Introduction

Section 4000.1

This section contains product profiles of finan- Each product profile contains a general
cial instruments that examiners may encounter description of the product, its basic character-
during the course of their review of capital- istics and features, a depiction of the market-
markets and trading activities. Knowledge of place, market transparency, and the product’s
specific financial instruments is essential for uses. The profiles also discuss pricing conven-
examiners’ successful review of these activities. tions, hedging issues, risks, accounting, risk-
These product profiles are intended as a general based capital treatments, and legal limitations.
reference for examiners; they are not intended to Finally, each profile contains references for
be independently comprehensive but are struc- more information.
tured to give a basic overview of the instruments.

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Federal Funds
Section 4005.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION commonly used to transfer funds between

depository institutions:
Federal funds (fed funds) are reserves held in a
bank’s Federal Reserve Bank account. If a bank • The selling institution authorizes its district
holds more fed funds than is required to cover Federal Reserve Bank to debit its reserve
its Regulation D reserve requirement, those account and credit the reserve account of the
excess reserves may be lent to another financial buying institution. Fedwire, the Federal
institution with an account at a Federal Reserve Reserve’s electronic funds and securities trans-
Bank. To the borrowing institution, these funds fer network, is used to complete the transfer
are fed funds purchased. To the lending institu- with immediate settlement. On the maturity
tion, they are fed funds sold. date, the buying institution uses Fedwire to
return the funds purchased plus interest.
• A respondent bank tells its correspondent that
CHARACTERISTICS AND it intends to sell funds. In response, the
correspondent bank purchases funds from the
FEATURES respondent by reclassifying the respondent’s
demand deposits as federal funds purchased.
Fed funds purchases are not government-insured
The respondent does not have access to its
and are not subject to Regulation D reserve
deposited money as long as it is classified as
requirements or insurance assessments. They
federal funds on the books of the correspon-
can be borrowed only by those depository insti-
dents. Upon maturity of the loan, the respon-
tutions that are required by the Monetary Con-
dent’s demand deposit account is credited for
trol Act of 1980 to hold reserves with Federal
the total value of the loan plus interest.
Reserve Banks: commercial banks, savings
banks, savings and loan associations, and credit
unions. These transactions generally occur with-
out a formal, written contract, which is a unique USES
feature of fed funds.
Most fed funds transactions are conducted on Banks lend fed funds to other banks which need
an overnight-only basis because of the unpre- to meet Regulation D reserve requirements or
dictability of the amount of excess funds a bank need additional funding sources. Since reserve
may have from day to day. Term fed funds accounts do not earn interest, banks prefer to
generally mature between two days to one year. sell fed funds rather than keep higher than
Continuing contracts are overnight fed funds necessary reserve account balances. Community
loans that are automatically renewed unless banks generally hold overnight fed funds sold as
terminated by either the lender or the borrower— a source of primary liquidity.
this type of arrangement is typically employed
by correspondents who purchase overnight fed
funds from respondent banks. Unless notified to DESCRIPTION OF
the contrary by the respondent, the correspon- MARKETPLACE
dent will continually roll the interbank deposit
into fed funds, creating a longer-term instrument Transactions may be done directly between
of open maturity. The interest payments on banks, often in a correspondent relationship, or
continuing contract fed funds loans are com- through brokers. They may be initiated by either
puted from a formula based on each day’s the buyer or the seller. Many regional banks
average fed funds rate. stand ready to buy all excess funds available
Fed funds transactions are usually unsecured. from their community bank correspondents or
Nevertheless, an upstream correspondent bank sell needed funds up to a predetermined limit.
that is selling funds may require collateraliza- Consequently, there is a large amount of demand
tion if the credit quality of the purchaser is not in the fed funds market, with selling banks
strong. easily able to dispose of all excess funds.
All fed funds transactions involve only Fed- Correspondent banks may also broker funds as
eral Reserve Bank accounts. Two methods are agent as long as their role is fully disclosed. Fed

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4005.1 Federal Funds

funds, including the term fed funds, are nonne- minimal due to the short maturity. For term fed
gotiable products and, therefore, there is no funds, interest-rate risk may be greater, depend-
secondary market. ing on the length of the term.

Market Participants
Credit Risk
Participants in the federal funds market include
commercial banks, thrift institutions, agencies Fed funds sold expose the lender to credit risk.
and branches of banks in the United States, Upstream correspondent banks may require col-
federal agencies, and government securities deal- lateral to compensate for their risks. All banks
ers. The participants on the buy side and sell should evaluate the credit quality of any bank to
side are the same. whom they sell fed funds and set a maximum
line for each potential counterparty.

Market Transparency
Liquidity Risk
Price transparency is high. Interbank brokers
disseminate quotes on market news services. The overnight market is highly liquid. As there
Prices of fed funds are active and visible. is no secondary market for term fed funds rates,
their liquidity is directly related to their maturity.
Banks may purchase fed funds up to the
PRICING maximum of the line established by selling
financial institutions. Those lines are generally
Fed fund yields are quoted on an add-on basis.
not disclosed to purchasing banks. Active users
All fed funds yields are quoted on an actual/360-
may need to test the availability of funds peri-
day basis. The fed funds rate is a key rate for the
odically to ensure that sufficient lines are avail-
money market because all other short-term rates
able when needed.
relate to it. Bid/offer spreads may vary among
institutions, although the differences are usually
slight. The fed effective rate on overnight fed
funds, the weighted average of all fed funds ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
transactions done in the broker’s market, is
published in The Wall Street Journal. Thompson Fed funds sold should be recorded at cost. Term
Bankwatch rates the general credit quality of fed funds sold should be reported as a loan on
banks, which is used by banks when determin- the call report.
ing credit risk for fed funds sold.
Rates on term fed funds are quoted in the
broker’s market or over the counter. In addition,
money market brokers publish indicative quotes RISK-BASED CAPITAL
on the Telerate screen. WEIGHTING
A 20 percent risk weight is appropriate for fed
HEDGING funds. For specific risk weights for qualified
trading accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital
Due to the generally short-term nature of fed Adequacy.’’
funds, hedging does not usually occur, although
fed funds futures contracts may be used as
hedging vehicles.
LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
INVESTMENT
RISKS
A bank may sell overnight fed funds to any
Interest-Rate Risk counterparty without limit. Sales of fed funds
with maturities of one day or less or under
For nonterm fed funds, interest-rate risk is continuing contract have been specifically

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Federal Funds 4005.1

excluded from lending limit restrictions by Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond. Instru-
12 CFR 32. Term fed funds are subject to the 15 ments of the Money Market. Richmond,
percent lending limit with any one counterparty Virginia. 1993.
and may be combined with all other credit Stigum, Marcia. The Money Market. 3rd ed.
extensions to that counterparty. Sales of fed Homewood, Illinois: Business One Irwin,
funds to affiliates are subject to 12 USC 371c, 1990.
‘‘Loans to Affiliates.’’ Woelfel, Charles J. Encyclopedia of Banking &
Finance. 10th ed. Chicago: Probus Publishing
Company, 1994.
REFERENCES
Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Fedpoints
#15. New York, June 1991.

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Commercial Paper
Section 4010.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION issuers will sell CP in denominations of $25,000.

CP is quoted on a 360-day discount basis. A
Commercial paper (CP) is a short-term, fixed- small amount of CP is issued in interest-bearing
maturity, unsecured promissory note issued in form; the rate paid on this paper is the quoted
the open markets as an obligation of the issuing discount rate converted to the equivalent simple
entity. CP is usually issued with maturities of interest rate. CP is typically issued in bearer
less than 270 days, with the most common form, but it may also be issued in registered
having maturities of 30 to 50 days or less. CP is form.
sold either directly by the issuer or through a
securities broker. For entities with a sufficient
credit rating, CP is generally backed by bank CP Credit Ratings
lines of credit or letters of credit. However,
some entities with lesser-quality credit will issue Credit ratings are crucial to the CP market
CP without credit enhancements. These issues because most investors restrict their CP invest-
are typically through private placements and are ments to high-quality CP or will only buy rated
generally not rated. Foreign corporations may CP. The CP ratings are assessments of the
also issue CP. Banks are active in the CP market issuer’s likelihood of timely payment. Table 1
as issuers, investors, dealers, and lenders on summarizes CP ratings from the major rating
lines of credit used to back CP issuance. agencies.
Superior-rated issues are considered to have a
high likelihood of repayment, satisfactory-rated
issues are considered to have satisfactory likeli-
CHARACTERISTICS AND hood, and so on. Before they will assign a rating,
the credit agencies require issuers to prove that
FEATURES they have adequate short-term liquidity. Some
CP is issued in maturities that range anywhere issuers raise their credit ratings by obtaining
from a few days to 270 days (the Securities and credit support to guarantee payment, such as a
Exchange Commission (SEC) does not gener- letter of credit (credit-supported commercial
ally require registration of securities due in less paper), or by collateralizing the issue with
than 270 days), depending on the funding needs high-quality assets (asset-backed commercial
of the issuer. Most CP matures in less than 30 paper).
days. Issuers prefer to issue CP with a maturity
of less than 90 days so that banks can use the CP
as collateral at the Federal Reserve discount
USES
window. Most issuers need ongoing financing Investors
and roll the CP over at maturity, using the new
proceeds to pay off the maturing CP. The mini- CP is generally purchased as a short-term,
mum round-lot transaction is $100,000. Some liquid, interest-bearing security. The short

Table 1—Commercial Paper Ratings

Moody’s S&P Duff & Phelps Fitch

P-1 A-1+/A-1 Duff 1, Duff 1, F-1

Superior
Duff 1+
Satisfactory P-2, P-3 A-2 Duff 2 F-2
Adequate P-3 A-3 Duff 2 F-2
Speculative NP B, C Duff 4 F-3
Defaulted NP D Duff 5 F-5

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4010.1 Commercial Paper

maturity structure, low credit risk, and large together with its low credit risk and large
number of issuers make CP an attractive short- number of issuers, makes it an attractive short-
term investment alternative for short-term port- term investment for many investors. Investment
folio managers and for the liquid portion of companies, especially money funds, are the
longer-term portfolios. CP is particularly attrac- largest investors in the CP market. Other signifi-
tive when interest rates are volatile, as many cant investors include the trust departments of
investors are unwilling to buy long-term, fixed- banks, insurance companies, corporate liquidity
rate debt in a volatile interest-rate environment. portfolios, and state and local government bod-
Investors wishing to take a position in short- ies. If CP carries a rating of A-2, P-2, or better,
term rates denominated in a foreign currency thrifts may buy CP and count it as part of their
without taking the risks of investing in an liquidity reserves.
unfamiliar counterparty or facing country risk
often invest in an instrument such as Goldman
Sachs’s Universal Commercial Paper (UCP) or
Merrill Lynch’s Multicurrency Commercial
Issuers
Paper (MCCP). With UCP or MCCP, the dealer
Issuers of CP include industrial companies, such
creates synthetic foreign currency–denominated
as manufacturers, public utilities, and retailers,
paper by having a U.S. issuer issue CP in a
and financial institutions, such as banks and
foreign currency. The dealer then executes a
leasing companies. Financial issuers account for
currency swap with the issuer, which eliminates
approximately 75 percent of CP outstanding,
foreign-exchange risk for the issuer. The inves-
with industrial issuance making up the remain-
tor is therefore left with a short-term piece of
der. Approximately 75 percent of the CP out-
paper denominated in a foreign currency and
standing carries the highest credit rating of
that is issued by a U.S. counterparty, thus
A-1/P-1 or better, while only approximately
eliminating country risk.
5 percent of CP outstanding carries a credit
rating of A-3/P-3 or below. In the U.S. market
Banks and Bank Holding Companies for CP, domestic issuers account for approxi-
mately 80 percent of issuance, with foreign
Bank holding companies (BHCs) are active issuers making up the remainder.
issuers of CP. The money raised is often used to Several large finance companies and bank
fund nonbank activities in areas such as leasing holding companies place their paper directly
and credit cards and to fund offshore branches. with the investor without using a dealer.
BHCs use commercial paper in sweep pro- Approximately 40 percent of all CP outstanding
grams. On a BHC level, the sweep programs are is placed directly with the investor.
maintained with customers at the bank level, and
the funds are upstreamed to the parent as part of
the BHC’s funding strategy. Sweep programs Primary Market
use an agreement with the bank’s deposit cus-
tomers (typically corporate accounts) that per- The primary market consists of CP sold directly
mits them to reinvest amounts in their deposit by issuers (direct paper) or sold through a dealer
accounts above a designated level in overnight acting as principal (dealer paper). Dealer paper
obligations of the parent bank holding company, accounts for most of the market. As principals,
another affiliate of the bank, or a third party. dealers buy and immediately sell the CP (with a
These obligations include instruments such as small markup called the dealer spread). Some-
commercial paper, program notes, and master- times the dealers hold CP as inventory for a
note agreements. short time as a service to issuers in need of
immediate funds. Dealers are mostly large invest-
ment banks and commercial banks with subsid-
DESCRIPTION OF iaries that underwrite and deal in securities.
MARKETPLACE Although dealers do not normally inventory
positions in CP, at times they will agree to
Investors position any paper that the issuer posted but did
not sell on a particular day. The amount unsold
The short-term nature of commercial paper, is usually small, and the positions assumed are

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Commercial Paper 4010.1

usually on an overnight basis only. If the market HEDGING

moves, most issuers give dealers the discretion
to sell CP within established bands set by the As mentioned above, dealers do not usually
issuer. inventory positions in CP. When they do, these
Issuers of CP have their own dedicated sales positions tend to be small and are usually held
force to market their paper. Direct issuers also only overnight. Because of the short-term nature
post their rates on services such as Telerate and of CP, dealers often do not hedge these open
Reuters and often post rates with bank money positions. When these positions are hedged,
desks. Sometimes a company sells direct paper dealers generally use instruments such as T-bill
under a master-note agreement, under which the futures or Eurodollar futures to hedge their
investor can buy and sell CP daily, up to a residual exposure. However, use of these prod-
specific amount, for a specific interest rate that is ucts may subject the dealer to basis risk to the
set daily. The return on the master-note CP is extent that the underlying instrument and the
slightly higher than that on an overnight repo. hedge instrument do not move in tandem.

Secondary Market RISKS

Credit Risk
The CP market is larger than the market for
other money market instruments, but secondary Given that CP is an unsecured obligation of the
trading is only moderately active. Most inves- issuer, the purchaser assumes the risk that the
tors have purchased CP tailored to their short- issuer will not be able to pay the debt at
term investment needs and hold it to maturity. If maturity. This credit risk is generally mitigated
an investor chooses to sell CP, he can usually by the financial strength of most issuers and by
sell it back to the original seller (dealer or some form of credit enhancement (unused bank
issuer). Although CP is not traded on an orga- lines of credit, letters of credit, corporate guar-
nized exchange, price quotes for most of the antees, or asset collateralization). Historically,
significant issues can be obtained from security the default rate on CP has been extremely low.
brokers. Average yields on newly issued CP are
published in the Wall Street Journal.
Liquidity Risk
As most investors hold CP until maturity, trad-
PRICING ing in the secondary market is relatively thin. As
a result, only the highest-rated issues may be
Each issue is priced based on the strength of the readily marketable in the secondary market.
credit rating of the issuer. CP is a discount Privately placed CP is subject to further legally
instrument, which means that it is sold at a price mandated restrictions on resale, which presents
less than its maturity value (though occasion- additional impediments to marketability.
ally, CP is issued as interest-bearing paper). The
difference between the maturity value and the
price paid is the interest earned by the investor.
When calculating commercial paper, a year is Interest-Rate Risk
assumed to have 360 days.
Like all fixed-income instruments, CP is subject
The yield on CP tracks that of other money
to interest-rate risk. However, this risk is usually
market instruments. CP yields are higher than
minimal given CP’s short-term nature.
those offered on comparable T-bills—the higher
credit risk is due to less liquidity and the state
and local income tax exemption of T-bills. The
rate on CP is also slightly higher than that Foreign-Exchange Risk
offered on comparable certificates of deposit
(CDs) due to the poorer liquidity of CP relative CP denominated in foreign currency may expose
to CDs. the purchaser to foreign-exchange risk.

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4010.1 Commercial Paper

ACCOUNTING TREATMENT LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK

INVESTMENT
The accounting treatment for investments in
commercial paper is determined by the Finan- CP is considered a loan to the issuer and is
cial Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of therefore subject to the applicable lending limit
Financial Accounting Standards No. 140 (FAS of the purchasing institution. One exception
140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers and Servicing would be general obligation tax-exempt CP,
of Financial Assets and Extinguishments of which can be held without limitation. Holdings
Liabilities.’’ Accounting treatment for deriva- of CP issued by an affiliate are subject to the
tives used as investments or for hedging pur- limitations of section 23A of the Federal Reserve
poses is determined by Statement of Financial Act regarding loans to affiliates.
Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS 133),
‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
(FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1, REFERENCES
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
Fabozzi, Frank J., and T. Dessa, eds. The Hand-
book of Fixed Income Securities. 4th ed.
Chicago: Irwin Professional Publishing, 1995.
RISK-BASED CAPITAL
WEIGHTING Hahn, Thomas K. ‘‘Commercial Paper.’’ Eco-
nomic Quarterly 29(1993): 45–67.
CP is generally weighted at 100 percent unless it Stigum, Marcia. After the Trade. Burr Ridge,
is backed by a bank letter of credit, in which Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1988.
case the asset weight would be 20 percent.
Tax-exempt CP may carry weights of 20 percent Stigum, Marcia. The Money Market. 3rd ed.
or 50 percent, depending on the issuer (that is, Burr Ridge, Ill.: Irwin Professional Publish-
depending on whether the obligation is a general ing, 1990.
obligation or a revenue obligation). For specific
risk weights for qualified trading accounts, see
section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital Adequacy.’’

