⎟.
⎜ ⎟
⎜1 −1 −1 1 1 5⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 0 0 1 1 4

57
 Solution: (a)
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜2 1 1 1 2 4⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜1 −1 −1 1 1 5⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 0 0 1 1 4
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 −1 −1 −1 0 −2⎟ R2 − 2R1
∼⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜0 −2 −2 0 0 2 ⎟ R3 − R 1
⎝ ⎠
0 −1 −1 0 0 1 R 4 − R1
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 1 1 0 2⎟ −R2
∼⎜⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜0 −2 −2 0 0 2⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 −1 −1 0 0 1
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 1 1 0 2⎟
∼⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 0 2 0 6⎟ R3 + 2R2
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 1 0 3 R4 + R 2
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 1 1 1 0 2⎟
∼⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 0 1 0 3⎟ 12 × R3
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 1 0 3
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 1 1 3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 1 1 0 2⎟
∼⎜⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 0 1 0 3⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 0 0 0 R4 − R3

This matrix is now in a row echelon form.

(b) Now to obtain a reduced row echelon form, we continue from the last step in

58
(a) to ensure that all columns with leading one have zeros elsewhere as follows:
⎛ ⎞
1 1 1 0 1 0 R 1 − R3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 1 0 0 −1⎟ R2 − R3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 0 0 1 0 3⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 0 0 0
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0 1 0 R1 − R2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 1 1 0 0 −1⎟
∼⎜ ⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 0 1 0 3⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 0 0 0

Tutorials 2.2.6. Reduce the following matrix and leave your answer in

(a) Row echelon form.

(b) Reduced row echelon form.

⎛ ⎞
1 2 −3 −2 4 1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1. ⎜2 5 −8 −1 6 4⎟ .
⎝ ⎠
1 4 7 5 2 8
⎛ ⎞
1 2 1 2 1 2
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜2 4 3 5 5 7⎟
2. ⎜
⎜
⎟.
⎟
⎜3 6 4 9 10 11⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 2 4 3 6 9

2.3 Determinant
Given any square matrix A, there is a special scalar called the determinant of
A denoted by det(A) or we make use of vertical bars |A|. This number is also
important in determining whether a matrix is invertible or not, which will be
studied in the next section.
We will show how to evaluate determinant of square matrices of different orders.

59
(a): 1 × 1 matrix:

If A = (a), then we simply say det A = a.

Example 2.3.1. A = (2) gives det A = 2.

(b): 2 × 2 matrix:
⎛ ⎞
a b
If A = ⎝ ⎠;
c d
 
 
a b
The determinant is defined by: det A =   = ad − bc

c d
⎛ ⎞
5 −1
Example 2.3.2. If A = ⎝ ⎠,then
6 −3
 
 
5 −1
det A =   = (5)(−3) − 6(−1) = −15 + 6 = −9.

6 −3

Definition 2.3.3. The (i, j)-th minor of a matrix A, denoted by mij (A), is the
determinant⎛obtained by deleting
⎞ row i and column j of A.
a a12 a13  
⎜ 11 ⎟  
⎜ ⎟  a 11 a 13 
e.g. If A = ⎜a21 a22 a23 ⎟, then m32 (A) =  .

⎝ ⎠ a21 a23 
a31 a32 a33

Definition 2.3.4. The (i, j)-th cofactor of a matrix A, denoted by cij (A), is
the signed minor
⎛ given by cij⎞(A) = (−1)i+j mij (A) of A.
a a12 a13
⎜ 11 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
e.g. If A = ⎜a21 a22 a23 ⎟, then
⎝ ⎠
a31 a32 a33
   
   
a11 a12  a a12 
c23 (A) = (−1)2+3   = −  11 .
  
a31 a32  a31 a32 

60
(c): 3 × 3 matrix:

(i) Laplace expansion:

⎛ ⎞
a a12 a13
⎜ 11 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
Given A = ⎜a21 a22 a23 ⎟;
⎝ ⎠
a31 a32 a33

 
 
a11 a12 a13 
 
 
det A = a21 a22 a23 
 
 
a31 a32 a33 

= a11 (−1)1+1 m11 + a12 (−1)1+2 m12 + a13 (−1)1+3 m13

     
     

2
a 22 a 23   a 21 a 23  a
4  21
a22 
= a11 (−1)   3  .
 + a12 (−1)   + a13 (−1)  
a32 a33  a31 a33  a31 a32 

This is Laplace expansion along row one. This expansion can be done
along any other row or column without affecting the value of the determi-
nant.
⎛ ⎞
−2 3 −1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
Example 2.3.5. A= ⎜ 4 −7 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 2 −5
 
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
det A =  4 −7 1
 
 
1 2 −5

Expand along row 1

     
     
−7 1 4 1 4 −7
= (−2)(−1)1+1   + 3(−1)1+2 
 
 + (−1)(−1)1+3 
 


2 −5 1 −5 1 2

= (−2)(35 − 2) − 3(−20 − 1) − 1(8 + 7) = −66 + 63 − 15 = −18.