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Repurchase Agreements
Section 4015.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION agency securities as collateral. Repos of mort-

gage pass-through securities and collateralized
A repurchase agreement (repo) involves the sale mortgage obligations (CMOs) issued or guaran-
of a security to a counterparty with an agree- teed by U.S. government agencies are less com-
ment to repurchase it at a fixed price on an mon but occur frequently. Repos of other secu-
established future date. At initiation of the rities or loans are not common, in part because
transaction, the buyer pays the principal amount the Federal Reserve System generally considers
to the seller, and the security is transferred to the repos with other assets to be deposits of the
possession of the buyer. At expiration of the selling institution and subject to Regulation D
repo, the principal amount is returned to the reserve requirements.
initial buyer (or lender) and possession of the Repos can be conducted on an overnight
security reverts to the initial seller (or borrower). basis, for a longer fixed term, or on an open-
Importantly, the security serves as collateral account basis. Overnight repos, or one-day trans-
against the obligation of the borrower and does actions, represent approximately 80 percent of
not actually become the property of the lender. all repo transactions. Anything longer (called a
Given the short tenor of a typical repo and the ‘‘term repo’’) usually extends for less than
need to make proper custody arrangements for 30 days. Repo agreements ‘‘to maturity’’ are
the securities involved, operational issues are those that mature on the same day as the
important to proper management of repo activi- underlying securities. ‘‘Open’’ repo agreements
ties. At times, in addition to being a counter- have no specific maturity, so either party has the
party in some transactions, a bank may serve as right to close the transaction at any time.
third-party custodian of securities collateral in
other transactions as a service to the buyer and
the seller. USES
In a repurchase agreement, a bank borrows
funds when it ‘‘sells’’ the security and commits In general, repos are attractive to a variety of
to ‘‘repurchase’’ it in the future. In a reverse market participants as (1) a low-cost source of
repurchase agreement, the bank lends funds short-term funding for borrowers and (2) an
when it ‘‘buys’’ the security and commits to asset with high credit quality regardless of the
‘‘resell’’ it in the future. A reverse repo is counterparty for suppliers of funds. Participation
sometimes termed a resale agreement or a secu- in this market requires proper operational and
rity purchased under agreement to resell (SPAR). administrative arrangements as well as an inven-
The terms ‘‘repo’’ and ‘‘reverse repo’’ thus tory of eligible collateral.
describe the same transaction, but from the
perspective of each counterparty.
A closely related instrument is a dollar roll,
which is identical to a repurchase agreement Dealers
except that the ‘‘repurchase’’ leg of the trans-
action may involve a similar security rather than Repos can be used to finance long positions in
the specific security initially ‘‘sold.’’ In a dollar dealers’ portfolios by short-term borrowing. The
roll, the transaction contract explicitly allows repo market is a highly liquid and efficient
for substitution of the collateral. The borrower market for funding dealers’ bond inventory at a
of funds in this transaction thus runs the risk that short-term rate of interest. Dealers may also use
at the closing of the transaction he or she will repos to speculate on future levels of interest
own a security that is generally comparable but rates. The difference between the coupon rate on
inferior in some material way to the original the dealer’s bond and the repo rate paid by the
security. dealer is called ‘‘carry,’’ and it can be a source of
dealer profit. Sometimes the borrowing rate will
be below the bond’s coupon rate (positive carry),
CHARACTERISTICS AND and sometimes the borrowing rate will be above
FEATURES the bond’s coupon rate (negative carry).
Dealers may use reverse repos to cover short
Most repos are conducted with U.S. Treasury or positions or failed transactions. The advantage

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4015.1 Repurchase Agreements

of the reverse repo is that a dealer may borrow money-center or regional banks with a need for
a security it has sold short with either positive or funding.
negative carry. A problem arises, however, when Repos are not traded on organized exchanges.
demand exceeds supply for a specific bond issue There is no secondary market, and quoted mar-
(collateral), and it goes on ‘‘special.’’ This ket values are not available. The Public Securi-
means that those who own the security can earn ties Association has produced a standard master
a premium by lending it to those needing to repo agreement and supplements that are used
deliver on short positions. These ‘‘lenders’’ are throughout the industry. Although the trans-
compensated by paying a below-market borrow- actions themselves are not rated, the entities
ing rate on the cash side of the transaction (the undertaking repos (such as larger banks and
repo rate is lower on ‘‘specials’’ because the dealers) may be rated by Moody’s, Standard &
owner of the special security is the borrower of Poor’s, or other rating agencies.
cash funds and is seeking the lowest lending rate
possible).

PRICING
Bank Nondealer Activity
Repo rates may vary somewhat with the type of
Like dealers, a bank can use repos to fund long collateral and the term of the transaction. Over-
positions and profit from the carry. The market night repos with U.S. government collateral,
also gives a bank the means to use its securities however, generally take place at rates slightly
portfolio to obtain additional liquidity—that is, below the federal funds rate. Interest may be
funding—without liquidating its investments or paid explicitly, so that the ‘‘sale’’ price and
recognizing a gain or loss on the transaction. For ‘‘repurchase’’ price of the security are the same,
money market participants with excess funds to or it may be embedded in a difference between
invest in the short term, reverse repos provide a the sale price and repurchase price.
collateralized lending vehicle offering a better The seller of a security under a repo agree-
yield than comparable time deposit instruments. ment continues to receive all interest and prin-
cipal payments on the security while the pur-
chaser receives a fixed rate of interest on a
Commercial Depositors short-term investment. In this respect, interest
rates on overnight repo agreements usually are
Repos have proved to be popular temporary lower than the federal funds rate by as much as
investment vehicles for individuals, firms, and 25 basis points. The additional security provided
governments with unpredictable cash flows. by the loan collateral employed with repos
Repos (like other money market instruments) lessens their risk relative to federal funds.
can also be used as a destination investment for Interest is calculated on an actual/360 day-
commercial depositors with sweep accounts, count add-on basis. When executed under a
that is, transaction accounts in which excess continuing contract (known as a demand or
balances are ‘‘swept’’ into higher-yielding non- open-basis overnight repo), repo contracts usu-
bank instruments overnight. Again, as collateral ally contain a clause to adjust the interest rate on
for the corporation’s investment, the counter- a day-to-day basis.
party or bank will ‘‘sell’’ Treasury bills to the
customer (that is, collateralize the loan).

HEDGING
DESCRIPTION OF
MARKETPLACE Since repo rates move closely with those of
other short-term instruments, the hedge vehicles
On any given day, the volume of repo transac- available for these other instruments offer an
tions amounts to an estimated $1 trillion. Impor- attractive hedge for positions in repos. If the
tant lenders of funds in the market include large portfolio of repos is not maintained as a matched
corporations (for example, General Motors) and book by the institution, the dealer or bank could
mutual funds. Borrowers generally include large be subject to a level of residual market risk.

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Repurchase Agreements 4015.1

RISKS ACCOUNTING TREATMENT

Market Risk The accounting treatment for repurchase agree-

ments is determined by the Financial Account-
ing Standards Board’s Statement of Financial
Repos and reverse repos, if used to fund longer Accounting Standards No. 140 (FAS 140),
or more sensitive positions, expose the institu- ‘‘Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of
tion to changes in the future levels of interest Financial Assets and Extinguishments of Liabili-
rates. ties.’’ Accounting treatment for derivatives used
as investments or for hedging purposes is deter-
mined by Statement of Financial Accounting
Standards No. 133 (FAS 133), ‘‘Accounting for
Credit Risk Derivatives and Hedging Activities,’’ as amended
by Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
The buyer is exposed to the risk that the seller Nos. 137 and 138 (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See
will default on his or her obligation to repur- section 2120.1, ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further
chase the security when agreed. Of course, the discussion.)
buyer has access to the security as collateral and,
in the event of default, the security could be sold
to satisfy the debt. However, this could occur RISK-BASED CAPITAL
only through legal procedures and bankruptcy. WEIGHTING
Despite the conventional terminology, this type
of transaction is a collateralized advance and not In general, assets collateralized by the current
truly considered a sale and repurchase. If the market value of securities issued or guaranteed
value of the security has declined since the by the U.S. government, its agencies, or
funds were disbursed, a loss may be incurred. government-sponsored agencies are given a
Overcollateralization and margin arrangements 20 percent risk weight. If appropriate procedures
are used to reduce this risk. to perfect a lien in the collateral are not taken,
the asset should be assigned a 100 percent risk
weight. For specific risk weights for qualified
trading accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital
Adequacy.’’
Operational Risk

If the buyer is to rely on its ability to sell a LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
security in the open market upon the seller’s INVESTMENT
default, it must exercise effective control over
the securities collateralizing the transactions. Repos on securities that are eligible for bank
The Government Securities Act was passed in investment under 12 USC 24 (seventh) and 12
1986 to address abuses that had resulted in CFR 1 and that meet guidelines set forth by the
customer losses when the security was held by Federal Reserve System may be held without
the seller. Its requirements include (1) written limit. Repos that do not meet these guidelines
repurchase agreements must be in place, (2) the should be treated as unsecured loans to the
risks of the transactions must be disclosed to counterparty subject to 12 USC 84 and should
the customer, (3) specific repurchase securities be combined with other credit extensions to that
must be allocated to and segregated for the counterparty. Repos with affiliates are subject to
customer, and (4) confirmations must be made 12 USC 371c.
and provided to the customer by the end of the
day on which a transaction is initiated and on
any day on which a substitution of securities REFERENCES
occurs. Participants in repo transactions now
will often require securities to be delivered or Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
held by a third-party custodian. (See sec- System. Commercial Bank Examination
tion 2020.1 of the Commercial Bank Examina- Manual. Section 2030.1, ‘‘Bank Dealer
tion Manual.) Activities.’’

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

Page 3
4015.1 Repurchase Agreements

Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve ‘‘How Banks Reap the Benefits of Repo.’’
System. Bank Holding Company Supervision International Securities Lending. Second quar-
Manual. Section 2150.0, ‘‘Repurchase ter 1994.
Transactions.’’ Mishkin, Frederic S. The Economics of Money,
Clarke, David. ‘‘U.S. Repo: A Model Market.’’ Banking, and Financial Markets. 4th ed. New
International Securities Lending. September York: Harper Collins College Publishers, 1995.
1993. Stigum, Marcia. The Money Market. 3rd ed.
Cook, Timothy Q., and Robert LaRoche, eds. Burr Ridge, Illinois: Irwin Professional Pub-
Instruments of the Money Market. 7th ed. lishing, 1990.
Richmond, Va.: Federal Reserve Bank of Stigum, Marcia. The Repo and Reverse Markets.
Richmond, 1993. Homewood, Illinois: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1989.

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 4
U.S. Treasury Bills, Notes, and Bonds
Section 4020.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION and deep liquidity encourages the use of Trea-

suries as investment vehicles, and they are often
U.S. Treasury bills, notes, and bonds (collec- held in a bank’s investment portfolio as a source
tively known as ‘‘Treasuries’’) are issued by the of liquidity. Since it is the deepest and most
Treasury Department and represent direct efficient financial market available, many fixed-
obligations of the U.S. government. Treasuries income and derivative instruments are priced
have very little credit risk and are backed by the relative to Treasuries. Speculators often use
full faith and credit of the U.S. government. Treasuries to take positions on changes in the
Treasuries are issued in various maturities of up level and term structure of interest rates.
to 10 years.

CHARACTERISTICS AND DESCRIPTION OF

FEATURES MARKETPLACE
Treasury Bills Issuing Practices

Treasury bills, or T-bills, are negotiable, non- T-bills are issued at regular intervals on a yield-
interest-bearing securities with original maturi- auction basis. The three-month and six-month
ties of three months, six months, and one year. T-bills are auctioned every Monday. The one-
T-bills are offered by the Treasury in minimum year T-bills are auctioned in the third week of
denominations of $10,000, with multiples of every month. The amount of T-bills to be
$5,000 thereafter, and are offered only in book- auctioned is released on the preceding Tuesday,
entry form. T-bills are issued at a discount from with settlement occurring on the Thursday fol-
face value and are redeemed at par value. The lowing the auction. The auction of T-bills is
difference between the discounted purchase price done on a competitive-bid basis (the lowest-
and the face value of the T-bill is the interest yield bids are chosen because they will cost the
income that the purchaser receives. The yield on Treasury less money). Noncompetitive bids may
a T-bill is a function of this interest income and also be placed on purchases of up to $1 million.
the maturity of the T-bill. The returns are treated The price paid by these bids (if allocated a
as ordinary income for federal tax purposes and portion of the issue) is an average of the price
are exempt from state and local taxes. resulting from the competitive bids.
Two-year and 5-year notes are issued once a
month. The notes are generally announced near
Treasury Notes and Bonds the middle of each month and auctioned one
week later. They are usually issued on the last
Treasury notes are currently issued in maturities day of each month. Auctions for 3-year and
of 2, 3, 5, and 10 years on a regular schedule. 10-year notes are usually announced on the first
Treasury notes are not callable. Notes and bonds Wednesday of February, May, August, and
pay interest semiannually, when coupon rates November. The notes are generally auctioned
are set at the time of issuance based on market during the second week of those months and
interest rates and demand for the issue. Notes issued on the 15th day of the month.
and bonds are issued monthly or quarterly,
depending on the maturity of the issue. Notes
and bonds settle regular-way, which is one day Primary Market
after the trade date (T+1). Interest is calculated
using an actual/365-day-count convention. Treasury notes and bonds are issued through
yield auctions of new issues for cash. Bids are
separated into competitive bids and noncompeti-
USES tive bids. Competitive bids are made by primary
government dealers, while noncompetitive bids
Banks use Treasuries for investment, hedging, are made by individual investors and small
and speculative purposes. The lack of credit risk institutions. Competitive bidders bid yields to

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2002

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4020.1 U.S. Treasury Bills, Notes, and Bonds

three decimal places for specific quantities of Market Participants

the new issue. Two types of auctions are cur-
rently used to sell securities: Sell Side

• Multiple-price auction. Competitive bids are All U.S. government securities are traded OTC,
ranked by the yield bid, from lowest to high- with the primary government securities dealers
est. The lowest price (highest yield) needed to being the largest and most important market
place the allotted securities auction is deter- participants. A small group of interdealer bro-
mined. Treasuries are then allocated to non- kers disseminates quotes and broker trades on a
competitive bidders at the average yield for blind basis between primary dealers and users of
the accepted competitive bids. After all Trea- the Government Securities Clearing Corpora-
suries are allocated to noncompetitive bidders, tion (GSCC), the private clearinghouse created
the remaining securities are allocated to com- in 1986 to settle trades for the market.
petitive bidders, with the bidder bidding the
highest price (lowest yield) being awarded Buy Side
first. This procedure continues until the entire
allocation of securities remaining to be sold is A wide range of investors use Treasuries for
filled. Regional dealers who are not primary investing, hedging, and speculation. This includes
government dealers often get their allotment commercial and investment banks, insurance
of Treasury notes and bonds through primary companies, pension funds, and mutual fund and
dealers, who may submit bids for the accounts retail investors.
of their customers as well as for their own
accounts. This type of auction is used for
3-year and 10-year notes. Market Transparency
Price transparency is relatively high for Trea-
• Single-price auction. In this type of auction, sury securities since several information ven-
each successful competitive bidder and each dors disseminate prices to the investing public.
noncompetitive bidder is awarded securities at Govpx, an industry-sponsored corporation, dis-
the price equivalent to the highest accepted seminates price and trading information over
rate or yield. This type of auction is used for interdealer broker screens. Prices of Treasuries
2-year and 5-year notes. are active and visible.
During the one- to two-week period between
the time a new Treasury note or bond issue is PRICING
auctioned and the time the securities sold are
actually issued, securities that have been auc- Treasury Bills
tioned but not yet issued trade actively on a
when-issued basis. They also trade when-issued Treasury bills are traded on a discount basis.
during the announcement to the auction period. The yield on a discount basis is computed using
the following formula:

Secondary Market Annualized Yield =

[(Face Value / Price) / Face Value]
Secondary trading in Treasuries occurs in the × (360 / Days Remaining to Maturity)
over-the-counter (OTC) market. In the second-
ary market, the most recently auctioned Trea-
sury issue is considered ‘‘current,’’ or ‘‘on-the-
run.’’ Issues auctioned before current issues are
typically referred to as ‘‘off-the-run’’ securities.
In general, current issues are much more actively
traded and have much more liquidity than off-
the-run securities. This often results in off-the-
run securities trading at a higher yield than
similar-maturity current issues.

April 2002 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

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U.S. Treasury Bills, Notes, and Bonds 4020.1

Treasury Notes and Bonds the magnitude of risk to which the dealer is
exposed.
Treasury note and bond prices are quoted on a
percentage basis in 32nds. For instance, a price Liquidity Risk
of 98:16 means that the price of the note or bond
will be 98.5 percent of par (that is, 98 16/32). Because of their lower liquidity, off-the-run
Notes and bonds can be refined to 64ths through securities generally have a higher yield than
the use of a plus tick. A 98:16+ bid means that current securities. Many institutions attempt to
the bid is 98 and 161⁄2 32nds (that is, 98 arbitrage these pricing anomalies between cur-
16.5/32), which is equivalent to 98.515625 per- rent and off-the-run securities.
cent of par. When the note or bond is traded, the
buyer pays the dollar price plus accrued interest
as of the settlement date. Yields are also quoted ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
on an actual/365-day-count convention.
The accounting treatment for investments in
Treasuries is determined by the Financial
HEDGING Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
Treasuries are typically hedged in the futures or 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
options markets or by taking a contra position in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
another Treasury security. Also, if a position in Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
notes or bonds is hedged using an OTC option, No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
the relative illiquidity of the option may dimin- and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
ish the effectiveness of the hedge. guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
ment for derivatives used as investments or for
hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
RISKS Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
Market Risk Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
The risks of trading Treasury securities arise (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
primarily from the interest-rate risk associated ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
with holding positions and the type of trading
conducted by the institution. Treasury securities
are subject to price fluctuations because of RISK-BASED CAPITAL
changes in interest rates. Longer-term issues WEIGHTING
have more price volatility than shorter-term
instruments. A large concentration of long-term U.S. Treasury bills, notes, and bonds have a zero
maturities may subject a bank’s investment percent risk weighting. For specific risk weights
portfolio to increased interest-rate risk. For for qualified trading accounts, see section 2110.1,
instance, an institution that does arbitrage trad- ‘‘Capital Adequacy.’’
ing by buying an issue that is relatively cheap
(that is, an off-the-run security) in comparison to
historical relationships and selling one that is LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
relatively expensive (that is, a current security) INVESTMENT
may expose itself to large losses if the spread
between the two securities does not follow its U.S. Treasury bills, notes, and bonds are type I
historical alignments. In addition, dealers may securities with no legal limitations on a bank’s
take positions based on their expectations of investment.
interest-rate changes, which can be risky given
the size of positions and the impact that small
changes in rates have on the value of longer- REFERENCES
duration instruments. If this type of trading is
occurring, the institution’s risk-management sys- Fabozzi, Frank J., and T. Dessa Fabozzi, ed. The
tem should be sufficiently sophisticated to handle Handbook of Fixed Income Securities. 4th ed.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

Page 3
4020.1 U.S. Treasury Bills, Notes, and Bonds

Chicago: Irwin Professional Publishing, 1995. U.S. Department of the Treasury. Buying Trea-
Stigum, Marcia L. The Money Market. 3d ed. sury Securities. Washington, D.C.: The
Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1990. Bureau of the Public Debt, 1995.