(ii) Sarrus scheme:

61
Another useful method which can be used to evaluate the determinant of a
3 × 3 matrix is what we call “Sarrus scheme” or also commonly referred to as
“butterfly method ”. To find the det(A) using this method we follow the following
steps:

(i) Rewrite the 1st and 2nd columns on the right (as Columns 4 and 5).

(ii) Add the products along the three full diagonals that extend from upper
left to lower right.

(iii) Subtract the products along the three full diagonals that extend from
lower left to upper right.

Let’s work the previous example, now using “Sarrus scheme”:

E.g. Find  
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
4 −7 1
 
 
1 2 −5
Solution:
 
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
det A =  4 −7 1
 
 
1 2 −5
 
 
−2 3 −1 −2 3
 
 
=  4 −7 1  4 −7
 
 
1 2 −5 1 2

= (−2)(−7)(−5) + (3)(1)(1) + (−1)(4)(2) − (1)(−7)(−1) − (2)(1)(−2) − (−5)(4)(3)

= −70 + 3 − 8 − 7 + 4 + 60 = −18.

NB:Sarrus rule does not work for n × n matrices where n ≥ 4.

Properties of determinants:

1. The sign of a determinant changes if any two columns or rows are inter-
changed.

62
 E.g. From an example, we saw that
 
 
−2 3 −1
 
 
 4 −7 1  = −18.
 
 
1 2 −5

If we interchange row 1 and row 3, the new determinant;

 
 
1 2 −5
 
 
 4 −7 1  = 18.
 
 
−2 3 −1

Interchanging of columns has the same effect.


2. The determinant  a matrix with a zero column or zero row is zero.
of
   
 1 0 −5  
   1 2 
    = 0.
E.g.  4 0 1  = 0 and  
   0 0 
 
−2 0 −1

3. If any two rows or columns of a matrix are equal, its determinant

 is zero.
   
   1 2 4 1 
1 2 −5  
   
  −3 −5 5 −3
E.g.8 −5 −2 = 0 since R2 = R3 .    = 0 since
  
   −4 0 −5 −4 
8 −5 −2  
 
2 1 −5 2 
C1 = C 4 .

4. If any row or column of a matrix is multiplied by a non-zero constant k,

it’s determinant is multiplied by k. E.g.If
⎛ ⎞
−2 3 −1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜ 4 −7 1 ⎟ ,
⎝ ⎠
1 2 −5

then if we multiply column 3 by -5, i.e. we have new matrix

⎛ ⎞
−2 3 5
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
B = ⎜ 4 −7 −5⎟ ,
⎝ ⎠
1 2 25

63
 then det B = −5 det A = −5(−18) = 90.
Suppose we multiply the whole matrix A by 2, then each row will be
multiplied by two. So

det 2A = 2 × 2 × 2 det A = 8 × (−18) = −144.

This is because each row or column is a multiplied by 2, hence the multiple

of each row multiplies the det A, in this case three 2’s since we have 3 rows
or columns.

In general If A is an n × n matrix, then det(kA) = k n det A.

5. If any row or column of a matrix is multiplied by a non-zero constant k

and the result is added to another row or column, it’s determinant remains
the same. We can show this by performing row operation.
E.g. ⎛ ⎞
−2 3 −1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A=⎜ 4 −7 1⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 2 −5
using row operation.
   
   
−2 3 −1 0 7 −11 R1 + 2R3
   
   
det A =  4 −7 1  = 0 −15 21  R2 − 4R3
   
   
1 2 −5 1 −5 −2 

Expanding along C1
 
 
 7 −11
= 1 ×  

−15 21 

= 7 × 21 − (−15)(−11) = 147 − 165 = −18.

Which still yields the same result.

NB:Care must be taken when performing row operation as to which row
we multiply.
Performing row operation to find the determinant is quite helpful when

64
we deal with higher order square matrices, e.g. 4 × 4, 5 × 5, etc.
E.g. Consider a 4 × 4 matrix
⎛ ⎞
1 3 5 7
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜3 1 3 5⎟
D=⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎜5 3 1 3⎟
⎝ ⎠
7 5 3 1

   
   
1 3 5 7 1 3 57 
   
   
3 1 3 5 0 −8 −12 −16 R2 − 3R1
 = 
   
5 3 1 3 0 −12 −24 −32 R3 − 5R1
   
   
7 5 3 1 0 −16 −32 −48 R4 − 7R1
 
 
 −8 −12 −16
 
 
= 1 × −12 −24 −32
 
 
−16 −32 −48
 
 
 2 3 4
 
 
= (−4)(−4)(−16) 3 6 8
 
 
 1 2 3
 
 
0 −1 −2 R1 − 2R3
 
 
= −256 0 0 −1 R2 − 3R3
 
 
1 2 3
 
 
−1 −2

= −256 × 1 ×  

 0 −1

= −256 × (1 − 0) = −256.