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 4
U.S. Treasury STRIPS
Section 4025.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION TIGRs and CATS has ceased, and STRIPS

now dominate the market. Trademark products
STRIPS are zero-coupon securities (zeros) of are, however, still traded in the secondary
the U.S. Treasury created by physically separat- market.
ing the principal and interest cash flows. This
process of separating cash flows from standard
fixed-rate Treasury securities is referred to as
‘‘coupon stripping.’’ Similar trademark securi-
ties with such acronyms as CATS and TIGRs are USES
created by investment banks.
STRIPS and other zero-coupon instruments can
be tailored to meet a wide range of portfolio
objectives because of their known cash-flow
CHARACTERISTICS AND value at specific future dates. Specifically, they
FEATURES appeal to investors who want to lock in a
terminal value without incurring the risk asso-
STRIPS is the U.S. Treasury’s acronym for ciated with reinvesting intervening cash flows.
‘‘Separate Trading of Registered Interest and They also appeal to investors with definite
Principal Securities,’’ the Treasury program opinions on interest rates, as prices of STRIPS
developed in 1985 to facilitate the stripping of are highly sensitive to changes in interest rates.
designated Treasury securities. All new Trea- Due to this high sensitivity to interest-rate
sury bonds and notes with maturities of 10 years changes, disproportionately large long-maturity
and longer are eligible to be stripped under this holdings of Treasury derivatives such as STRIPS,
program and are direct obligations of the U.S. CATS, or TIGRs in relation to the total invest-
government. Under the STRIPS program, the ment portfolio or total capital of a depository
holder of any eligible security can request that institution would be considered an imprudent
the U.S. Treasury create separate book-entry investment practice.
instruments for all of the principal and interest
cash flows. The principal and interest portions of
these instruments are assigned separate identifi-
cation (CUSIP) numbers and may be owned and
traded separately. DESCRIPTION OF
MARKETPLACE
The STRIPS program provides that all stripped
Trademark Products securities be maintained in a book-entry format.
For maintenance and transfer purposes, each
Trademark products, which predate the STRIPS marketable Treasury security has a unique iden-
market, are stripped Treasury securities created tification (CUSIP) number. Under STRIPS, each
by investment banks. In August 1982, Merrill principal and interest component is assigned a
Lynch marketed its Treasury Income Growth separate CUSIP number. All STRIPS are traded
Receipts (TIGRs) and Salomon Brothers mar- over the counter (OTC), with the primary gov-
keted its receipts as Certificates of Accrual on ernment securities dealers being the largest and
Treasury Securities (CATS). Other investment most important market participants. A small
banks followed suit by issuing their own receipts. group of interdealer brokers disseminates quotes
These products were created by purchasing and broker trades on a blind basis between
Treasury securities and depositing them in a market participants. Arbitrageurs continually
trust. The trusts then issued receipts represent- monitor the prices of STRIPS and underlying
ing ownership interests in the coupon and prin- coupon-bearing bonds, looking for profitable
cipal payments of the underlying Treasury opportunities to strip or reconstitute. Price trans-
securities. parency is relatively high for STRIPS since
Since the start of the STRIPS program in several information vendors disseminate prices
1985, creation of trademark products such as to the investment public.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual September 2001

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4025.1 U.S. Treasury STRIPS

Market Participants duration equals their maturity. Duration mea-

sures the percentage change in price for a given
A wide range of investors use zeros for invest- change in rates. The higher the duration, the
ing, hedging, and speculation. This includes higher the potential volatility.
commercial and investment banks, insurance
companies, pension funds, and mutual fund and
retail investors. Liquidity Risk
The STRIPS market is significantly less liquid
PRICING than the U.S. Treasury bond market. Investors
encounter wider bid/ask spreads and are subject
The prices of STRIPS, CATS, and TIGRs are to higher commissions. In addition, liquidity
quoted on a discount basis, as a percentage of may fluctuate significantly in times of market
par. Eligible securities can be stripped at any instability. However, since a dealer can strip or
time. For a book-entry security to be separated reconstitute bonds in a fairly flexible manner, if
into its component parts, the par value must be zero-coupon prices diverge too far from their
an amount which, based on the stated interest equilibrium levels, a new supply can be created
rate, will produce a semiannual interest payment or reduced through the stripping and reconstitu-
of $1,000 or a multiple of $1,000. Quotes for tion process.
STRIPS are quoted in yields to maturity. Trademark products may have an uncertain
marketability, as some may be eligible to be
purchased only though the sponsoring dealer.
CATS, however, are listed on the New York
HEDGING Stock Exchange, enhancing their liquidity. The
market for zero-coupon Treasuries is more retail-
Zeros are typically hedged in the futures or oriented than the rest of the market. This often
options markets, or by taking a contra position results in wider trading spreads, smaller trans-
in another Treasury security. The effectiveness action size, and less liquidity.
of any hedge depends on yield-curve and basis
risk. Also, if a position in zeros is hedged with
an OTC option, the relative illiquidity of the
derivative Treasury security and the option may Credit Risk
diminish the effectiveness of the hedge.
As an obligation of the U.S. Treasury, STRIPS
are considered to be free from default (credit)
risk. Trademark products such as CATS and
RISKS TIGRs are collateralized by the underlying U.S.
Treasury, but whether they are considered
Many factors affect the value of zeros. These ‘‘obligations’’ of the U.S. Treasury is uncertain.
include the current level of interest rates and the Proprietary products should be reviewed indi-
shape of their term structure (interest-rate risk), vidually to determine the extent of credit risk.
bond maturities (rate sensitivity or duration),
and the relative demand for zero-coupon bonds
(liquidity).
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
The accounting treatment for investments in
Interest-Rate Risk U.S. Treasury STRIPS is determined by the
Financial Accounting Standards Board’s State-
Increases in the level of interest rates increase ment of Financial Accounting Standards No.
the advantages of stripping. This is because the 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Invest-
constant-yield method applied to premium bonds ments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as
results in a lower price than linear amortization amended by Statement of Financial Accounting
does. Zeros have higher sensitivity to changes in Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for
interest rates than bonds with the same maturity. Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and
Because they are zero-coupon bonds, their Extinguishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting

September 2001 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 2
U.S. Treasury STRIPS 4025.1

treatment for derivatives used as investments or REFERENCES

for hedging purposes is determined by State-
ment of Financial Accounting Standards No. Fabozzi, Frank J., and T. Dessa Fabozzi, eds.
133 (FAS 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives The Handbook of Fixed Income Securities.
and Hedging Activities,’’ as amended by State- 4th ed. Chicago: Irwin Professional
ment of Financial Accounting Standards Nos. Publishing.
137 and 138 (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See
section 2120.1, ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further dis- Federal Reserve Regulatory Service, vol. 1,
cussion.) 3–1562.
Gregory, Deborah W., and Miles Livingston.
‘‘Development of the Market for U.S. Trea-
RISK-BASED CAPITAL sury STRIPS.’’ Financial Analyst Journal.
WEIGHTING March/April 1992.
U.S. Treasury STRIPS have a zero percent risk Nagan, Peter S., and Kenneth A. Kaufman.
weighting. Trademark products have a 20 per- ‘‘STRIPS—An Exciting New Market for
cent risk weighting. For specific risk weights for Zero-Coupons.’’ ABA Banking Journal.
qualified trading accounts, see section 2110.1, Stigum, Marcia L. The Money Market. 3rd ed.
‘‘Capital Adequacy.’’ Burr Ridge, Ill.: Irwin Professional
Publishing.
LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK Woelfel, Charles J. Encyclopedia of Banking
INVESTMENT and Finance. 10th ed. Cambridge, England:
Probus Publishing Company.
U.S. Treasury STRIPS are a type I security with
no limitations on a bank’s investment. Trade-
mark products are proprietary products, so legal
limits vary. Appropriate supervisory personnel
should be consulted on specific issues.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

Page 3
Treasury Inflation-Indexed Securities
Section 4030.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION tax on income not received reduces the effective

yield on the security.
Treasury inflation-indexed securities (TIIs) are The following example illustrates how TIIs
issued by the Treasury Department and repre- work: suppose an investor purchases a $1,000
sent direct obligations of the U.S. government. note at the beginning of the year, in which the
The securities are designed to provide investors interest rate set at the time of the auction is
with a hedge against increases in inflation. The 3 percent. Also suppose that inflation for the first
initial auction of these relatively new securities year of the note is 3 percent. At the end of the
was held in January 1997, when a 10-year note first year, the $1,000 principal will be $1,030,
was issued. Various longer-term maturities are reflecting the increase in inflation, although the
planned for future auctions, which will be held investor will not receive this increase in princi-
quarterly. TIIs have very little credit risk, since pal until maturity. The investor will receive,
they are backed by the full faith and credit of the however, the 3 percent interest payment. At the
U.S. government. Banks can be designated as end of the first year, the notes will be paying
primary dealers of Treasury securities, but they 3 percent interest on the increased principal
may sell them in the secondary markets and balance of $1,030. Principal will be adjusted
invest in TIIs for their own account. each year, based on the increase or decrease in
inflation.

CHARACTERISTICS AND
FEATURES USES

TIIs were created to meet the needs of longer- At present, the primary strategy behind the
term investors wanting to insulate their invest- purchase of a TII would be to hedge against
ment principal from erosion due to inflation. erosion in value due to inflation. However,
The initial par amount of each TII issue is banks also use TIIs for investment, hedging, and
indexed to the nonseasonally adjusted Con- speculative purposes. As TIIs are tax disadvan-
sumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers taged, they are most likely to appeal to investors
(CPI-U). The index ratio is determined by who are not subject to tax.
dividing the current CPI-U level by the CPI-U An investor in TIIs is taking a view that real
level that applied at the time the security was interest rates will fall. Real interest rates are
issued or last re-indexed. If there is a period of defined as the nominal rate of interest less the
deflation, the principal value can be reduced rate of inflation. If nominal rates fall, but infla-
below par at any time between the date of tion does not (that is, a decline in real interest
issuance and maturity. However, if at maturity rates), TIIs will appreciate because their fixed
the inflation-adjusted principal amount is below coupon will now represent a more attractive rate
par, the Treasury will redeem the security at par. relative to the market. If inflation rises, but
Every six months, interest is paid based on a nominal rates rise more (that is, an increase in
fixed rate determined at the initial auction; this real interest rates), the security will decrease in
rate will remain fixed throughout the term of the value because it will only partially adjust to the
security. Semiannual interest payments are deter- new rate climate.
mined by multiplying the inflation-adjusted prin-
cipal amount by one-half the stated rate of
interest on each payment date. TIIs are eligible DESCRIPTION OF
for stripping into their principal and interest MARKETPLACE
components under the Treasury STRIPS
program. Issuing Practices
Similar to zero-coupon bonds, TIIs are tax
disadvantaged in that investors must pay tax on The auction process will use a single pricing
the accretion to the principal amount of the method identical to the one used for two-year
security, even though they do not currently and five-year fixed-principal Treasury notes. In
receive the increase in principal in cash. Paying this type of auction, each successful competitive

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual September 2001

Page 1
4030.1 Treasury Inflation-Indexed Securities

bidder and each noncompetitive bidder is rates in the market. As the coupon rate on TIIs
awarded securities at the price equivalent to the is well below market for similar maturity instru-
highest accepted rate or yield. ments, the duration of TIIs will be higher,
increasing the price sensitivity of the instrument
for a given change in real interest rates. Also,
the CPI-U index used in calculating the princi-
Market Participants pal accretion on TIIs is lagged three months,
Sell Side which will hurt the investor when inflation is
rising (and help the investor when inflation is
Like all U.S. government securities, TIIs are falling).
traded over the counter, with the primary gov- Longer-term issues will have more price vola-
ernment securities dealers being the largest and tility than shorter-term instruments. A large
most important market participants. A small concentration of long-term maturities may sub-
group of interdealer brokers disseminate quotes ject a bank’s investment portfolio to unwar-
and broker trades on a blind basis between ranted interest-rate risk.
primary dealers and users of the Government
Securities Clearing Corporation (GSCC), the
private clearinghouse created in 1986 to settle Liquidity Risk
trades for the market.
The Treasury securities market is the largest and
most liquid in the world. While an active sec-
Buy Side ondary market for TIIs is expected, that market
initially may not be as active or liquid as the
A wide range of investors are expected to use secondary market for Treasury fixed-principal
TIIs for investing, hedging, and speculation, securities. In addition, as a new product, TIIs
including commercial and investment banks, may not be as widely traded or well understood
insurance companies, pension funds, mutual as Treasury fixed-principal securities. Lesser
funds, and individual investors. As noted above, liquidity and fewer market participants may
TIIs will most likely appeal to investors who are result in larger spreads between bid and asked
not subject to tax. prices for TIIs relative to the bid/ask spreads for
fixed-principal securities of the same maturity.
Larger bid/ask spreads normally result in higher
Market Transparency transaction costs and/or lower overall returns.
The liquidity of the TII market is expected to
Price transparency is relatively high for Trea- improve over time as additional amounts are
sury securities since several information ven- issued and more entities enter the market.
dors disseminate prices to the investing public.
Govpx, an industry-sponsored corporation, dis-
seminates price and trading information via
interdealer broker screens. Prices of TIIs are ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
active and visible.
The accounting treatment for investments in
Treasury inflation-indexed securities is deter-
mined by the Financial Accounting Standards
RISKS Board’s Statement of Financial Accounting Stan-
dards No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for
Interest-Rate Risk Certain Investments in Debt and Equity Securi-
ties,’’ as amended by Statement of Financial
TIIs are subject to price fluctuations because of Accounting Standards No. 140 (FAS 140),
changes in real interest rates. TIIs will decline in ‘‘Accounting for Transfers and Servicing of
value if real interest rates increase. For instance, Financial Assets and Extinguishments of Liabili-
if nominal interest rates rise by more than the ties.’’ Accounting treatment for derivatives used
increase in inflation, the value of a TII will as investments or for hedging purposes is deter-
decrease because the inflation component will mined by Statement of Financial Accounting
not fully adjust to the higher level of nominal Standards No. 133 (FAS 133), ‘‘Accounting for

September 2001 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 2
Treasury Inflation-Indexed Securities 4030.1

Derivatives and Hedging Activities,’’ as amended LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK

by Statement of Financial Accounting Standards INVESTMENT
Nos. 137 and 138 (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See
section 2120.1, ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further TIIs are a type I security so there are no legal
discussion.) limits on a bank’s investment in them.

RISK-BASED CAPITAL REFERENCES

WEIGHTING
U.S. Department of the Treasury. Buying Trea-
TIIs have a zero percent risk weighting. For sury Inflation-Indexed Securities. Washing-
specific risk weights for qualified trading ton, D.C.: The Bureau of the Public Debt,
accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital 1997.
Adequacy.’’

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

Page 3
U.S. Government Agency Securities
Section 4035.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION credit risk. The yield spread between these

securities and Treasury securities of comparable
Agency securities are debt obligations issued by maturity reflects differences in perceived credit
federal agencies or federally sponsored agen- risk and liquidity.
cies. Federal agencies are direct arms of the U.S. GSEs issue direct debt obligations and guar-
government; federally sponsored agencies are antee various types of asset-backed securities.
privately owned and publicly chartered organi- This section discusses only securities that rep-
zations which were created by acts of Congress resent direct obligations of federal and federally
to support a specific public purpose (also referred sponsored agencies. For a discussion of securi-
to as government-sponsored entities or GSEs). ties issued or guaranteed by some of these
Federal agencies are arms of the federal agencies, see ‘‘Residential-Mortgage-Backed
government and generally do not issue securities Securities,’’ section 4110.1. Also, many GSEs
directly in the marketplace. These agencies are active in issuing structured notes. The role of
include the Government National Mortgage the agency and particular risks involved in these
Association (GNMA or Ginnie Mae), Export- securities are discussed in section 4040.1,
Import Bank, Farmers Home Administration ‘‘Structured Notes.’’
(FmHA), General Services Administration
(GSA), Maritime Administration, Small Busi-
ness Administration (SBA), Tennessee Valley CHARACTERISTICS AND
Authority, Commodity Credit Corporation, FEATURES
Rural Electrification Administration, Rural Tele-
phone Bank, and Washington Metropolitan Area Federal-agency securities such as those issued
Transit Authority. All federally related institu- by the Government National Mortgage Associa-
tions are exempt from registration with the tion are backed by the full faith and credit of the
Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). U.S. government. However, government-
Except for securities of the Private Export Fund- sponsored agency securities are not guaranteed
ing Corporation and the Tennessee Valley by the U.S. government, although market par-
Authority, the securities are backed by the full ticipants widely believe that the government
faith and credit of the U.S. government. would provide financial support to an agency if
Government-sponsored entities include agen- the need arose. This view has gained some
cies in the following areas: credence as a result of the federal government’s
operations to bolster the Farm Credit System in
• housing (such as the Federal Home Loan the mid-1980s. U.S. agency securities are also
Mortgage Corporation and Federal National exempt from SEC registration.
Mortgage Association)
• farm credit (such as the Federal Farm Credit
Bank System and Farm Credit System Finan- USES
cial Assistance Corporation)
• student loans (such as the Student Loan Mar- Agency securities are deemed suitable invest-
keting Association) ments for banks. They are frequently purchased
• small business (the Small Business by banks and held in their investment portfolios.
Administration)
• export funding (the Export-Import Bank)
DESCRIPTION OF
GSEs issue both discount and coupon notes and MARKETPLACE
bonds. Discount notes are short-term obliga-
tions, with maturities ranging from overnight to In the primary market, government agencies and
360 days. Coupon notes and bonds are sold with GSEs sell their securities to a select group of
maturities greater than two years. The securities commercial banks, section 20 subsidiaries of
are not backed by the full faith and credit of the commercial banks, and investment banks known
U.S. government. Consequently, investors pur- as ‘‘selling groups.’’ Members of a selling group
chasing GSEs are exposed to some potential advise the agencies on issuing debt, placing the

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4035.1 U.S. Government Agency Securities

debt with end-users, and making markets in dated obligations of the 12 regional Federal
these securities. Home Loan Banks whose mandate is to provide
Prices for the securities traded in the second- funds to savings and other home-financing mem-
ary market can be obtained from the ‘‘Money ber organizations.
and Investing’’ section of The Wall Street Jour- The Federal National Mortgage Association
nal or the financial section of local newspapers. (Fannie Mae) issues short-term discount notes
Other media, such as Internet financial sites and and long-term bonds with maturities of up to
Bloomberg, provide over-the-counter quotes as 30 years. Fannie Mae has also issued indexed
well. sinking-fund debentures which are callable and
contain features of both mortgage-backed secu-
rities and callable corporate bonds. The Federal
Federal Agencies Home Loan Mortgage Corporation (Freddie
Mac) issues discount notes and a limited number
Federal agencies do not issue securities directly of bonds. The Student Loan Marketing Associa-
in the marketplace. Since 1973, most have tion (Sallie Mae) issues unsecured debt obliga-
raised funds through the Federal Financing Bank, tions in the form of discount notes to provide
although many of these institutions have out- funds to support higher education.
standing obligations from previous debt issues.
Federal agencies include the following: the
Export-Import Bank of the United States, Com- PRICING
modity Credit Corporation, Farmers Home
Administration, General Services Administra- Agency notes and bonds are quoted in terms of
tion, Government National Mortgage Associa- 32nds (a percentage of par plus 32nds of a
tion, Maritime Administration, Private Export point). Thus, an investor will be willing to pay
Funding Corporation, Rural Electrification 101.5 percent of par for an agency security that
Administration, Rural Telephone Bank, Small is quoted at 101:16. Short-term discount notes
Business Administration, Tennessee Valley are issued on a discount basis similar to the way
Authority, and Washington Metropolitan Area that U.S. Treasury bills are priced.
Transit Authority (neither the Tennessee Valley Agency securities trade at yields offering a
Authority nor the Private Export Funding Cor- positive spread over Treasury security yields
poration is backed by the full faith and credit of because of slightly greater credit risk (due to
the U.S. government). the lack of an explicit government guarantee
for most obligations) and somewhat lower
liquidity.
Federally Sponsored Agencies
Following is a summary of the main federally HEDGING
sponsored agencies and the types of obligations
that they typically issue to the public. The The price risk of most agency securities is
Federal Farm Credit Bank System issues dis- hedged in the cash market for Treasury securi-
count notes; short-term bonds with maturities ties or by using Treasury futures or options. As
of three, six, and nine months; and long-term with all hedges, yield curve and basis risk must
bonds with maturities of between one and be monitored closely. In addition, dealers who
10 years. The Federal Farm Credit Bank also are actively conducting arbitrage trades and
issues medium-term notes which have maturi- other strategies should have the capability to
ties of between one and 30 years. The Federal monitor their positions effectively.
Farm Credit System Financial Assistance Cor-
poration issues 15-year notes, guaranteed by the
federal government, which were issued to sup-
port the Farm Credit System in the mid-1980s. RISKS
The Federal Home Loan Bank System issues
discount notes that mature in one year or less As with any security, much of the risk is a
and noncallable bonds with maturities ranging function of the type of trading strategy con-
from one to 10 years. These debts are consoli- ducted by an institution.

April 2001 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

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U.S. Government Agency Securities 4035.1

Interest-Rate Risk Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS

133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
Agency securities are subject to price fluctua- Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
tions caused by changes in interest rates. As cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
with other types of securities, the longer the (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
term of the security, the greater the fluctuation ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
and level of interest-rate risk. Moreover, some
agency securities are subject to greater interest-
rate risk than others. Agencies that issue struc-
tured notes that are direct obligations, such as
RISK-BASED CAPITAL
step-up notes from a Federal Home Loan Bank, WEIGHTING
may have greater risk than other agency
securities. Federal-agency securities have a zero percent
risk asset capital weight, as they are direct and
unconditionally guaranteed obligations of fed-
eral agencies. Obligations of federally spon-
Credit Risk sored agencies (not explicitly guaranteed) have
a 20 percent risk asset capital weight. For
The credit risk of agency securities is slightly specific risk weights for qualified trading
higher than that of Treasury securities because accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital
agency securities are not explicitly guaranteed Adequacy.’’
by the U.S. government. However, their credit
risk is still low due to the implied government
guarantee.
LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
INVESTMENT
Liquidity Risk
General obligations of U.S. government agen-
Agency securities as a whole are not as liquid as cies are type I securities, and are exempt from
U.S. Treasury securities, but liquidity varies the limitations of 12 USC 24 (section 5136 of
widely within the agency market, depending on the U.S. Revised Statutes). Banks may purchase
the issuer and the specific debt obligation. In these securities for their own accounts without
general, agency securities have large trading limitation, other than the exercise of prudent
volumes on the secondary market that help to banking judgment. (One exception is an obliga-
keep the liquidity risk low. However, various tion of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA),
debt provisions and structured notes of different which is a type II security. Investments in the
agency securities contribute to differing levels TVA are limited to 10 percent of a bank’s capital
of liquidity risk within the agency market. stock and unimpaired surplus.)

ACCOUNTING TREATMENT REFERENCES

The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards System. Commercial Bank Examination
No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Manual.
Investments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as Fabozzi, Frank J., ed. The Handbook of Fixed
amended by Statement of Financial Accounting Income Securities. 4th ed. Burr Ridge, Ill.:
Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Irwin, 1991.
Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and First Boston Corporation, The. Handbook of
Extinguishments of Liabilities,’’ determines the U.S. Government and Federal Agency Securi-
accounting treatment for investments in govern- ties. 34th ed. Chicago: Probus Publishing
ment agency securities. Accounting treatment Company, 1990.
for derivatives used as investments or for hedg- Stigum, Marcia L. The Money Market. 3d ed.
ing purposes is determined by Statement of Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones-Irwin, 1990.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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Structured Notes
Section 4040.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION embedded, path-dependent options for which

pricing involves complex models and systems.
Structured notes are hybrid securities, possess-
ing characteristics of straight debt instruments
and derivative instruments. Rather than paying a
straight fixed or floating coupon, the interest Inverse Floating-Rate Notes
payments of these instruments are tailored to a
myriad of possible indexes or rates. The Federal An inverse floating-rate note (FRN) has a cou-
Home Loan Bank (FHLB), one of the largest pon that fluctuates inversely with changes in the
issuers of such products in the United States, has reference rate. The coupon is structured as a
more than 175 indexes or index combinations base rate minus the reference rate, for example,
against which cash flows are calculated. In a three-year note with a semiannual coupon that
addition to the interest payments, the redemp- pays 13 percent minus six-month LIBOR, and
tion value and final maturity of the securities can an interest-rate floor of 0 percent, which ensures
also be affected by the derivatives embedded in that rates can never be negative. The return on
structured notes. Most structured notes contain an inverse FRN increases in a decreasing-rate
embedded options, generally sold by the inves- environment, and decreases in an increasing-
tor to the issuer. These options are primarily in rate environment. An investor in an inverse
the form of caps, floors, or call features. The FRN is taking a view that rates will decrease. An
identification, pricing, and analysis of these inverse FRN has the risk characteristics of a
options give structured notes their complexity. leveraged fixed-rate instrument: inverse FRNs
Structured notes are primarily issued by will outperform nonleveraged fixed-rate instru-
government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs), such ments when rates decrease and underperform
as the Federal Home Loan Bank (FHLB), Fed- when rates increase. If rates increase signifi-
eral National Mortgage Association (FNMA), cantly, the investor may receive no coupon
Student Loan Marketing Association (SLMA), payments on the note.
and Federal Home Loan Mortgage Corporation The leverage inherent in an inverse FRN
(FHLMC). Although the credit risk of these varies with each structure. The leverage amount
securities is minimal, other risks such as interest- of a particular structure will be equal to the
rate risk, market (price) risk, and liquidity risk underlying index plus one (that is, 13 percent
can be material. minus 6-month LIBOR has a leverage factor of
2; 20 percent − (2 × 6-month LIBOR) has a
leverage factor of 3). The degree of leverage
incorporated in an FRN will increase the vola-
CHARACTERISTICS AND tility and, hence, the interest-rate and price risk
FEATURES of the note.

There are many different types of structured

notes; typically, a structure is created specifi-
cally to meet one investor’s needs. Thus, an Step-Ups/Multi-Steps
exhaustive description of all the types of struc-
tures in which an institution may invest is Step-up notes or bonds are generally callable by
impossible. However, certain structures are fairly the issuer; pay an initial yield higher than a
common and are briefly described below. comparable fixed-rate, fixed-maturity security;
In many cases, very complex probability and and have coupons which rise or ‘‘step up’’ at
pricing models are required to accurately evalu- predetermined points in time if the issue is not
ate and price structured notes. As mentioned called. If the coupon has more than one adjust-
earlier, most structures have embedded options, ment period, it is referred to as a multi-step.
implicitly sold by the investor to the note’s Step-up notes have final maturities ranging from
issuer. The proper valuation of these options one year to as long as 20 years. Typical lock-out
poses unique challenges to investors considering periods (periods for which the note cannot be
structured notes. Many popular structures include called) range from three months to five years.

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4040.1 Structured Notes

An example of a step-up note is a five-year An embedded option feature, called a path-

note which has an initial coupon of 6 percent; dependent option, is present in this type of
the coupon increases 50 basis points every six security. The option is termed path-dependent
months. The note is callable by the issuer on any because the payoff structure of the option will
six-month interest-payment date. depend not only on the future path of the
Step-up notes contain embedded call options underlying index but on where that index has
‘‘sold’’ to the issuer by the investor. Any time an been in the past. The investor, in return for an
issue is callable, the purchaser of the security above-market initial yield, effectively sells this
has sold a call option to the issuer. In the above option to the issuer. The issuer has the option to
example, the investor has sold a series of call alter the principal amortization as the interest-
options, called a Bermuda option, to the issuer. rate environment changes. Caps and floors may
The note is callable on any interest-payment also be present if the issue has a floating-rate
date after a specified lock-out period. Unlike coupon.
callable issues which pay a flat rate until matu- A typical IAN is structured so that as the
rity or call, the step-up feature of these securities designated index (for example, LIBOR) rises
increases the value of the call options to the above a trigger level, the average life extends.
issuer and likewise increases the prospect of Conversely, if the designated index is at or
early redemption. Multi-steps can also be thought below the trigger level, the IAN’s principal will
of as one-way floaters since the coupon can quickly amortize, leading to a shorter average
adjust higher, but never lower. As such, they can life. The outstanding principal balance will vary
be viewed as securities in which the investor has according to the schedule at each redemption
bought a series of periodic floors and has sold a date. One may equate the amortization of the
series of periodic caps in return for above- note to the retirement (call) of some portion of
market initial yield. the principal. As the amortization quickens,
As the investor has sold a series of call more and more of the note is ‘‘called.’’
options to the issuer, a step-up note will outper- IANs generally appeal to investors who want
form a straight bond issue when rates are rela- an investment with a CMO-like risk-return pro-
tively stable and underperform in a volatile rate file, but with reduced uncertainty as to the
environment. In a decreasing-rate environment, average life. As the amortization schedule of an
the note is likely to be called and the investor IAN depends only on the level of the underlying
will be forced to invest the proceeds of the index, an IAN eliminates the noneconomic pre-
redemption in a low-interest-rate environment. payment factors of a CMO. However, like a
Conversely, in a rising-rate environment, an CMO, an IAN will outperform a straight bond
investor will be in a below-market instrument issue in a stable rate environment and underper-
when rates are high. Step-up notes with very form it in a volatile rate environment. In a
long maturities (beyond 10 years) may have decreasing-rate environment, the IAN is likely
greater liquidity and price risk than other secu- to be called, and the investor will be forced to
rities because of their long tenor. invest the proceeds of the redemption in a low
interest-rate environment. Conversely, in a rising-
rate environment, the maturity of the IAN will
extend, and an investor will be in a below-
Index-Amortizing Notes market instrument when rates are high.

An index-amortizing note (IAN) is a form of

structured note for which the outstanding prin-
cipal or note amortizes according to a predeter- De-Leveraged and Leveraged Floaters
mined schedule. The predetermined amortiza-
tion schedule is linked to the level of a designated De-leveraged and leveraged floating-rate notes
index (such as LIBOR, CMT, or the prepayment give investors the opportunity to receive an
rate of a specified pass-through pool). Thus, the above-market initial yield and tie subsequent
timing of future cash flows and, hence, the coupon adjustments to a specific point on the
average life and yield to maturity of the note yield curve. A leveraged note’s coupon will
become uncertain. The IAN does have a stated adjust by a multiple of a change in the relevant
maximum maturity date, however, at which time interest rate, for example, 1.25 × LIBOR + 100
all remaining principal balance is retired. basis points. Conversely, a de-leveraged securi-

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Structured Notes 4040.1

ty’s coupon adjusts by a fraction of the change therefore depend on the frequency of resets, the
in rates, for example, .60 × 10-year CMT + 100 amount of coupon increase at each reset, and
basis points. the final maturity of the note. Longer maturity
De-leveraged floaters are combinations of notes, which have limited reset dates and limited
fixed- and floating-rate instruments. For exam- coupon increases, will be more volatile in
ple, a $10 million de-leveraged floater with a rising- rate environments and will therefore
coupon of 60 percent of the 10-year CMT + 100 have a greater degree of interest-rate and price
basis points is equivalent to the investor holding risk.
a $6 million note with a coupon equal to a
10-year CMT/LIBOR basis swap and a $4 mil-
lion fixed-rate instrument. If rates rise, an inves-
tor in a de-leveraged floater participates in the Dual-Index Notes
rise, but only by a fraction. The leverage factor
(for example, 60 percent) causes the coupons A dual-index note (sometimes called a yield
to lag the actual market. Thus, de-leveraged curve anticipation note (YCAN)) is a security
floaters will outperform straight bond issuances whose coupon is tied to the spread between two
in a declining or stable interest-rate environment. market indexes. An example is a three-year
Conversely, a leveraged floater such as the security which pays a semiannual coupon equal
example above should be purchased by inves- to (prime + 250 basis points − 6-month LIBOR).
tors with an expectation of rising rates in which Typical indexes used to structure payoffs to
they would receive better than one one-to-one these notes are the prime rate, LIBOR, COFI,
participation. The degree of leverage amplifies and CMT yields of different maturities. Yield-
the risks as well as the rewards of this type of curve notes allow the investor to lock in a very
security. The greater the leverage, the greater the specific view about forward rates. Such a play,
interest-rate and price risk of the security. while constructable in the cash market, is often
Other alternatives in this category include difficult and costly to an investor. A purchaser of
floaters which do not permit the coupon to this type of security is typically making an
decrease, so-called one-way de-leveraged float- assumption about the future shape of the yield
ers which can effectively lock in higher coupons curve. These notes can be structured to reward
in an environment where the index rises then the investors in either steepening or flattening
falls. yield-curve environments. However, these notes
can also be tied to indexes other than interest
rates, such as foreign-exchange rates, stock
indexes, or commodity prices.
Ratchet Notes An example of a note which would appeal to
investors with expectations of a flattening yield
Ratchet notes typically pay a floating-rate cou- curve (in a currently steep yield-curve environ-
pon that can never go down. The notes generally ment) would be one with a coupon that floats at
have periodic caps that limit the amount of the
increases (ratchets) or that set a predetermined [the 5-year CMT − the 10-year CMT
increase for each quarter. These periodic caps + a designated spread].
are akin to those found in adjustable-rate mort-
gage products. Based on this formula, the coupon will increase
An investor in a ratchet note has purchased if the yield curve flattens between the 5-year and
from the issuer a series of periodic floors and the 10-year maturities. Alternatively, a yield-
has sold a series of periodic caps. As such, a curve-steepening play would be an issue that
ratchet note will outperform a straight floating- floats at—
rate note in a stable or declining interest-rate
environment, and it will underperform in a [the 10-year CMT − the 5-year CMT
rapidly rising interest-rate environment. In a + a designated spread].
rapidly rising interest-rate environment, a ratchet
note will perform similarly to a fixed-rate instru- In this case, coupons would increase as the
ment with a low coupon which gradually steps spread between the long- and medium-term
up. The price volatility of the instrument will indexes widens.

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4040.1 Structured Notes

A dual-index note is equivalent to being a Principal-Linked Notes

long basis swap (in the example above, the
investor receives prime and pays LIBOR) and to An example of a principal-linked note is a
being long a fixed-rate instrument. As such, the one-year security which pays a fixed semi-
note has the risk-return elements of both a basis annual coupon of 8 percent, and the principal
swap and a comparable fixed-rate instrument. received at maturity is determined by the fol-
The note will underperform comparable fixed- lowing formula using market yields two days
rate instruments in an environment when the before maturity:
basis relationship (between prime and LIBOR in
the above example) narrows. These instruments P = 100 + 5 ( ( (2-year swap rate − 3-month
are subject to incremental price risk in a rising- LIBOR) − 1.40) )
rate environment in which the basis spread is
narrowing. The resulting principal-redemption amount under
varying rate scenarios would be as follows in
table 1.