65
    
   
a b+c a2   a a+b+c a2 
   
   
b c+a b2  =  b a+b+c b2 
   
   
c a+b c2   c a+b+c c2 

C2 + C1
 
 
a 1 a2 
 
 
= (a + b + c)  b 1 b2 
 
 
 c 1 c2 
 
 
 a 1 a2 
 
 
= (a + b + c) b − a 0 b2 − a2  R2 − R1
 
 
c − a 0 c2 − a2  R3 − 1R1

Expand along C2
 
 
b − a (b − a)(b + a)
= −(a + b + c)  

c − a (c − a)(c + a)
 
 
1 b + a 

= −(a + b + c)(b − a)(c − a)  

1 c + a 

= −(a + b + c)(b − a)(c − a)(c + a − b − a)

= −(a + b + c)(b − a)(c − a)(c − b)

6. det(AB) = det A det B

7. det(A + B) = det A + det B.

8. det(A) = det(At )

Tutorials 2.3.6. 1. Find the value of x such that:

 
 
x − 3 5 
(a)   = 45

 −3 x − 2
 
 
x −1 2x 
 
 
(b)  1 −1 0  = 12
 
 
 2 −1 −x

66
 2. Use properties of determinants to evaluate:
 
 
3 −4 −2
 
 
(a) 6 −4 −1
 
 
9 2 3
 
 
1 k k 2 
 
 
(b) 1 k k 2 
 
 
1 k k 2 
 
 
3 3 0 5
 
 
2 2 0 −2

(c)  

4 1 −3 0 
 
 
2 10 3 2
 
 
4 0 0 1 0
 
 
3 3 3 −1 0
 
 
(d)  1 2 4 2 3
 
 
2 2 4 2 3
 
 
−3 −1 2 0 9

3. Show that the value of the following determinant is independent of x.

 
 
 sin x cos x 0
 
 
 − cos x sin x 0 .
 
 
sin x − cos x sin x + cos x 1

2.4 Matrix Inversion

Definition 2.4.1. An n×n square matrix A is invertible (non-singular) if there
exist a matrix D such that AD = DA = In . We say D is an inverse matrix of
A and D = A−1 .

Note 2.4.2. The following facts are important:

• If A−1 exists, then it is unique and square of the same order as A.

67
 • An invertible matrix and its inverse commute with respect to matrix mul-
tiplication i.e. AA−1 = A−1 A = In .

• A non-square matrix can never be invertible, and also among square ma-
trices there are infinitely many that are not invertible.

• There is a symmetric relationship between a matrix and it’s inverse; i.e.

if B is the inverse of A, then A is also an inverse of B.

• If A−1 exists, then the system of linear equations with A as a coefficient

matrix ALWAYS has a unique solution, whatever the right hand side.
We can actually write the equation as AX = B where X is the column
matrix of variables x, y, z, etc and B is the column matrix of the right
hand side. Then AX = B implies A−1 AX = A−1 B, then In X = A−1 B,
hence X = A−1 B. This will yield the unique solution. (We’ll touch this
in detail later).

We will study two methods of finding the inverse of a matrix. The first method
involves Gauss-Jordan operation and the second is the adjoint method.

A. Gauss-Jordan elimination method:

We will make use of the following algorithm called Matrix inversion algo-
rithm in order to evaluate the inverse using the Gauss-Jordan elimination.

NB: Matrix Inversion Algorithm:

If A is a (square) invertible matrix, there exists a sequence of elementary
row operations that carry A to the identity matrix I of the same size,
written A → I. This same series of row operations carries I to A−1 ; that
is, I → A−1 . The algorithm can be summarized as follows:

[A|I] → [I|A−1 ]

where the row operations on A and I are carried out simultaneously.

Example 2.4.3. Use the Gauss-Jordan elimination to find the inverse of

68
the following matrices:
⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞ 2 7 1
−2 3 ⎜ ⎟
(a) A = ⎝ ⎠ ; (b) B = ⎜
⎜1 4
⎟
−1⎟
4 −5 ⎝ ⎠
1 3 0

(a)
⎛  ⎞

−23 1 0
(A|I) = ⎝  ⎠

4 −5  0 1
⎛  ⎞

−2 3  1 0
=⎝  ⎠

0 1  2 1 R2 + 2R1
⎛  ⎞

−2 0  −5 −3 R1 − 3R2
=⎝  ⎠

0 1 2 1
⎛  ⎞

1 0  52 23 (− 12 ) × R1
=⎝  ⎠

0 1 2 1

⎛ ⎞
5 3
∴ A−1 = ⎝2 2⎠
.
2 1
(b)
⎛  ⎞

2 7 1 1 0 0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
(A|I) = ⎜1 4 −1  0 1 0⎟
⎝  ⎠

1 3 0 0 0 1

69
 First interchange row 1 and 2.
⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  0 1 0 R2 ↔ R1
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜2 7 1 1 0 0⎟

⎝  ⎠

1 3 0 0 0 1
⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  0 1 0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 −1 3  1 −2 0⎟ R2 − 2R1
⎝  ⎠

0 −1 1  1 −1 1 R3 − R1
⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  0 1 0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −3  −1 2 0⎟ −R2
⎝  ⎠