Table 1—Examples of Possible Principal-Redemption Schemes

Rate

2-Year Swap
Rate − 3-Month Redemption
Par LIBOR Rate − 1.40 5*(Rate − 140) Percentage

100 180 .4 2.00 102

100 160 .2 1.00 101
100 140 .00 0.00 100
100 120 −0.20 −1.00 99
100 100 −0.40 −2.00 98

Under a principal-linked structured note, the the index remains within a designated range, the
maturity and the fixed coupon payments are lower rate is used during periods that the index
unchanged from the terms established at issu- falls outside the range. This lower level may be
ance. The issuer’s redemption obligation at zero. Range notes have been issued which ref-
maturity, however, is not the face value of the erence underlying indexes linked to interest
note. Redemption amounts are established by a rates, currencies, commodities, and equities.
formula whose components reflect historical or Most range notes reference the index daily such
prevailing market levels. Principal-linked notes that interest may accrue at 7 percent on one day
have been issued when the principal redemption and at 2 percent on the following day, if the
is a function of underlying currency, commod- underlying index crosses in and out of the range.
ity, equity, and interest-rate indexes. As the However, they can also reference the index
return of principal at maturity in many types of monthly, quarterly, or only once over the note’s
principal-linked notes is not ensured, these struc- life. If the note only references quarterly, then
tures are subject to a great degree of price risk. the index’s relationship to the range matters
only on the quarterly reset date. With the pur-
chase of one of these notes, the investor has sold
Range Notes a series of digital (or binary) options:1 a call

Range notes (also called accrual notes) accrue 1. A digital option has a fixed, predetermined payoff if the
underlying instrument or index is at or beyond the strike at
interest daily at a set coupon which is tied to an expiration. The value of the payoff is not affected by the
index. Most range notes have two coupon lev- magnitude of the difference between the underlying and the
els; the higher accrual rate is for the period that strike price.

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Structured Notes 4040.1

struck at the high end of the range and a put portfolios and/or to express a viewpoint about
struck at the low end of the range. This means the course of interest rates or other financial
that the accrual rate is strictly defined, and the variables. The basic appeal of structured notes
magnitude of movement outside the range is lies in their attendant customized risk param-
inconsequential. The narrower the range, the eters. Attributes that typically are not available
greater the coupon enhancement over a like (or not easily available) to an investor are
instrument. In some cases, the range varies each assembled in a prepackaged format. Addition-
year that the security is outstanding. ally, investors find the notes attractive for other
However, range notes also exist which require distinct reasons. In a sustained period of low
that the investor sell two barrier options:2 a interest rates (such as the United States experi-
down-and-out put struck at the low level of the enced for the five years leading up to February
range and an up-and-out call struck at the high 1994), receiving an ‘‘acceptable’’ return on an
level of the range. For these range notes, the investment became increasingly difficult. Struc-
index must remain within the target band for the tured notes, whose cash flows and market values
entire accrual period, and sometimes for the are linked to one or more benchmarks, offered
entire life of the instrument. If it crosses either the potential for greater returns than prevailing
barrier on even one day, the investor’s coupon market rates. The desire for higher yield led
will drop to zero for the whole period.3 This investors to make a risk-return tradeoff which
type of range note is quite rare, but investors reflected their market view.
should pay careful attention to the payment The fact that most structured notes are issued
provisions attached to movements outside the by government-sponsored enterprises (GSEs)
range. means that credit risk—the risk that the issuer
As the investor has sold leveraged call and will default—is minimal. GSEs are not, how-
put options to the issuer of these securities, a ever, backed by the full faith and credit of the
range note will outperform other floating-rate U.S. government, though most have explicit
instruments in stable environments when the lines of credit from the Treasury. As a result,
index remains within the specified range, and it investors were attracted by the potential returns
will underperform in volatile environments in of structured notes and by their high credit
which the underlying index is outside of the quality (implied government guarantee). As
specified range. Given the degree of leverage noted above, however, the credit risk of these
inherent in these types of structures, the securi- notes may be minimal, but their price risk may
ties can be very volatile and often exhibit a be significant.
significant degree of price risk.

Uses by Issuers
USES
Issuers often issue structured notes to achieve
Structured notes are used for a variety of pur- all-in funding rates, which are more advanta-
poses by investors, issuers, and underwriters or geous than what is achievable through a straight
traders. Banks are often involved in all three of debt issue. To induce issuers to issue complex
these capacities. and often very specialized debt instruments,
investors often will sacrifice some return, which
lowers the issuer’s all-in cost of funding. Gen-
Uses by Investors erally, only highly rated (single-A or better)
banks, corporations, agencies, and finance com-
Structured notes are investment vehicles that panies will be able to issue in the structured-note
allow investors to alter the risk profile of their market. A detailed discussion of issuing prac-
tices is included in the ‘‘Description of Market-
2. Path-dependent options with both their payoff pattern
place’’ subsection below.
and their survival to the nominal expiration date are dependent
not only on the final price of the underlying but on whether the
underlying sells at or through a barrier (instrike, outstrike) Uses by Underwriters or Traders
price during the life of the option.
3. McNeil, Rod. ‘‘The Revival of the Structured Note
Market.’’ International Bond Investor. Summer 1994, pp. Investment banks and the section 20 subsidiaries
34–37. of banks often act to underwrite structured-note

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual February 1998

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4040.1 Structured Notes

issuances. They are often actively involved in Primary Market

making a market in secondary structured notes.
A detailed discussion of these activities is Structured notes are primarily issued by GSEs
included in the ‘‘Description of Marketplace’’ such as the FHLB, FNMA, SLMA, and FHLMC,
subsection below. which carry an implicit government guarantee
and are rated triple-A. Many large corporations,
banks, and finance companies, generally rated
single-A or better, also issue structured notes.
DESCRIPTION OF Most structured-note issuances originate with
MARKETPLACE investors on a reverse inquiry basis, through the
medium-term note (MTN) market. The process
Background originates when an investor has a demand for a
security with specific risk characteristics. Through
In its heyday, the structured-note market was a a reverse inquiry, an investor will use MTN
by-product of a unique period in financial his- agents such as the underwriting desk of an
tory. In 1992 and 1993, Wall Street firms engi- investment bank or section 20 subsidiary of a
neered debt that allowed borrowers to attain bank to communicate its desires to the issuer. If
highly attractive below-market funding and that the issuer agrees to the inquiry, the issuer will
rewarded investors (in large part) as long as issue the security which is sold through the
interest rates remained low. The incredible and MTN agent to the investor.
at times implausible array of structure types Although structured notes in the MTN market
came into being in response to the investment often originate with the investor, investment
community’s desire for higher returns during a banks and section 20 subsidiaries of banks also
sustained period of low interest rates. Issuers put together such transactions. Most investment
and investment dealer firms were more than banks and section 20 subsidiaries have derivative-
willing to address this need, introducing inves- product specialists who design structured notes
tors to more attractive (and by definition riskier) to take advantage of specific market opportuni-
securities whose cash flows were linked to, for ties. When an opportunity is identified, the
example, the performance of the yen; the yen’s investment bank or section 20 subsidiary will
relationship to the lira; and a host of other inform investors and propose that they buy the
indexes, currencies, or benchmarks.4 Investors’ structured note. If an investor tentatively agrees
quest for enhanced yield caused them to adopt, to purchase the security, the MTN agents in the
in many cases, very tenuous risk-reward mea- investment bank or section 20 subsidiary will
sures with respect to potential investment contact an issuer with the proposed transaction.
choices. If the structure meets the funding needs of the
issuer, the structured note will be issued to the
Structured notes received heightened atten-
investors.
tion from both regulators and investors in the
spring and summer of 1994. Many of these
structured securities, created to satisfy a per-
ceived need at the time, deteriorated in value as Secondary Market
a result of the rate increases of 1994. In many
cases, the leverage inherent in the security Structured notes are traded in the secondary
worked against the investor, obliterating once market through market makers such as invest-
attractive coupon payments. Market values of ment banks or section 20 subsidiaries of banks
many of these instruments fell below par as their or through brokers. Market makers will buy or
coupons became vastly inferior to comparable sell structured notes, at a predetermined bid and
maturity investments and as maturities were offer. Market makers will usually trade GSE
extended beyond investors’ original expectations. structured notes through their secondary agency
trader and trade corporate-issued structured notes
through their corporate bond trader. Some mar-
4. As more exotic structured-note issues came into being ket makers trade secondary structured notes
(and especially in light of the Orange County debacle), much
of the bad press centered on the (quasi-government) agencies
through their structured-note desk, a specialized
who issued the paper. As discussed later, the impetus for the group who will buy and trade all types of
vast majority of deals in fact emanated from Wall Street. structured notes.

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Structured Notes 4040.1

Investors in secondary structured notes may (1) on an asset-swap basis or (2) on a straight-
buy the notes at a discount or premium to pricing basis.
issuance and receive the performance character-
istics of the note as shown in the prospectus.
Investors may also purchase structured notes on Asset-Swap Pricing
an asset-swap basis, which strips the optionality
out of a note and leaves the investor with a Structured notes are typically constructed by
synthetically created ‘‘plain vanilla’ return such embedding some form of optionality in the
as LIBOR. Asset-swap pricing is discussed in coupon, principal, or maturity component of a
the ‘‘Pricing’’ subsection below. debt issue. Once these embedded derivatives are
Secondary structured notes are also used to quantified, a swap or series of swaps can be
create special-purpose vehicles such as Merrill undertaken to strip out those options and effec-
Lynch’s STEERS program. In these types of tively create a synthetic instrument with either
programs, secondary structured notes are placed fixed or variable cash-flow streams. This pro-
in a special-purpose vehicle, the receipts of cess is known as asset-swap pricing.5
which are then sold to investors. A series of Asset-swap pricing initially involves decom-
swap transactions is then entered into between a posing and valuing the components of the note,
swap counterparty and the special-purpose vehi- including contingent cash flows. It conveys
cle, which strips the optionality out of the where those components can be cashed out in
structures. The investor therefore receives a trust the market, often referred to as the break-up
receipt which pays a plain vanilla return such as value of the note. After the note is decomposed,
LIBOR. an alternate cash-flow stream is created through
Structured notes often possess greater liquid- the asset-swap market.
ity risk than many other types of securities. The When structured notes are priced on an asset-
most important factor affecting the liquidity of swap basis, the issue is analyzed based on its
the note in the secondary market is the size of salvage value.6 The salvage value on most
the secondary note being traded. Generally, the agency structured issues varies based on the
larger the size of the note, the more liquid the current market and the size, type, and maturity
note will be in the secondary market. Most of the note.
investors will not buy a structured note of Liquidity in the structured-notes market exists
limited size unless they receive a significant because every note has a salvage value. If
premium to cover the administrative costs of demand for the note as a whole is weak, its cash
booking the note. Similarly, most market makers flows can be reconstructed via the asset-swap
will not inventory small pieces of paper unless market to create a synthetic security. In many
they charge a significant liquidity premium. cases, the re-engineered security has broader
Another factor which may affect the liquidity investor appeal, thereby generating needed
of a structured note in the secondary market is liquidity for the holder of the original issue.
the one-way ‘‘bullishness’’ or ‘‘bearishness’’ of
a note. For example, in a rising-rate environ-
ment, leveraged bullish instruments such as
inverse floaters may not be in demand by Straight Pricing
investors and may therefore have less liquidity
Contrasted with an asset-swapped issue, a note
in the secondary market. As many structured
trading on a straight-pricing basis is purchased
notes are sold on an asset-swap basis, the
and sold as is.7 Traders who price structured
characteristics of the structured note can be
notes on this basis compare the note with similar
‘‘engineered’’ out of the note, leaving the inves-
types of instruments trading in the market and
tor with a plain vanilla return. The asset-swap
derive a price accordingly.
market, therefore, helps to increase the liquidity
of these types of notes.
5. See the Federal Reserve product summary Asset Swaps—
Creating Synthetic Instruments by Joseph Cilia for a detailed
PRICING treatment on the topic.
6. Goodman, Laurie. ‘‘Anatomy of the Secondary Struc-
tured Note Market.’’ Derivatives Quarterly, Fall 1995.
The two primary methods by which structured 7. Peng, Scott Y., and Ravi E. Dattatreya. The Structured
notes are priced in the secondary market are Note Market. Chicago: Probus, 1995.

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4040.1 Structured Notes

HEDGING RISKS
Structured notes are, from a cash-flow perspec- Market Risk
tive, a combination of traditional debt instru-
ments and derivative contracts. As a result, the The embedded options and other leverage fac-
value (or performance) of a structured note can tors inherent in structured notes result in a great
be replicated by combining components consist- deal of uncertainty about future cash flows.
ing of appropriate zero-coupon debt plus appro- Thus, price volatility is generally high in these
priate futures or options positions that reflect the types of securities. An institution should have—
optionality embedded in the issue. Similar to the or should have ready access to—a model which
decomposition process employed in an asset- is able to quantify the risks. The model should
wap transaction, the fair value of this replicated be able to forecast the change in market price at
portfolio should be equivalent to the fair value various points in time (for example, one year
of the structured note. later or the first call date) for a given shift in
interest rates. For the many variants of these
Theoretically, one should be indifferent about products which are tied to the shape of the yield
investing in a structured note or in its equiva- curve, the ability to model price effects from
lently constructed portfolio as long as the price nonparallel interest-rate shifts is also crucial. In
of the note equals the present value of its most cases (except for some principal-linked
replication components.8 Price discrepancy notes), full principal will be returned at maturity.
should govern the selection process between However, between issuance and redemption,
these alternatives. changes in fundamental factors can give rise to
A hedge of a structured-note position involves significant reductions in the ‘‘market’’ price.
engaging in the opposite of the replication trades As with other types of instruments in which
noted above. To be fully protected in a hedge, an investor has sold an option, structured notes
the sum of the present values of each component will underperform similar straight debt issu-
of the hedge should be less than or equal to the ances in a volatile rate environment. For notes
market value of the note. If, for some reason, the such as callable step-ups and IANs, the investor
note was priced higher than the cost of the may be exposed to reinvestment risk (investing
worst-case replication components, the hedging the proceeds of the note in a low-interest-rate
firm stands to lock in a positive spread if that environment) when rates decrease and to exten-
worst-case scenario fails to materialize.9 sion risk (not being able to invest in a high-
A structured-note position itself can serve to interest-rate environment) when rates increase.
hedge unique risks faced by the investor. For
example, a company which is long (owns)
Japanese yen (¥) is exposed to the risk of yen Liquidity Risk
depreciation. The FHLB issued a one-year struc-
tured range note which accrued interest daily at Due to the complex nature of structured notes,
7 percent if the ¥/U.S.$ is greater than 108.50 or the number of firms that are able and willing to
at 0 percent if the ¥/U.S.$ is less than 108.50. If competitively price and bid for these securities
the yen depreciates, the note accrues interest at is quite small; however, an active secondary
an above-market rate. Meanwhile, the compa- market has developed over the past few years.
ny’s yen holdings will decline in value. This When the structure is complex, however, bid-
note could serve as a perfectly tailored hedge for ders may be few. Consequently, an institution
the company’s business-risk profile. In fact, the hoping to liquidate a structured-note holding
design of many of the most complicated struc- before maturity may find that their only option is
tured notes is driven not by the innovations of to sell at a significant loss. In certain cases, the
note issuers and underwriters, but rather by issue’s original underwriter is the only source
investors seeking to hedge their own unique risk for a bid (and even that is not always guaranteed).
profiles. Some factors influencing the liquidity of the
note include the type, size, and maturity of the
note. In general, the more complex the structure
8. Kawaller, Ira G. ‘‘Understanding Structured Notes.’’
or the more a note exhibits one-way bullishness
Derivatives Quarterly, Spring 1995. or bearishness, the less liquidity a note will
9. Ibid., p. 32. have. Although the asset-swap market allows

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Structured Notes 4040.1

the derivative components to be engineered out (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
of these complex structures, liquidity may be ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
impaired because many institutions have invest-
ment guidelines that prohibit the purchase of
certain types of complex notes. Thus, the size of RISK-BASED CAPITAL
the potential market is diminished, and liquidity WEIGHTING
decreases. Also, notes with a smaller size (gen-
erally under $10 million) and a longer maturity Structured notes issued by GSEs should be
(generally greater than five years) will tend to be given a 20 percent risk weighting. Structured
less liquid. notes issued by investment-grade corporations
should be given a 100 percent risk weighting.
For specific risk weights for qualified trading
Volatility Risk accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital
Adequacy.’’
For each of these structures with embedded
options, assumptions about the volatility of
interest-rate moves are also inherent. For any of
these options that are purchased by investors LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
(for example, interest-rate floors), the risk that INVESTMENT
expectations for market-rate volatility will
decrease over time exists. If that happens, mar- The limitations of 12 CFR 1 apply to structured
ket valuation of these securities will also notes. Structured notes issued by GSEs are type
decrease, and the investor will have ‘‘pur- I securities, and there is no limitation on the
chased’’ an overvalued option for which he or amount which a bank can purchase or sell.
she will not be compensated if the instrument is Structured notes issued by investment-grade-
sold before maturity. For options that are sold by rated corporations are type III securities. A
investors (for example, interest-rate caps), the bank’s purchases and sales of type III securities
risk that volatility increases after the note is are limited to 10 percent of its capital and
purchased exists. If that occurs, the market surplus.
valuation of the structured note will decrease,
and the investor will have ‘‘sold’’ an underval-
ued option for which he or she will have to pay
a higher price if the instrument is sold before REFERENCES
maturity.
Audley, David, Richard Chin, and Shrikant
Ramamurthy. ‘‘Derivative Medium-Term
Notes’’ and ‘‘Callable Multiple Step-Up
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT Bonds.’’ Prudential Securities Financial Strat-
egies Group, October 1993 and May 1994,
The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s respectively.
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards ‘‘BankAmerica Exec Explains What Happened
No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain with Its $68M Fund Bailout.’’ American
Investments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as Banker, October 17, 1994.
amended by Statement of Financial Accounting Cilia, Joseph. Product Summary— Asset Swaps—
Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Creating Synthetic Instruments. Federal
Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Reserve Bank of Chicago, August 1996.
Extinguishments of Liabilities,’’ determines the Cilia, Joseph, and Karen McCann. Product
accounting treatment for investments in struc- Summary—Structured Notes. Federal Reserve
tured notes. Accounting treatment for deriva- Bank of Chicago, November 1994.
tives used as investments or for hedging pur- Crabbe, Leland E., and Joseph D. Argilagos.
poses is determined by Statement of Financial ‘‘Anatomy of the Structured Note Market.’’
Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS 133), Journal of Applied Corporate Finance, Fall
‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging 1994.
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan- Goodman, Laurie, and Linda Lowell. ‘‘Struc-
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138 tured Note Alternatives to Fixed Rate and

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4040.1 Structured Notes

Floating Rate CMOs.’’ Derivatives Quarterly, Note Market.’’ International Bond Investor.
Spring 1995. Summer 1994, pp. 34–37.
Kawaller, Ira G. ‘‘Understanding Structured Peng, Scott Y., and Ravi E. Dattatreya. The
Notes.’’ Derivatives Quarterly, Spring 1995. Structured Note Market. Chicago: Probus,
McNeil, Rod. ‘‘The Revival of the Structured 1995.

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Corporate Notes and Bonds
Section 4045.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Collateral Trust Bonds

Corporate bonds are debt obligations issued by Collateral trust bonds are secured by pledges of
corporations. Corporate bonds may be either stocks, notes, bonds, or other collateral. Gener-
secured or unsecured. Collateral used for secured ally, the market or appraised value of the collat-
debt includes but is not limited to real property, eral must be maintained at some percentage of
machinery, equipment, accounts receivable, the amount of the bonds outstanding, and a
stocks, bonds, or notes. If the debt is unsecured, provision for withdrawal of some collateral is
the bonds are known as debentures. Bondhold- often included, provided other acceptable collat-
ers, as creditors, have a prior legal claim over eral is provided. Collateral trust bonds may be
common and preferred stockholders as to both issued in series.
income and assets of the corporation for the
principal and interest due them and may have a
prior claim over other creditors if liens or Equipment Trust Certificates
mortgages are involved.
Corporate bonds contain elements of both Equipment trust certificates are usually issued
interest-rate risk and credit risk. Corporate bonds by railroads or airlines. The issuer, such as a
usually yield more than government or agency railroad company or airline, buys a piece of
bonds due to the presence of credit risk. Corpo- equipment from a manufacturer, who transfers
rate bonds are issued as registered bonds and are the title to the equipment to a trustee. The trustee
usually sold in book-entry form. Interest may be then leases the equipment to the issuer and at the
fixed, floating, or the bonds may be zero cou- same time sells equipment trust certificates
pons. Interest on corporate bonds is typically (ETCs) to investors. The manufacturer is paid
paid semiannually and is fully taxable to the off through the sale of the certificates, and
bondholder. interest and principal are paid to the bondhold-
ers through the proceeds of lease payments from
the issuer to the trustee. At the end of some
specified period of time, the certificates are paid
off, the trustee sells the equipment to the issuer
CHARACTERISTICS AND for a nominal price, and the lease is terminated.
FEATURES As the issuer does not own the equipment,
foreclosing a lien in event of default is facili-
tated. These bonds are often issued in serial
Security for Bonds form.
Various types of security may be pledged to
offer security beyond that of the general stand-
ing of the issuer. Secured bonds, such as first- Debenture Bonds
mortgage bonds, collateral trust bonds, and
equipment trust certificates, yield a lower rate of Debenture bonds are not secured by a specific
interest than comparable unsecured bonds pledge of designated property. Debenture bond-
because of the greater security they provide to holders have the claim of general creditors on all
the bondholder. assets of the issuer not pledged specifically to
secure other debt. They also have a claim on
pledged assets to the extent that these assets
have value greater than necessary to satisfy
First-Mortgage Bonds secured creditors. Debentures often contain a
variety of provisions designed to afford some
First-mortgage bonds normally grant the bond- degree of protection to bondholders, including
holder a first-mortgage lien on the property of limitation on the amount of additional debt
the issuer. Often first-mortgage bonds are issued issuance, minimum maintenance requirements
in series with bonds of each series secured on net working capital, and limits on the pay-
equally by the same first mortgage. ment of cash dividends by the issuer. If an issuer

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4045.1 Corporate Notes and Bonds

has no secured debt, it is customary to provide a semiannually and at maturity. Interest pay-
negative pledge clause—a provision that deben- ments once a year are the norm for bonds sold
tures will be secured equally with any secured overseas. Interest on corporate bonds is based
bonds that may be issued in the future. on a 360-day year, made up of twelve 30-day
months.

Subordinated and Convertible Debentures

Zero-Coupon Bonds
Subordinated debenture bonds stand behind
secured debt, debenture bonds, and often some
Zero-coupon bonds are bonds without coupons
general creditors in their claim on assets and
or a stated interest rate. These securities are
earnings. Because these bonds are weaker in
issued at discounts to par; the difference between
their claim on assets, they yield a higher rate of
the face amount and the offering price when
interest than comparable secured bonds. Often,
first issued is called the original-issue discount
subordinated debenture bonds offer conversion
(OID). The rate of return depends on the amount
privileges to convert bonds into shares of an
of the discount and the period over which it
issuer’s own common stock or the common
accretes. In bankruptcy, a zero-coupon bond
stock of a corporation other than an issuer—
creditor can claim the original offering price
referred to as exchangeable bonds.
plus accrued and unpaid interest to the date of
bankruptcy filing, but not the principal amount
of $1,000.
Guaranteed Bonds
Guaranteed bonds are guaranteed by a corpora-
tion other than the issuer. The safety of a Floating-Rate Notes
guaranteed bond depends on the financial capa-
bility of the guarantor, as well as the financial The coupon rates for floating-rate notes are
capability of the issuer. The terms of the guar- based on various benchmarks ranging from
antee may call for the guarantor to guarantee the short-term rates, such as prime and 30-day
payment of interest and/or repayment of princi- commercial paper, to one-year and longer
pal. A guaranteed bond may have more than one constant maturity Treasury rates (CMTs). Cou-
corporate guarantor, who may be responsible for pons are usually quoted as spread above or
not only its pro rata share but also the entire below the base rate (that is, three-month LIBOR
amount guaranteed by other guarantors. + 15 bp). The interest rate paid on floating-rate
notes adjusts based on changes in the base rate.
For example, a note linked to three-month U.S.
LIBOR would adjust every three months, based
Maturity on the then-prevailing yield on three-month U.S.
LIBOR. Floating-rate notes are often subject to
Corporate bonds are issued in a broad maturity a maximum (cap) or minimum (floor) rate of
spectrum, ranging from less than one year to interest.
perpetual issues. Issues maturing within one
year are usually viewed as the equivalent of cash
items. Debt maturing between one and five years
is generally thought of as short-term. Features
Intermediate-term debt is usually considered to
mature between 5 and 12 years, whereas long- A significant portion of corporate notes and
term debt matures in more than 12 years. bonds has various features. These include call
provisions, in which the issuer has the right to
redeem the bond before maturity; put options, in
Interest-Payment Characteristics which the holder has the right to redeem the
bond before maturity; sinking funds, used to
Fixed-Rate Bonds retire the bonds at maturity; and convertibility
features that allow the holder to exchange debt
Most fixed-rate corporate bonds pay interest for equity in the issuing company.

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Corporate Notes and Bonds 4045.1

Callable Bonds bond of comparable quality. An investor in a

convertible security receives the upside poten-
Callable bonds are bonds in which the investor tial of the common stock of the issuer, combined
has sold a call option to the issuer. This increases with the safety of principal in terms of a prior
the coupon rate paid by the issuer but exposes claim to assets over equity security holders. The
the investor to prepayment risk. If market inter- investor, however, pays for this conversion privi-
est rates fall below the coupon rate of the bond lege by accepting a significantly lower yield-to-
on the call date, the issuer will call the bond and maturity than that offered on comparable non-
the investor will be forced to invest the proceeds convertible bonds. Also, if anticipated corporate
in a low-interest-rate environment. As a rule, growth is not realized, the investor sacrifices
corporate bonds are callable at a premium above current yield and risks having the price of the
par, which declines gradually as the bond bond fall below the price paid to acquire it.
approaches maturity. Commercial banks may purchase eligible con-
vertible issues if the yield obtained is reasonably
similar to nonconvertible issues of similar qual-
Put Bonds ity and maturity, and the issues are not selling at
a significant conversion premium.
Put bonds are bonds in which the investor has
purchased a put option from the issuer. The cost
of this put option decreases the coupon rate paid
by the issuer, but decreases the risk to an
investor in a rising interest-rate environment. If USES
market rates are above the coupon rate of the
bond at the put date, the investor can ‘‘put’’ Corporate bonds can be used for hedging, invest-
the bond back to the issuer and reinvest the ment, or speculative purposes. In some instances,
proceeds of the bond in a high-interest-rate the presence of credit risk and lack of liquidity
environment. in various issues may discourage their use.
Speculators can use corporate bonds to take
positions on the level and term structure of both
Sinking-Fund Provisions interest rates and corporate spreads over govern-
ment securities.
Bonds with sinking-fund provisions require the Banks often purchase corporate bonds for
issuer to retire a specified portion on a bond their investment portfolios. In return for increased
issue each year. This type of provision reduces credit risk, corporate bonds provide an enhanced
the default risk on the bond because of the spread relative to Treasury securities. Banks
orderly retirement of the issue before maturity. may purchase investment-grade corporate secu-
The investor assumes the risk, however, that rities subject to a 10 percent limitation of its
the bonds may be called at a special sinking- capital and surplus for one obligor. Banks are
fund call price at a time when interest rates are prohibited from underwriting or dealing in these
lower than rates prevailing at the time the bond securities. A bank’s section 20 subsidiary may,
was issued. In that case, the bonds will be however, be able to underwrite and deal in
selling above par but may be retired by the corporate bonds.
issuer at the special call price that may be equal Banks often act as corporate trustees for
to par value. bond issues. A corporate trustee is responsible
for authenticating the bonds issued and ensuring
that the issuer complies with all of the covenants
Convertible Bonds specified in the indenture. Corporate trustees
are subject to the Trust Indenture Act, which
Convertible securities are fixed income securi- specifies that adequate requirements for the
ties that permit the holder the right to acquire, at performance of the trustee’s duties on behalf
the investor’s option, the common stock of the of the bondholders be developed. Furthermore,
issuing corporation under terms set forth in the the trustee’s interest as a trustee must
bond indenture. New convertible issues typi- not conflict with other interest it may have,
cally have a maturity of 25 to 30 years and carry and the trustee must provide reports to
a coupon rate below that of a nonconvertible bondholders.

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4045.1 Corporate Notes and Bonds

DESCRIPTION OF Bond ratings are published by several orga-

MARKETPLACE nizations that analyze bonds and express their
conclusions by a ratings system. The four major
The size of the total corporate bond market was nationally recognized statistical rating organiza-
$2.2 trillion dollars at the end of 1993. Nonfi- tions (NRSROs) in the United States are Duff &
nancial corporate business comprised approxi- Phelps Credit Rating Co. (D&P); Fitch Investor
mately 56 percent of total issuance in 1993. Service, Inc. (Fitch); Moody’s Investor Service,
Inc. (Moody’s); and Standard & Poor’s Corpo-
ration (S&P).

Market Participants
PRICING
Buy Side
The major factors influencing the value of a
The largest holder of corporate debt in the corporate bond are—
United States is the insurance industry, account-
ing for more than 33 percent of ownership at the • its coupon rate relative to prevailing market
end of 1993. Private pension funds are the interest rates (typical of all bonds, bond prices
second-largest holders with 13.7 percent of will decline when market interest rates rise
ownership. Commercial banks account for above the coupon rate, and prices will rise
approximately 4.5 percent of ownership of out- when interest rates decline below the coupon
standing corporate bonds. rate) and
• the issuer’s credit standing (a change in an
issuer’s financial condition or ability to finance
Sell Side the debt can cause a change in the risk
premium and price of the security).
Corporate bonds are underwritten in the primary
market by investment banks and section 20 Other factors that influence corporate bond
subsidiaries of banks. In the secondary market, prices are the existence of call options, put
corporate bonds are traded in the listed and features, sinking funds, convertibility features,
unlisted markets. Listed markets include the and guarantees or insurance. These factors can
New York Stock Exchange and the American significantly alter the risk/return profile of a
Stock Exchange. These markets primarily ser- bond issue. (These factors and their effect on
vice retail investors who trade in small lots. The pricing are discussed in the ‘‘Characteristics and
over-the-counter market is the primary market Features’’ subsection above.)
for professional investors. In the secondary The majority of corporate bonds are traded on
market, investment banks and section 20 sub- the over-the-counter market and are priced as a
sidiaries of banks may act as either a broker or spread over U.S. Treasuries. Most often the
dealer. Brokers execute orders for the accounts benchmark U.S. Treasury is the on-the-run (cur-
of customers; they are agents and get a commis- rent coupon) issue. However, pricing ‘‘abnor-
sion for their services. Dealers buy and sell for malities’’ can occur where the benchmark U.S.
their own accounts, thus taking the risk of Treasury is different from the on-the-run security.
reselling at a loss.

HEDGING
Sources of Information
Interest-rate risk for corporate debt can be hedged
For a primary offering, the primary source of either with cash, exchange-traded, or over-the-
information is contained in a prospectus filed by counter instruments. Typically, long corporate
the issuer with the Securities and Exchange bond or note positions are hedged by selling a
Commission. For seasoned issues, major con- U.S. Treasury issue of similar maturity or by
tractual provisions are provided in Moody’s shorting an exchange-traded futures contract.
manuals or Standard & Poor’s corporation The effectiveness of the hedge depends, in part,
records. on basis risk and the degree to which the hedge

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Corporate Notes and Bonds 4045.1

has neutralized interest-rate risk. Hedging strat- another corporation. The safety of the bond may
egies may incorporate assumptions about the depend on the financial condition of the guaran-
correlation between the credit spread and gov- tor, since the guarantor will make principal and
ernment rates. The effectiveness of these strat- interest payments if the obligor cannot. Credit
egies may be affected if these assumptions prove enhancements often are used to improve the
inaccurate. Hedges can be constructed with credit rating of a bond issue, thereby reducing
securities from the identical issuer but with the rate of interest that the issuer must pay.
varying maturities. Alternatively, hedges can be Zero-coupon bonds may pose greater credit-
constructed with issuers within an industry risk problems. When a zero-coupon bond has
group. The relative illiquidity of various corpo- been sold at a deep discount, the issuer must
rate instruments may diminish hedging have the funds to make a large payment at
effectiveness. maturity. This potentially large balloon repay-
ment may significantly increase the credit risk of
the issue.
RISKS
Interest-Rate Risk Liquidity Risk
For fixed-income bonds, prices fluctuate with Major issues are actively traded in large amounts,
changes in interest rates. The degree of interest- and liquidity concerns may be small. Trading
rate sensitivity depends on the maturity and for many issues, however, may be inactive and
coupon of the bond. Floating-rate issues lessen significant liquidity problems may affect pric-
the bank’s interest-rate risk to the extent that the ing. The trading volume of a security determines
rate adjustments are responsive to market rate the size of the bid/ask spread of a bond. This
movements. For this reason, these issues gener- provides an indication of the bond’s marketabil-
ally have lower yields to compensate for their ity and, hence, its liquidity. A narrow spread of
benefit to the holder. between one-quarter to one-half of 1 percent
may indicate a liquid market, while a spread of
2 percent or 3 percent may indicate poor liquid-
Prepayment or Reinvestment Risk ity for a bond. Even for major issues, news of
credit problems may cause temporary liquidity
Call provisions will also affect a bank’s interest- problems.
rate exposure. If the issuer has the right to
redeem the bond before maturity, the action has
the potential to adversely alter the investor’s Event Risk
exposure. The issue is most likely to be called
when market rates have moved in the issuer’s Event risk can be large for corporate bonds. This
favor, leaving the investor with funds to invest is the risk of an unpredictable event that imme-
in a lower-interest-rate environment. diately affects the ability of an issuer to service
the obligations of a bond. Examples of event
risk include leveraged buyouts, corporate restruc-
Credit Risk turings, or court rulings that affect the credit
rating of a company. To mitigate event risk,
Credit risk is a function of the financial condi- some indentures include a maintenance of net
tion of the issuer or the degree of support worth clause, which requires the issuer to main-
provided by a credit enhancement. The bond tain its net worth above a stipulated level. If the
rating may be a quick indicator of credit quality. requirement is not met, the issuer must begin to
However, changes in bond ratings may lag retire its debt at par.
behind changes in financial condition. Banks
holding corporate bonds should perform a peri-
odic financial analysis to determine the credit ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
quality of the issuer.
Some bonds will include a credit enhance- The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s
ment in the form of insurance or a guarantee by Statement of Financial Accounting Standards

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4045.1 Corporate Notes and Bonds

No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
Investments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as INVESTMENT
amended by Statement of Financial Accounting
Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Corporate notes and bonds are type III securi-
Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and ties. A bank may purchase or sell for its own
Extinguishments of Liabilities,’’ determines the account corporate debt subject to the limitation
accounting treatment for investments in corpo- that the corporate debt of a single obligor may
rate notes and bonds. Accounting treatment for not exceed 10 percent of the bank’s capital and
derivatives used as investments or for hedging surplus. To be eligible for purchase, a corporate
purposes is determined by Statement of Finan- security must be investment grade (that is, rated
cial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS 133), BBB or higher) and must be marketable. Banks
‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging may not deal in or underwrite corporate bonds.
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
(FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.) REFERENCES
Fabozzi, Frank, and T. Dessa, eds. The Hand-
RISK-BASED CAPITAL book of Fixed Income Securities. Chicago:
WEIGHTING Irwin Professional Publishing, 1995.
Fabozzi, Frank, and Richard Wilson. Corporate
Corporate notes and bonds should be weighted Bonds. Frank J. Fabozzi Associates, 1996.
at 100 percent. For specific risk weights for ‘‘How Do Corporate Spread Curves Move Over
qualified trading accounts, see section 2110.1, Time?’’ Salomon Brothers, July 1995.
‘‘Capital Adequacy.’’