0 −1 1  0 −1 1
⎛  ⎞

1 0 11  4 −7 0 R1 − 4R2
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −3  −1 2 0⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 −2  −1 1 1 R3 + R2
⎛  ⎞

1 0 11  4 −7 0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −3  −1 2 0 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 1  12 − 12 − 12 − 12 R3
⎛  ⎞

1 0 0  − 32 − 32 11 2 ⎟ R1 − 11R3
⎜ 
⎜  1 ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 0 2 1
− 32 ⎟ R2 + 3R3
⎝  2 ⎠

0 0 1  21 − 12 − 12

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
−3 −3 11
−3 −3 11
⎜ 2 2 2 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ −3 ⎟ 1 ⎜ ⎟
Hence A−1 = ⎜ 1 1 ⎟ = 2 ⎜1 1 −3⎟
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 −1 −1
2 2 2 1 −1 −1

B. The Adjoint Method:

Definition 2.4.4. The adjoint of a matrix A, denoted by adjA, is the

transpose of the matrix of the cofactors of A.

70
For example if ⎛ ⎞
a11 a12 a13
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜a21 a22 a23 ⎟ ;
⎝ ⎠
a31 a32 a33
then the matrix of cofactors of A, which we will denote by C is:
⎛ ⎞
c11 (A) c12 (A) c13 (A)
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
C = ⎜c21 (A) c22 (A) c23 (A)⎟ ,
⎝ ⎠
c31 (A) c32 (A) c33 (A)

then the adjoint matrix

⎛ ⎞
c11 (A) c21 (A) c31 (A)
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
adjA = C T = ⎜c12 (A) c22 (A) c32 (A)⎟ ,
⎝ ⎠
c13 (A) c23 (A) c33 (A)

Definition 2.4.5. If det A = 0 then the inverse of A is given by

1
A−1 = (adjA).
det A
Find the inverse of ⎛ ⎞
2 7 1
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
B = ⎜1 4 −1⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 3 0
using the adjoint method to verify that we will get the same answer.
To find the matrix of cofactors,
⎛      ⎞
     
4 −1 1 −1 1 4
⎜  −   ⎟ 
⎜    ⎟ 
⎜ 3 0  1 0  1 ⎟ 3
⎜      ⎟
⎜      ⎟
⎜ 7 1  2 1 2 7 ⎟
C=⎜ −     −  ⎟
⎜     ⎟
⎜ 3 0  1 0 1 3 ⎟
⎜      ⎟
⎜      ⎟
⎜ 7 1  2 1  2 7 ⎟
⎝  −     ⎠
    
4 −1 1 −1 1 4
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
(0 + 3) −(0 + 1) (3 − 4) 3 −1 −1
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
= ⎜−(0 − 3) (0 − 1) −(6 − 7)⎟ =⎜ 3 −1 1⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
(−7 − 4) −(−2 − 1) (8 − 7) −11 3 1

71
Now the adjoint matrix is the transpose of cofactor matrix, i.e.
⎛ ⎞
3 3 −11
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
adjB = C T = ⎜−1 −1 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
−1 1 1

Now
 
 
2 7 1
 
 
det B = 1 4 −1
 
 
1 3 0
 
 
2 1 1
 
 
= 1 1 −1
 
 
1 0 0

C2 − 3C1

Expanding along R3
 
 
1 1
= 1 ×  

1 −1

= −1 − 1 = −2.

Now to find inverse,

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 3 −11 −3 −3 11
1 1 ⎜⎜
⎟ 1⎜
⎟ ⎜
⎟
⎟
B −1 = (adjA) = ⎜−1 −1 3 ⎟= ⎜ 1 1 −3⎟ ,
det A −2 ⎝ ⎠ 2⎝ ⎠
−1 1 1 1 −1 −1

hence we still obtain the same result.

Tutorials 2.4.6. By using the methods below, find the inverse of matrices
below if they exist:

(i) Gauss-Jordan Elimination

(ii) Adjoint Method

72
 ⎛ ⎞
−3 6
(a) A = ⎝ ⎠
4 5
⎛ ⎞
−1 3
(b) B = ⎝ ⎠
3 −2
⎛ ⎞
−1
3 4
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
(c) C = ⎜1 0 3 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 5 −4
⎛ ⎞
−1 3 −4
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
(d) D = ⎜ 2 4 1 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
−4 2 −9

2.5 System of Linear equations: Matrix method

System of linear equation plays a vital role in the subject of linear algebra.
Many problems in linear algebra reduces to finding the solution of a system
of linear equations. The system of linear equations involve constants (scalars)
which may come from any field. In this chapter all our constants (scalars) will
come from the field of real numbers.