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Municipal Securities
Section 4050.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION types of notes issued include tax anticipation

notes (TANs), revenue anticipation notes (RANs),
Municipal securities are interest-bearing obliga- tax and revenue anticipation notes (TRANs),
tions issued by local governments or their grant anticipation notes (GANs), and bond
political subdivisions (such as cities, towns, anticipation notes (BANs).
villages, counties, or special districts) or by state
governments, agencies, or political subdivi-
sions. These governmental entities can borrow
at favorable rates because the interest income
CHARACTERISTICS AND
from most municipal securities generally receives FEATURES
advantageous treatment under federal income
tax rules. There are important restrictions on Municipal bonds are typically issued in denomi-
these tax advantages, however, and banks are nations of $5,000, known as the par value or
subject to different tax treatment than other face value amount of the bond. Municipal bonds
investors. are generally issued in serial maturities. A
typical offering is made up of different maturi-
The two principal classifications of municipal ties which allow the issuer to spread out debt
securities are general obligation bonds and service and stay within financial requirements.
revenue bonds. General obligation bonds are In recent years, however, term bonds have
secured by the full faith and credit of an issuer become increasingly popular. Term bonds are
with taxing power. General obligation bonds bonds comprising a large part or all of a par-
issued by local governments are generally ticular issue which comes due in a single matu-
secured by a pledge of the issuer’s specific rity. The issuer usually agrees to make periodic
taxing power, while general obligation bonds payments into a sinking fund for mandatory
issued by states are generally based on appro- redemption of term bonds before maturity or for
priations made by the state’s legislature. In the payment at maturity. Most municipal bonds are
event of default, the holders of general obliga- issued with call provisions which give the issuer
tion bonds have the right to compel a tax levy or flexibility in controlling its borrowing costs
legislative appropriation to satisfy the issuer’s through the early retirement of debt.
obligation on the defaulted bonds. A prime feature of municipal securities had
Revenue bonds are payable from a specific been the exemption of their interest from federal
source of revenue, so that the full faith and income taxation. However, two significant
credit of an issuer with taxing power is not restrictions have been imposed on the tax bene-
pledged. Revenue bonds are payable only from fits of owning municipal securities. First, begin-
specifically identified sources of revenue. Pledged ning in 1986, all taxpayers became subject to the
revenues may be derived from operation of the alternative minimum tax (AMT), which was
financed project, grants, and excise or other intended to provide an upper limit on the degree
taxes. Industrial development bonds are a com- to which individuals and corporations can pro-
mon example of revenue bonds. These bonds are tect their income from taxation. Interest income
municipal debt obligations issued by a state or from private-activity securities issued since then
local government (or a development agency) to is potentially subject to the AMT. Second,
finance private projects that generate tax rev- investors became unable to deduct interest
enues. The debt service on these bonds is expense incurred in funding tax-advantaged
dependent on the lease income generated by the securities, a measure that was intended to remove
project or facility. In certain instances, industrial the benefit of borrowing funds from others to
development bonds may be categorized as loans invest in municipal securities. In this regard,
(see the instructions to the call report). special federal tax rules apply to bank holdings
In addition to municipal and industrial devel- of municipal securities, including the manner in
opment bonds, state and local governmental which the amount of nondeductible interest
entities issue short-term obligations in the form expense is calculated. Exceptions to these vari-
of notes. These debt obligations are generally ous limitations apply only to tax-exempt obliga-
issued to bridge the gap between when expenses tions issued after August 1986 that are issued by
are paid and tax revenues are collected. The small entities and are not private-activity bonds.

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4050.1 Municipal Securities

The state and local income taxation treatment by the SEC. Examination and enforcement of
of municipal securities varies greatly from state MSRB standards is delegated to the NASD for
to state. Many states and local governments securities firms and to the appropriate federal
exempt interest income only on those bonds and banking agency (Federal Reserve, OCC, or
notes issued by government entities located FDIC) for banking organizations.
within their own boundaries.

Secondary Market
USES Municipal securities are not listed on or traded
in exchanges; however, there are strong and
Municipal securities have traditionally been held active secondary markets for municipal securi-
primarily for investment purposes by investors ties that are supported by municipal bond deal-
who would benefit from income that is advan- ers. These traders buy and sell to other dealers
taged under federal income tax statutes and and investors and for their own inventories. The
regulations. This group includes institutional bond broker’s broker also serves a significant
investors such as insurance companies, mutual role in the market for municipal bonds. These
funds, commercial banks, and retail investors. brokers are a small number of interdealer bro-
The value of the tax advantage and, therefore, kers who act as agents for registered dealers and
the attractiveness of the security increase when dealer banks. In addition to using these brokers,
the income earned is also advantaged under state many dealers advertise municipal offerings for
and local tax laws. Wealthy individuals and the retail market through the Blue List. The Blue
corporations face the highest marginal tax rates List is published by Standard & Poor’s Corpo-
and, therefore, stand to receive the highest ration and lists securities and yields or prices of
tax-equivalent yields on these securities. Private bonds and notes being offered by dealers.
individuals are the largest holders of municipal
securities, accounting for three-fourths of these
securities outstanding.
Market Participants
Market participants in the municipal securities
DESCRIPTION OF industry include underwriters, broker-dealers,
MARKETPLACE brokers’ brokers, the rating agencies, bond
insurers, and investors. Financial advisors, who
Issuing Practices advise state and local governments for both
competitive and negotiated offerings, and bond
State and local government entities can market counsel, who provide opinions on the legality of
their new bond issues by offering them publicly specific obligations, are also important partici-
or placing them privately with a small group of pants in the industry. The underwriting business
investors. When a public offering is selected, the primarily consists of a small number of large
issue is usually underwritten by investment broker-dealers, typically with retail branch sys-
bankers and municipal bond departments of tems, and a large number of regional under-
banks. The underwriter may acquire the securi- writers and broker-dealers with ties to local
ties either by negotiation with the issuer or by governments and who specialize in placing debt
award on the basis of competitive bidding. The in their individual regions.
underwriter is responsible for the distribution of
the issue and accepts the risk that investors
might fail to purchase the issues at the expected Market Transparency
prices. For most sizable issues, underwriters join
together in a syndicate to spread the risk of the Price transparency in the municipal securities
sale and gain wider access to potential investors. industry varies depending on the type of security
Standards and practices for the municipal and the issuer. Prices for public issues are more
securities activities of banks and other market readily available than prices for private place-
participants are set by the Municipal Securities ments. Two publications quote prices for
Rulemaking Board (MSRB), a congressionally municipal securities: The Bond Buyer and the
chartered self-regulatory body that is overseen Blue List.

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Municipal Securities 4050.1

PRICING the municipal index employed in the swap

transaction. Municipal swaps are relatively new
Municipal securities are priced either on a yield and are not widespread in the industry. As a
or dollar basis depending on the issue. Securities result, their use as hedging vehicles is limited.
that are priced on a dollar basis are quoted as a
percentage of the par value. A bond that is
traded and quoted as a percentage of its par RISKS
value is called a ‘‘dollar bond.’’ Municipal
securities, however, are generally traded and Credit Risk
quoted in terms of yields because there are so
many issues of different maturities. A bond Municipal securities activities involve differing
quoted at 6.751-6.50 percent means that a degrees of credit risk depending on the financial
dealer is willing to purchase the bond to yield capacity of the issuer or economic obligor.
6.75 percent and will sell it to yield 6.50 percent. Noteworthy cases in which municipal securities
To compare the yield of a municipal security have been unable to perform as agreed range
with that of a taxable bond, the yield of the from New York City in the 1970s and WPPSS (a
maturity must be adjusted to account for a Washington state power utility) in the 1980s to
number of factors that may be unique to the more recent examples. For revenue bonds, the
individual investor. For example, a fully taxable ability to perform depends primarily on the
equivalent (FTE) yield would consider the rel- success of the project or venture funded by the
evant federal, state, and local marginal tax rates bond. Trends in real estate values, fiscal man-
of the investor; specific characteristics of the agement, and the size of the tax base bear
security; the applicability of the alternative mini- directly on the issuer’s ability to service general
mum tax (AMT); the ability to deduct interest obligation bonds.
expense associated with funding the acquisition; An important starting point in performing a
and other elements of the institution’s tax status. credit review of a potential issuer is to obtain a
(These factors are discussed more fully in the legal opinion that the issuing entity has the legal
‘‘Characteristics and Features’’ subsection.) authority to undertake the obligation. The entity
must also have the capacity to repay as well as
the willingness to perform, both influenced not
only by financial factors but by political factors.
HEDGING Since some issuers depend on legislatures or
voters to approve bond issues or new funding,
Generally, the special features and unique credit analysis can become problematic; issuers
potential tax advantages of municipal securities could default on their bond obligations despite
make it difficult to construct an ideal hedge. The having the funds to service debt. These political
municipal bond futures contract from the Chi- issues may reach beyond the direct jurisdiction
cago Board of Trade (and corresponding options) of the issuing entity, including decisions made
is frequently used to hedge positions in munici- by state legislatures or Congress. Therefore, to
pal bonds. These contracts are cash settled to the fully evaluate market risk, market participants
value of the Bond Buyer Index, an index of must monitor how political and legislative fac-
actively traded municipal bonds, whose compo- tors may affect a security’s default risk.
sition changes frequently. The market for these The lack of standardized financial statements
exchange contracts is not very liquid, however, and the large number of different issuers (as
and the possibility of basis risk may be large. many as 50,000 entities issue municipal bonds)
Municipal securities also can be hedged using also make credit analysis of municipal securities
more liquid Treasury securities, futures, and more difficult. This heightens the importance of
options. Treasury securities can be used to the role of the rating agencies and bond insurers
mitigate exposure to yield-curve risk; however, in comparison to other markets. Larger issuers
the significant basis risk present in the municipal/ of municipal securities are rated by nationally
Treasury securities price relationship would recognized rating agencies. Other issuers achieve
remain unhedged. Some dealers use over-the- an investment-grade rating through the use of
counter municipal swaps to hedge interest-rate credit enhancements such as insurance from a
risk. This would reduce basis risk to the rela- municipal bond insurance company or a letter of
tionship between the security being hedged and credit issued by a financial institution. Credit

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4050.1 Municipal Securities

enhancements are often used to improve the ACCOUNTING TREATMENT

credit rating of a security, thereby lowering the
interest that the issuer must pay. The accounting treatment for investments in
municipal securities is determined by the Finan-
cial Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
Liquidity Risk 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
One of the problems in the municipal market Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
is the lack of ready marketability for many No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
municipal issues. Many municipal bonds are and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
relatively small issues, and most general obliga- guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
tion issues are sold on a serial basis, which in ment for derivatives used as investments or for
effect breaks the issues up into smaller com- hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
ponents. Furthermore, a large percentage of Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
municipal securities are purchased by retail 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
investors and small institutions that tend to hold Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
securities to maturity. Overall, smaller issues cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
and those with thin secondary markets often (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
experience liquidity difficulties and are therefore ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
subject to higher risk.

RISK-BASED CAPITAL
Interest-Rate Risk and Market Risk WEIGHTING
Like other fixed-income securities, fixed-income General obligations, BANs, and TANs have a
municipal securities are subject to price fluctua- 20 percent risk weight. Municipal revenue bonds
tions based on changes in interest rates. The and RANs have a 50 percent risk weight.
degree of fluctuation depends on the maturity Industrial development bonds are rated at
and coupon of the security. Variable-rate issues 100 percent. For specific risk weights for quali-
are typically tied to a money market rate, so fied trading accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capi-
their interest-rate risk will be significantly less. tal Adequacy.’’
Nonetheless, since bond prices and interest rates
are inextricably linked, all municipal securities
involve some degree of interest-rate risk.
Holders of municipal securities are also LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
affected by changes in marginal tax rates. For INVESTMENT
instance, a reduction in marginal tax rates would
lower the tax-equivalent yield on the security, The limitations of 12 USC 24 (section 5136 of
causing the security to depreciate in price. the Revised Statutes) apply to municipal secu-
rities. Municipal securities that are general
obligations are type I securities and may be
purchased by banks in unlimited amounts.
Prepayment or Reinvestment Risk Municipal revenue securities, however, are either
type II or type III securities. The purchase of
Call provisions will affect a bank’s interest-rate type II and type III securities is limited to
exposure. If the issuer has the right to redeem 10 percent of equity capital and reserves for
the bond before maturity, the risk of an adverse each obligor. That limitation is reduced to 5
effect on the bank’s exposure is greater. The percent of equity capital and reserves for all
security is most likely to be called when rates obligors in the aggregate when the judgment of
have moved in the issuer’s favor, leaving the the obligor’s ability to perform is based predomi-
investor with funds to invest in a lower-interest- nantly on reliable estimates versus adequate
rate environment. evidence.

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Municipal Securities 4050.1

REFERENCES Bonds.’’ The Handbook of Fixed Income

Securities. 4th ed. Chicago: Irwin Profes-
Fabozzi, Frank J., Sylvan G. Feldstein, Irving sional Publishing, 1995.
M. Pollack, and Frank G. Zarb, ed. The Municipal Securities Rulemaking Board. Glos-
Municipal Bond Handbook. Homewood, Ill.: sary of Municipal Securities Terms. 1st ed.
Dow Jones-Irwin, 1983. Washington, D.C.: 1985.
Feldstein, Sylvan G., Frank J. Fabozzi, and Public Securities Association. Fundamentals of
T. Dessa Fabozzi. ‘‘Chapter 8: Municipal Municipal Bonds. 4th ed. New York: 1990.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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Eurodollar Certificates of Deposit
Section 4055.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION branches of money-center U.S. banks, large

British banks, and branches of major Canadian
A Eurodollar certificate of deposit (Eurodollar and Japanese banks. Only the largest banks with
CD) is a negotiable dollar-denominated time strong international reputations usually sell Euro-
deposit issued by a U.S. bank located outside the dollar CDs. Since the advent of the medium-
United States or by a foreign bank located term note market, the Eurodollar CD market has
abroad. Dollars deposited in international bank- been on a decline and is now a relatively illiquid
ing facilities (IBFs) in the United States are also market.
considered Eurodollars. Eurodollar CDs are sold by the issuing bank
at face value either directly to investors or
depositors or through CD dealers and brokers.
Settlement is on a two-day basis and occurs at
CHARACTERISTICS AND the New York correspondents of the issuers’ and
FEATURES investors’ banks.
Eurodollar CDs are not FDIC-insured. Euro-
dollar deposits are generally free from domestic
(U.S.) regulation and reserve requirements, and PRICING
these deposits are not subject to other fees
imposed by the FDIC. Most Eurodollar CDs are Eurodollar CDs are priced off the London Inter-
issued in denominations over $1 million. bank Offered Rate (LIBOR). Their yields are
Although their maturities must be at least seven generally slightly higher than yields for domes-
days and most CDs are issued for three to six tic CDs to compensate the investor for the
months, there is no upward limit on the term. slightly higher risk.
Issuing banks cannot purchase their own CDs. Eurodollar CDs are quoted and sold on an
interest-bearing basis on an actual/360-day basis.
The bid/offer quotes are in 16ths (for example,
12 7/16). The quotes directly translate to rates
USES on the given Eurodollar CD. Thus, bid/offer
rates of 12 7/16 and 12 3/16 would roughly
The primary reason for issuing in the Eurodollar translate to a bid interest rate of 12.4375 percent
market (besides the basic reason to issue a and an offer rate of 12.1875 percent, respec-
CD—to provide a source of funds) is the lower tively, giving the dealer a spread of .25 percent.
cost of funds available as a result of the elimi-
nation of regulatory costs and reserve require-
ments. Buyers, on the other hand, can take
advantage of the slightly higher yields while HEDGING
maintaining reasonable liquidity. Eurodollar CD
issuers subsequently take the funds received Eurodollar futures may be used to hedge Euro-
from the issuance and redeposit them with other dollar time deposits. Eurodollar futures are one
foreign banks, invest them, retain them to of the most actively traded futures contracts in
improve reserves or overall liquidity, or lend the world.
them to companies, individuals, or governments
outside the United States.
RISKS
DESCRIPTION OF The risks associated with purchasing Eurodollar
MARKETPLACE CDs include credit risk, sovereign risk, and
liquidity risk. To reduce credit risk, a detailed
The Eurodollar CD market is centered in Lon- analysis should be performed on all Eurodollar
don. Activity also takes place in offshore CD issuers in which the investor has invested.
branches, including those in Nassau and the Although the instruments themselves are not
Cayman Islands. Issuers include the overseas rated, most issuers are rated by either Thompson

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4055.1 Eurodollar Certificates of Deposit

Bankwatch (for domestic banks) or IBCA, Ltd. countries. For specific risk weights for qualified
(for foreign banks). trading accounts, see section 2110.1, ‘‘Capital
The secondary market for Eurodollar CDs is Adequacy.’’
less developed than the domestic CD market.
The current perception of the issuer’s name, as
well as the size and maturity of the issue, may
affect marketability. LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
INVESTMENT
Owning Eurodollar CDs is authorized under the
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT ‘‘incidental powers’’ provisions of 12 USC 24
(seventh). Banks may legally hold these
The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s
instruments without limit.
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain
Investments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as
amended by Statment of Financial Accounting REFERENCES
Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for
Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and Cook, Timothy Q., and Robert LaRoche, eds.
Extinguishments of Liabilities,’’ determines the Instruments of the Money Market. 7th ed.
accounting treatment for investments in Euro- Richmond, Va.: Federal Reserve Bank of
dollar CDs. Accounting treatment for deriva- Richmond, 1993.
tives used as investments or for hedging pur- Munn, Glenn G. et al. Encyclopedia of Bank-
poses is determined by Statement of Financial ing Finance. 9th ed. Rolling Meadows, Ill.:
Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS 133), Bankers Publishing Company, 1991.
‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging Oppenheim, Peter K. ‘‘The Eurodollar Mar-
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan- ket.’’ International Banking. 6th ed. Washing-
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138 ton, D.C.: American Bankers Association,
(FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1, 1991.
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.) Stigum, Marcia. The Money Market. 3rd ed.
Homewood, Ill.: Business One Irwin, 1990.