Definition 2.5.1. A linear equation over a field of real numbers with unknowns
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn is an equation that can be put in the standard form

a1 x1 + a2 x2 + . . . + an xn = b

where a1 , a2 , . . . an , and b are constants (scalars) which comes from the field of
real numbers (R) and x1 , x2 , . . . , xn are variables. The constant ak is called the
coefficient of xk , and b is called the constant term of the equation.
A system of linear equations (or linear system) is a finite collection of
linear equations in same variables. For instance, a linear system of m equations
in n variables x1 , x2 , . . . , xn can be written as:

73
 a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n x = b1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n x = b2

(2.1)
.. ..
. .

am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm

Definition 2.5.2. A system of equations is consistent if it has at least one

solution and it is inconsistent if it has no solution.

Theorem 2.5.3. Given a system of linear equations in several unknowns, then

the system of linear equations will have one of the following:

(a) A unique (only one) solution (consistent)

(b) Infinitely many solutions

(c) No solution

In previous year, you were introduced to elimination method (simultaneous

equation) as a way of solving system of linear equations. We will now use the
matrix method to solve the system of linear equations.

2.5.1 Matrix Method

Gauss-Jordan Elimination Method

Example 2.5.4. Solve for x, y and z using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method
of the following system of linear equations.

2x + 7y + z = 4

x + 4y − z = 9

x + 3y = 3

74
 ⎛ ⎞
⎛ ⎞
2 7 1 4
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜1 4 −1⎟ ; B = ⎜9⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3 0 3
⎛  ⎞

2 7 1 4
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
(A|B) = ⎜1 4 −1  9⎟
⎝  ⎠

1 3 0 3

First interchange row 1 and 2.

⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  9 R2 ↔ R1
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜2 7 1  4⎟
⎝  ⎠

1 3 0 3
⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  9
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 −1 3  −14⎟ R2 − 2R1
⎝  ⎠

0 −1 1  −6 R3 − R1
⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  9
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −3  14 ⎟ −R2
⎝  ⎠

0 −1 1  −6
⎛  ⎞

1 0 11  −47 R1 − 4R2
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −3  14 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 −2  8 R 3 + R2
⎛  ⎞

1 0 11  −47
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −3  14 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 1  −4 − 12 R3
⎛  ⎞

1 0 0  −3 R1 − 11R3
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 0  2 ⎟ R2 + 3R3
⎝  ⎠

0 0 1  −4

∴ the system has unique solution with solutions x = −3, y = 2 and z = −4.

75
Example 2.5.5. Solve for x, y and z using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method
of the following system of linear equations.

2x − 3y + z = 5

−x + 2y − z = 0

−x + 3y − 2z = 4

⎛  ⎞

2 −3 1 5
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
(A|B) = ⎜−1 2 −1  0⎟
⎝  ⎠

−1 3 −2  4

First interchange row 1 and 2.

⎛  ⎞

−1 −1  0 R1 ↔ R2
2
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜ 2 −3 1  5⎟
⎝  ⎠

−1 3 −2  4
⎛  ⎞

1 −2 1  0 −R1
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜ 2 −3 1  5⎟
⎝  ⎠

−1 3 −2  4
⎛  ⎞

1 −2 1  0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −1  5⎟ R2 − 2R1
⎝  ⎠

0 1 −1  4 R3 − R1
⎛  ⎞

1 0 −1  10 R1 + 2R2
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −1  5 ⎟ R3 − R1
⎝  ⎠

0 0 0  −1

From row 3, we see that we have equation 0x+0y +0z = −1 which is impossible;
hence the system will have a no solution.

Example 2.5.6. Solve for x, y and z using the Gauss-Jordan elimination method

76
of the following system of linear equations.

x − 3y + 2z = −1

2x − 5y − z = 2

2x − 7y + 9z = −6

⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
1 −3 2 −1
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
A = ⎜2 −5 −1⎟ ; B = ⎜ 2 ⎟
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
2 −7 9 −6

⎛  ⎞

1 −3 2  −1
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
(A|B) = ⎜2 −5 −1  2 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

2 −7 9  −6
⎛  ⎞

1 4 −1  9
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 −1 3  −14⎟ R2 − 2R1
⎝  ⎠

0 −1 1  −6 R3 − 2R1
⎛  ⎞

1 −3 2  −1
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −5  4 ⎟ −R2
⎝  ⎠

0 −1 5  −4
⎛  ⎞

1 0 −13  11 R1 + 3R2
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −5  4 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 0 0 R 3 + R1

∴ the system has infinitely many solutions.

If we look in rows one and two, we see that coefficients of x and y are 1, we
say x and y are leading variables. The remaining variable z is called free
vaiable. We then solve the equation in terms of the free variable z.
From row 1, we get x = 13z + 11 and from row 2, we get y = 5z + 4.
From these we can see that we can treat z as a parameter, hence we let z = t,

77
and our solution will be in parametric equation as:
x = 13t + 11, y = 5t + 4 and z = t.

Inverse of Matrix Method

Matrix inverses can be used to solve certain systems of linear equations. The
system of linear equations can be written as a single matrix equation

AX = B.

where A and B are known matrices and X is to be determined. If A is invertible,

we multiply each side of the equation on the left by A−1 to get
A−1 AX = A−1 B, then In X = A−1 B, hence X = A−1 B. This will yield the
unique solution

Theorem 2.5.7. Suppose a system of n equations in n variables is written in

matrix form as AX = B. If the n × n coefficient matrix A is invertible, the
system has the unique solution X = A−1 B.

We will verify this method again using the previous examples.

Example 2.5.8.

2x + 7y + z = 4

x + 4y − z = 9

x + 3y = 3
⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
⎛
x2 4 7 1
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
We can express as AX = B as follows ⎜1 4 −1⎟ ⎜y ⎟ = ⎜9⎟ .
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3 0 z 3
We have already seen that
⎛ ⎞
−3 −3 11
⎜ 2 2 2 ⎟
⎜ −3 ⎟
A−1 =⎜ 1 1 ⎟.
⎝ 2 2 2 ⎠
1 −1 −1
2 2 2

78
Using inverse of matrix method to solve X = A−1 B, i.e.
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞
−3 −3 11
x 2 ⎟ ⎜4⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 2 2
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ 1 1 −3 ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜y ⎟ = ⎜ 2 ⎟⎜ ⎟
2 ⎠ ⎝9⎠
⎝ ⎠ ⎝ 2
1 −1 −1
z 2 2 2 3
⎛ ⎞
( −3 )(4) + ( −3 )(9) + ( 11 )(3)
⎜ 2 2 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ ( 12 )(4) + ( 12 ) + ( −3 )(3) ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
1 −1 −1
( 2 )(4) + ( 2 )(9) + ( 2 )(3)
⎛ ⎞
−6 − 27 + 33
⎜ 2 2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ 2 + 92 − 92 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
2 − 92 − 32
⎛ ⎞
−3
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
= ⎜ 2 ⎟.
⎝ ⎠
−4

Hence x = −3, y = 2 and z = −4.

Cramer’s Rule

This method uses determinant to solve the system of linear equations.

Consider the system of linear equation AX = B with unique solution. Then

• det A exist, say | A |= D.

• Let Dx =| Ax | where Ax is a matrix obtained by replacing the column of

coefficients of x by B.
Similarly Dy =| Ay | where Ay is a matrix obtained by replacing the
column of coefficients of y by B; Dy =| Ay | in similar fashion, etc.

• Then we can obtain unique solution

Dx Dy Dz
x= ; y= ; z= ; etc. where D = 0.
D D D

79
Example 2.5.9.

2x + 7y + z = 4

x + 4y − z = 9

x + 3y = 3
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
2 7 x1 4
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜1 4 −1⎟ ⎜y ⎟ = ⎜9⎟ .
⎝ ⎠⎝ ⎠ ⎝ ⎠
1 3 0 z 3
Then
 
 
2 7 1
 
 
D =| A | = 1 4 −1
 
 
1 3 0
 
 
2 7 1
 
 
= 3 11 0
 
 
1 3 0
 
 
3 11
= 1 ×   = 3 × 3 − 11 × 1 = 9 − 11 = −2.

1 3

 
 
4 7 1 
 
 
Dx =| Ax | = 9 4 −1
 
 
3 3 0 
 
 
4 7 1
 
 
= 13 11 0
 
 
3 3 0
 
 
13 11
=1×   = 13 × 3 − 11 × 3 = 39 − 33 = 6.

3 3

80
  
 
2 4 1
 
 
Dy =| Ay | = 1 9 −1
 
 
1 3 0
 
 
2 4 1
 
 
= 3 13 0
 
 
1 3 0
 
 
3 13
= 1 ×   = 3 × 3 − 13 × 1 = 9 − 13 = −4.

1 3

 
 
2 7 4
 
 
Dz =| Az | = 1 4 9
 
 
1 3 3
 
 
0 1 −2
 
 
= 1 4 9
 
 
0 −1 −6
 
 
1 −2
= −1 ×   = −[1 × (−6) − (−1) × (−2)] = −(−6 − 2) = 8.

−1 −6

So

Dx 6
x= = = −3,
D −2
Dy −4
y= = = 2,
D −2
Dz 8
z= = = −4.
D −2

2.6 3 × 3 systems with parameters

Consider the system of linear equations:

81
Example 2.6.1.

x + 3y + (2 − 3k)z = 3

2x + 7y + (4 − 7k)z = 7

2x + ky + (k + 2)z = 2k − 1

Determine the values of k ∈ R such that

(a) The system has no solution

(b) The system has infinitely many solutions

(c) The system has unique (only one) solution (consistent).

Solution:

We perform Gauss-Jordan elimination of the augmented matrix to obtain:

⎛  ⎞

1 3 2 − 3k  3
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜2 7 4 − 7k  7 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

2 k k + 2  2k − 1
⎛  ⎞

1 3 2 − 3k  3
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −k  1 ⎟ R2 − 2R1
⎝  ⎠

0 k − 6 7k − 2  2k − 7 R3 − 2R1
⎛  ⎞

1 0 2  0
⎜  ⎟ R1 − 3R2
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −k  1 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 k2 + k − 2  k − 1
R3 − (k − 6)R2
⎛  ⎞

1 0 2  0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
∼ ⎜0 1 −k  1 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 (k + 2)(k − 1)  k − 1

Then

(a) The system has no solution if

(k + 2)(k − 1) = 0 and k − 1 = 0, so k = −2 and k = 1, since for k = −2,

82
 we obtain ⎛  ⎞

1 0 2 0
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 2 1 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 0  −3
which is clearly impossible.

(b) The system has infinitely many solutions if

(k + 2)(k − 1) = 0 and k − 1 = 0, thus k = 1.

(c) The system has unique solution if

(k + 2)(k − 1) = 0 thus k = −2 and k = 1.

Tutorials 2.6.2. 1. Use Gauss-Jordan Elimination to find values of x, y

and z where possible and describe whether each type of solution is either
unique, no solution or infinitely many solutions.

(a)

x + 3y + 2z = 4

−2x − 7y + z = 9

3x + 10y + 9z = 19

(b)

x + 2y + z = 2

2x + 3y + 3z = 3

−3x − 4y − 5z = −5

(c)

x + 2y + 3z = 3

2x + 3y + 8z = 4

5x + 8y + 19z = 11

(d) From (a), (b) and (c) above, where you found a unique solution, use
the inverse of matrix method to confirm the solution.

83
2. In each of the following solve for x, y and z using

(i) Inverse of matrix method,

(ii) Cramer’s Rule

(a)

x + 2y + 3z = 3

2x + 3y + 8z = 4

5x + 8y + 19z = 11

(b)

x + y + 2z = 8

−x − 2y + 3z = 1

3x − 7y + 4z = 10

(c)

2x + 5y − z = −4

x + 2y + z = 3

3x − 2y − z = 5

3. For which value(s) of k will the following system of linear equations have

(i) No solution

(ii) Infinitely many solutions

(iii) Unique solution

(a)

x + 2y + z = 3

ky + 5z = 10

2x + 7y + kz = 4

84
 (b)

y + 2kz = 0

x + 2y + 6z = 2

kx + 2z = 1

4. Find values of k and a such that the following system has

(i) No solution

(ii) Infinitely many solutions

(iii) Unique solution

x + 2y + 2z = 1

x + ky + 3z = 3

x + 11y + kz = a

2.6.1 Elementary Matrices and Test for Invertibility

Here we are going to look at a very important theorem which determines whether
a matrix is invertible or not.

Definition 2.6.3. An elementary matrix is an n × n matrix which can be

obtained from the identity matrix In by performing on In a single elementary
row transformation.

Theorem 2.6.4. If R is the reduced row echelon form of an matrix A, then

either R has a row of zeros or R is the identity matrix In .

Theorem 2.6.5. If A is an matrix, then the following are equivalent:

(a) A is invertible.

(b) AX = 0 has only the trivial solution.

(c) The reduced row echelon form of A is In .

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 (d) A is expressible as a product of elementary matrices.

(e) AX = B is consistent for every matrix B.

(f ) AX = B has exactly one solution for every matrix B.

Theorem 2.6.6. Let E be an elementary matrix.

(a) If E results from multiplying a row of In by a nonzero number k, then

det(E) = k.

(b) If E results from interchanging two rows of In , then det(E) = −1.

(c) If E results from adding a multiple of one row of to In another, then

det(E) = 1.

Remarks 2.6.7. If B is an n×n matrix and E1 , E2 , . . . , Er are n×n elementary

matrices, then

det(E1 E2 . . . Er B) = det(E1 ) det(E2 ) . . . det(Er ) det(B).

Theorem 2.6.8. A square matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) = 0.

Proof. (⇒:) Assume A is invertible, i.e. A−1 exists. Then AA−1 = In and

1 = det(In ) = det(AA−1 ) = det(A) det(A−1 ).

From this it is clear that det(A) = 0.

(⇐:) Conversely, assume det(A) = 0. Let R be the reduced row echelon form
of A. Then there exists elementary matrices E1 , E2 , . . . , Er such that

R = E1 E2 . . . Er A

and from Remark 2.6.7,

det(R) = det(E1 ) det(E2 ) . . . det(Er ) det(A). (2.2)

Now by Theorem (2.6.6) the determinant of an elementary matrix is non-zero,

and since det(A) = 0, it then follows that det(R) = 0, which imply that R
cannot have a row of zeros. Then by Theorem (2.6.4), R = In and hence A is
invertible by Theorem (2.6.5). 

86
Tutorials 2.6.9. 1. Which of the following matrices are elementary matri-
ces?
⎛ ⎞
1 0 −8
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
(a) ⎜0 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 1
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
⎜ √ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
(b) ⎜ 0 − 7 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
−3 0 1
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0 0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜0 0 1 0⎟
⎜
(c) ⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜0 1 0 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 1
⎛ ⎞
1 0
(d) ⎝ ⎠
0 − 23
⎛ ⎞
1 1 0
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
(e) ⎜0 1 0⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0

2. From the above question, show which operations where used to obtain
those matrices which are elementary matrices.

2.6.2 Applications of matrices

Example 2.6.10. Mpho sells four types of Magazines which are, Drum, You,
Car and True love. On a particular day he picked four spots to sell on. In spot
1, he sold five Drum, two You, three Car and one True love. In spot 2, he sold
four Drum, five You, one Car and one True love. In spot 3, he sold one Drum,
three You, zero Car and four True love. In spot 4, he sold three Drum, two You,
three Car and three True love. In total he got R93, R90, R79 and R103 in spot
1, spot 2, spot 3 and spot 4 respectively. Let a be the price of Drum, b be the
price of You, c be the price of Car and d be the price of True love magazine.

87
 (a) Form a system of linear equations from the above sales of magazines done
by Mpho.

(b) Use any of the method you did in class which involves the matrices to
determine the price of each type of magazine.

Solution:

(a)

5a + 2b + 3c + d = 93

4a + 5b + c + d = 90

a + 3b + 4d = 79

3a + 2b + 3c + 3d = 103.

(b) Using Gauss-Jordan Elimination:

⎛  ⎞ ⎛  ⎞
 
5 2 3 1  93 1 3 0 4  79
⎜  ⎟ ⎜  ⎟R ↔R
⎜  ⎟ ⎜  ⎟ 1 3
⎜4 5 1 1  90 ⎟ ⎜4 5 1 1  90 ⎟
⎜  ⎟ ∼⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟ ⎜  ⎟
⎜1 3 0 4  79 ⎟ ⎜5 2 3 1  93 ⎟
⎝  ⎠ ⎝  ⎠
 
3 2 3 3  103 3 2 3 3  103
⎛  ⎞

1 3 0 4  79
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 −7 1 −15  −226⎟ R2 − 4R1
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 −13 3 −19  −302⎟ R3 − 5R1
⎝  ⎠

0 −7 3 −9  −134 R4 − 3R1
⎛  ⎞

1 3 0 4  79
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 −7 1 −15  −226⎟
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 1 1 11  150 ⎟ R3 − 2R2
⎝  ⎠

0 0 2 6  92 R4 − R2

88
 ⎛  ⎞

1 3 0 4  79
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 1 11  150 ⎟
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 −7 1 −15  −226⎟
⎝  ⎠
 1
0 0 1 3  46 2 R4
⎛  ⎞

1 0 −3 −29  −371
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 1 11  150 ⎟
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 8 62  824 ⎟ R3 + 7R2
⎝  ⎠

0 0 1 3  46
⎛  ⎞

1 0 −3 −29  −371
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 1 11  150 ⎟
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 1 3  46 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 8 62  824 R3 ↔ R 4
⎛  ⎞

1 0 0 −20  −233 R1 + 3R3
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 0 8  104 ⎟ R2 − R3
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 1 3  46 ⎟
⎝  ⎠

0 0 0 38  456 R4 − 8R3
⎛  ⎞

1 0 0 −20  −233
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 0 8  104 ⎟
∼⎜
⎜


⎟
⎟
⎜0 0 1 3  46 ⎟
⎝  ⎠
 1
0 0 0 1  12 38 R4
⎛  ⎞

1 0 0 0  7 R1 + 20R4
⎜  ⎟
⎜  ⎟
⎜0 1 0 0  8 ⎟ R2 − 8R4
∼⎜
⎜
 ⎟
 ⎟
⎜0 0 1 0  10⎟ R3 − 3R4
⎝  ⎠

0 0 0 1  12

Therefore a = 7, b = 8, c = 10 and d = 12, hence Drum magazine cost R7, You

magazine cost R8, Car magazine cost R10 and True love magazine cost 12.

Tutorials 2.6.11. 1. A certain diet consist of dishes a, b and c. Each serv-

ing of a has 1 gram of fat, 2 grams of carbohydrates, and 4 grams of
protein. Each serving of b has 2 grams of fat, 1 grams of carbohydrates,

89
 and 3 grams of protein. Each serving of c has 2 grams of fat, 4 grams
of carbohydrates, and 3 grams of protein. The diet allows 15 grams fat,
24 grams carbohydrates and 30 grams protein. Showing the three simul-
taneous equations obtained, use any method to calculate the number of
serving of each dish that can be allowed to be eaten on this diet.

2. Margie is responsible for buying a week’s supply of food and medication

for the dogs and cats at a local shelter. The food and medication for each
dog costs twice as much as those suppliers for a cat. She needs to feed 164
cats and 24 dogs. Her budget is R4 240. How much can Margie spend on
each dog for food and medication?

3. A chemist can purchase a 10 percent salt solution in 500 cubic centimeter

container, 20 percent salt solution in 500 cubic centimeter containers, and
a 50 percent salt solution in 1000 cubic centimeter containers. He needs 12
000 cubic centimeters of 30 percent salt solution. Using the Gauss-Jordan
elimination method, how many containers of each type of solution should
he purchase in order to prepare this solution?

“If others would think as hard as I did, then they would get similar results.”
Isaac Newton

90