RISK-BASED CAPITAL
WEIGHTING
In general, a 20 percent risk weighting is appro-
priate for depository institutions based in OECD

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Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper
Section 4105.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION for collecting the cash flows generated by the

securitized assets—principal, interest, and fees
Asset-backed securities (ABS) are debt instru- net of losses and any servicing costs as well as
ments that represent an interest in a pool of other expenses—and for passing them along to
assets. Technically, mortgage-backed securities the investors in accord with the terms of the
(MBS) can be viewed as a subset of ABS, but securities. The servicer processes the payments
the term ‘‘ABS’’ is generally used to refer to and administers the borrower accounts in the
securities in which underlying collateral consists pool.
of assets other than residential first mortgages The structure of an asset-backed security and
such as credit card and home equity loans, the terms of the investors’ interest in the collat-
leases, or commercial mortgage loans. Issuers eral can vary widely depending on the type of
are primarily banks and finance companies, collateral, the desires of investors, and the use of
captive finance subsidiaries of nonfinancial cor- credit enhancements. Often ABS are structured
porations (for example, GMAC), or specialized to reallocate the risks entailed in the underlying
originators such as credit card lenders (for collateral (particularly credit risk) into security
example, Discover). Credit risk is an important tranches that match the desires of investors. For
issue in asset-backed securities because of the example, senior subordinated security structures
significant credit risks inherent in the underlying give holders of senior tranches greater credit
collateral and because issuers are primarily pri- risk protection (albeit at lower yields) than
vate entities. Accordingly, asset-backed securi- holders of subordinated tranches. Under this
ties generally include one or more credit structure, at least two classes of asset-backed
enhancements, which are designed to raise the securities are issued, with the senior class hav-
overall credit quality of the security above that ing a priority claim on the cash flows from the
of the underlying loans. underlying pool of assets. The subordinated
Another important type of asset-backed secu- class must absorb credit losses on the collateral
rity is commercial paper issued by special- before losses can be charged to the senior
purpose entities. Asset-backed commercial paper portion. Because the senior class has this prior-
is usually backed by trade receivables, though ity claim, cash flows from the underlying pool of
such conduits may also fund commercial and assets must first satisfy the requirements of the
industrial loans. Banks are typically more active senior class. Only after these requirements have
as issuers of these instruments than as investors been met will the cash flows be directed to
in them. service the subordinated class.
ABS also use various forms of credit enhance-
ments to transform the risk-return profile of
CHARACTERISTICS AND underlying collateral, including third-party credit
FEATURES enhancements, recourse provisions, overcollat-
eralization, and various covenants. Third-party
An asset-backed security is created by the sale credit enhancements include standby letters of
of assets or collateral to a conduit, which credit, collateral or pool insurance, or surety
becomes the legal issuer of the ABS. The bonds from third parties. Recourse provisions
securitization conduit or issuer is generally a are guarantees that require the originator to
bankruptcy-remote vehicle such as a grantor cover any losses up to a contractually agreed-
trust or, in the case of an asset-backed commer- upon amount. One type of recourse provision,
cial paper program, a special-purpose entity usually seen in securities backed by credit card
(SPE). The sponsor or originator of the collat- receivables, is the ‘‘spread account.’’ This
eral usually establishes the issuer. Interests in account is actually an escrow account whose
the trust, which embody the right to certain cash funds are derived from a portion of the spread
flows arising from the underlying assets, are between the interest earned on the assets in the
then sold in the form of securities to investors underlying pool of collateral and the lower
through an investment bank or other securities interest paid on securities issued by the trust.
underwriter. Each ABS has a servicer (often the The amounts that accumulate in this escrow
originator of the collateral) that is responsible account are used to cover credit losses in the

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4105.1 Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper

underlying asset pool, up to several multiples of the underlying pool of loans when credit losses
historical losses on the particular asset collater- rise.
alizing the securities. A bank or other issuer may play more than
Overcollateralization is another form of credit one role in the securitization process. An issuer
enhancement that covers a predetermined amount can simultaneously serve as originator of loans,
of potential credit losses. It occurs when the servicer, administrator of the trust, underwriter,
value of the underlying assets exceeds the face provider of liquidity, and credit enhancer. Issu-
value of the securities. A similar form of credit ers typically receive a fee for each element of
enhancement is the cash-collateral account, the transaction.
which is established when a third party deposits Institutions acquiring ABS should recognize
cash into a pledged account. The use of cash- that the multiplicity of roles that may be played
collateral accounts, which are considered by by a single firm—within a single securitization
enhancers to be loans, grew as the number of or across a number of them—means that credit
highly rated banks and other credit enhancers and operational risk can accumulate into signifi-
declined in the early 1990s. Cash-collateral cant concentrations with respect to one or a
accounts provide credit protection to investors small number of firms.
of a securitization by eliminating ‘‘event risk,’’
or the risk that the credit enhancer will have its
credit rating downgraded or that it will not be
able to fulfill its financial obligation to absorb TYPES OF SECURITIZED ASSETS
losses.
An investment banking firm or other organi- There are many different varieties of asset-
zation generally serves as an underwriter for backed securities, often customized to the terms
ABS. In addition, for asset-backed issues that and characteristics of the underlying collateral.
are publicly offered, a credit-rating agency will The most common types are securities collater-
analyze the policies and operations of the origi- alized by revolving credit-card receivables, but
nator and servicer, as well as the structure, instruments backed by home equity loans, other
underlying pool of assets, expected cash flows, second mortgages, and automobile-finance
and other attributes of the securities. Before receivables are also common.
assigning a rating to the issue, the rating agency
will also assess the extent of loss protection
provided to investors by the credit enhance- Installment Loans
ments associated with the issue.
Although the basic elements of all asset- Securities backed by closed-end installment loans
backed securities are similar, individual transac- are typically the least complex form of asset-
tions can differ markedly in both structure and backed instruments. Collateral for these ABS
execution. Important determinants of the risk typically includes leases, automobile loans, and
associated with issuing or holding the securities student loans. The loans that form the pool of
include the process by which principal and collateral for the asset-backed security may have
interest payments are allocated and down- varying contractual maturities and may or may
streamed to investors, how credit losses affect not represent a heterogeneous pool of borrow-
the trust and the return to investors, whether ers. Unlike a mortgage pass-through instrument,
collateral represents a fixed set of specific assets the trustee does not need to take physical pos-
or accounts, whether the underlying loans are session of any account documents to perfect
revolving or closed-end, under what terms security interest in the receivables under the
(including maturity of the asset-backed instru- Uniform Commercial Code. The repayment
ment) any remaining balance in the accounts stream on installment loans is fairly predictable,
may revert to the issuing company, and the since it is primarily determined by a contractual
extent to which the issuing company (the actual amortization schedule. Early repayment on these
source of the collateral assets) is obligated to instruments can occur for a number of reasons,
provide support to the trust/conduit or to the with most tied to the disposition of the under-
investors. Further issues may arise based on lying collateral (for example, in the case of an
discretionary behavior of the issuer within the ABS backed by an automobile loan, the sale of
terms of the securitization agreement, such as the vehicle). Interest is typically passed through
voluntary buybacks from, or contributions to, to bondholders at a fixed rate that is slightly

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Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper 4105.1

below the weighted average coupon of the loan transaction. Issuers are further required to revalue
pool, allowing for servicing and other expenses the asset periodically to take account of changes
as well as credit losses. in fair value that may occur due to interest rates,
actual credit losses, and other factors relevant to
the future stream of excess yield. The account-
ing and capital implications of these transactions
Revolving Credit are discussed further below.
Unlike closed-end installment loans, revolving-
credit receivables involve greater uncertainty
about future cash flows. Therefore, ABS struc- Asset-Backed Commercial Paper
tures using this type of collateral must be more
complex to afford investors more comfort in A number of larger banks use ‘‘special-purpose
predicting their repayment. Accounts included entities’’ (SPEs) to acquire trade receivables and
in the securitization pool may have balances that commercial loans from high-quality (often
grow or decline over the life of the ABS. investment-grade) obligors and to fund those
Accordingly, at maturity of the ABS, any remain- loans by issuing (asset-backed) commercial paper
ing balances revert to the originator. During the that is to be repaid from the cash flow of the
term of the ABS, the originator may be required receivables. Capital is contributed to the SPE by
to sell additional accounts to the pool to main- the originating bank; together with the high
tain a minimum dollar amount of collateral if quality of the underlying borrowers, this capital
accountholders pay down their balances in is sufficient to allow the SPE to receive a high
advance of predetermined rates. credit rating. The net result is that the SPE’s cost
Credit card securitizations are the most preva- of funding can be at or below that of the
lent form of revolving-credit ABS, although originating bank itself. The SPE is ‘‘owned’’ by
home equity lines of credit are a growing source individuals who are not formally affiliated with
of ABS collateral. Credit card ABS are typically the bank, although the degree of separation is
structured to incorporate two phases in the life typically minimal.
cycle of the collateral: an initial phase during These types of securitization programs enable
which the principal amount of the securities banks to arrange short-term financing support
remains constant, and an amortization phase for their customers without having to extend
during which investors are paid off. A specific credit directly. This structure provides borrow-
period of time is assigned to each phase. Typi- ers with an alternative source of funding and
cally, a specific pool of accounts is identified in allows banks to earn fee income for managing
the securitization documents, and these specifi- the programs. As the asset-backed commercial
cations may include not only the initial pool of paper structure has developed, it has been used
loans but a portfolio from which new accounts to finance a variety of underlying loans—in
may be contributed. some cases, loans purchased from other firms
rather than originated by the bank itself—and as
The dominant vehicle for issuing securities
a remote-origination vehicle from which loans
backed by credit cards is a master-trust structure
can be made directly. Like other securitization
with a ‘‘spread account,’’ which is funded up to
techniques, this structure allows banks to meet
a predetermined amount through ‘‘excess
their customers’ credit needs while incurring
yield’’—that is, interest and fee income less
lower capital requirements and a smaller bal-
credit losses, servicing, and other fees. With
ance sheet than if it made the loans directly.
credit card receivables, the income from the
pool of loans—even after credit losses—is gen-
erally much higher than the return paid to
investors. After the spread account accumulates USES
to its predetermined level, the excess yield
reverts to the issuer. Under GAAP, issuers are Issuers obtain a number of advantages from
required to recognize on their balance sheet an securitizing assets, including improving their
excess-yield asset that is based on the fair value capital ratios and return on assets, monetizing
of the expected future excess yield; in principle, gains in loan value, generating fee income by
this value would be based on the net present providing services to the securitization conduit,
value of the expected earnings stream from the closing a potential source of interest-rate risk,

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4105.1 Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper

and increasing institutional liquidity by provid- that may be difficult to hedge. One source of
ing access to a new source of funds. Investors potential unpredictability, however, is the risk
are attracted by the high credit quality of ABS, that acceleration or wind-down provisions would
as well as their attractive returns. be triggered by poor credit quality in the asset
pool—essentially, a complex credit-quality option
that pays off bondholders early if credit losses
exceed some threshold level.
DESCRIPTION OF For issuers, variability in excess yield (in
MARKETPLACE terms of carrying value) or in the spread account
(in terms of income) can represent a material
The primary buyers for ABS have been insur- interest-rate risk, particularly if the bonds pay
ance companies and pension funds looking for interest on a variable-rate basis while the under-
attractive returns with superior credit quality. lying loans are fixed-rate instruments. While the
New issues often sell out very quickly. Banks risk can be significant, the hedging solutions are
typically are not active buyers of these securi- not complex (that is, dollar-for-dollar in notional
ties. The secondary market is active, but new terms). Potential hedging strategies include the
issues currently trade at a premium to more use of futures or forwards, forward rate agree-
seasoned products. ments (FRAs), swaps, or more complex options
Market transparency can be less than perfect, or swaptions. In the case of home equity loans or
especially when banks and other issuers retain other revolving credits for which the pool earn-
most of the economic risk despite the securiti- ings rate is linked to prime while the ABS
zation transaction. This is particularly true when interest rate is not, prime LIBOR swaps or
excess yield is a significant part of the transac- similar instruments could be used to mitigate
tion and when recourse (explicit or implicit) is a basis risk. The presence of interest-rate risk may
material consideration. The early-amortization have credit-quality ramifications for the securi-
features of some ABS also may not be fully ties, as tighter excess yield and spread accounts
understood by potential buyers. would reduce the ability of the structure to
absorb credit losses.
An asset-backed commercial paper (ABCP)
PRICING program can lead to maturity mismatches for the
issuer, depending on the pricing characteristics
ABS carry coupons that can be fixed (generally of the commercial loan assets. Similarly, the
yielding between 50 and 300 basis points over presence of embedded options—such as prepay-
the Treasury curve) or floating (for example, 15 ment options, caps, or floors—can expose the
basis points over one-month LIBOR). Pricing is ABCP entity to options risk. These risks can be
typically designed to mirror the coupon charac- hedged through the use of options, swaptions, or
teristics of the loans being securitized. The other derivative instruments. As with home
spread will vary depending on the credit quality equity ABS, prime-based commercial loans
of the underlying collateral, the degree and could lead to basis-risk exposure, which can be
nature of credit enhancement, and the degree of hedged using basis swaps.
variability in the cash flows emanating from the
securitized loans.

RISKS
HEDGING
Credit Risk
Given the high degree of predictability in their
cash flows, the hedging of installment loans and Credit risk arises from (1) losses caused by
revolving-credit ABS holdings is relatively defaults of borrowers in the underlying collat-
straightforward and can be accomplished either eral and (2) the issuer’s or servicer’s failure to
through cash-flow matching or duration hedg- perform. These two elements can blur together,
ing. Most market risk arises from the perceived as in the case of a servicer who does not provide
credit quality of the collateral and from the adequate credit-review scrutiny to the serviced
nature and degree of credit enhancement, a risk portfolio, leading to a higher incidence

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Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper 4105.1

of defaults. ABS are rated by major rating Operations Risk

agencies.
Operations risk arises from the potential misrep-
resentation of loan quality or terms by the
Market Risk originating institution, the misrepresentation of
the nature and current value of the assets by the
servicer, and inadequate controls over disburse-
Market risk arises from the cash-flow character- ments and receipts by the servicer.
istics of the security, which for most ABS tend
to be predictable. Rate-motivated prepayments
are a relatively minor phenomenon because of ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
the small principal amounts on each loan and the
relatively short maturity. The greatest variability The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s
in cash flows comes from credit performance, Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
including the presence of wind-down or No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain
acceleration features designed to protect the Investments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as
investor if credit losses in the portfolio rise well amended by Statement of Financial Accounting
above expected levels. Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for
Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and
Extinguishments of Liabilities,’’ determines the
accounting treatment for investments in govern-
Interest-Rate Risk ment agency securities. Accounting treatment
for derivatives used as investments or for hedg-
Interest-rate risk arises for the issuer from the ing purposes is determined by Statement of
relationship between the pricing terms on the Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
underlying loans and the terms of the rate paid 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
to bondholders, as well as from the need to mark Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
to market the excess servicing or spread-account cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
proceeds carried on the balance sheet. For the (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
holder of the security, interest-rate risk depends ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
on the expected life or repricing of the ABS,
with relatively minor risk arising from embed-
ded options. The notable exception is valuation RISK-BASED CAPITAL
of the wind-down option. WEIGHTING
For the holder of ABS, a 100 percent risk
weighting is assigned for corporate issues
Liquidity Risk and a 20 percent rating for state or municipal
issues. Under risk-based capital regulations, a
Liquidity risk can arise from increased per- transfer of assets is a ‘‘true sale’’ as long as the
ceived credit risk. Liquidity can also become a banking organization (1) retains no risk of
major concern for asset-backed commercial loss and (2) has no obligation to any party
paper programs if concerns about credit quality, for the payment of principal or interest on the
for example, lead investors to avoid the com- assets transferred. Unless these conditions are
mercial paper issued by the SPE. For these met, the banking organization is deemed to have
cases, the securitization transaction may include sold the assets with recourse; thus, capital
a ‘‘liquidity facility,’’ which requires the facility generally must be held against the entire risk-
provider to advance funds to the SPE if liquidity weighted amount of the assets sold unless (1) the
problems arise. To the extent that the bank transaction is subject to the low-level capital
originating the loans is also the provider of the rule or (2) the loans securitized are small-
liquidity facility and that the bank is likely to business loans and receive preferential treat-
experience similar market concerns if the loans ments. For assets sold in which an interest-only
it originates deteriorate, the ultimate practical receivable is recognized under FAS 140, or
value of the liquidity facility to the transaction in which the spread account is recognized on
may be questionable. the balance sheet and provides credit enhance-

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4105.1 Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper

ment to the assets sold, those assets are deemed 25 percent of a bank’s capital and surplus for
to have been sold with recourse. In the case of any one issuer. In addition to being able to
asset-backed commercial paper, capital gener- purchase and sell type IV securities, subject to
ally must be held against the entire risk- the above limitations, a bank may deal in those
weighted amount of any guarantee, other credit type IV securities that are fully secured by type
enhancement, or liquidity facility provided by I securities.
the bank to the SPE. Type V securities consist of all ABS that are
not type IV securities. Specifically, they are
defined as marketable, investment grade–rated
LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK securities that are not type IV and are ‘‘fully
INVESTMENT secured by interests in a pool of loans to
numerous obligors and in which a national bank
Asset-backed securities can be either type IV could invest directly.’’ They include securities
or type V securities. Type IV securities were backed by auto loans, credit card loans, home
added as bank-eligible securities in 1996 prima- equity loans, and other assets. Also included are
rily in response to provisions of the Riegle residential and commercial mortgage securities
Community Development and Regulatory as described in section 3(a)(41) of the Securities
Improvement Act of 1994 (RCDRIA), which Exchange Act of 1934 (15 USC 78c(a)(41)) that
removed quantitative limits on a bank’s ability are not rated in one of the two highest
to buy commercial mortgage and small-business investment-grade rating categories, but are still
loan securities. In summary, type IV securities investment grade. A bank may purchase or sell
include the following asset-backed securities type V securities for its own account provided
that are fully secured by interests in a pool (or the aggregate par value of type V securities
pools) of loans made to numerous obligors: issued by any one issuer held by the bank does
not exceed 25 percent of the bank’s capital and
• investment-grade residential mortgage–related surplus.
securities offered or sold pursuant to section
4(5) of the Securities Act of 1933 (15 USC
77d(5)) REFERENCES
• residential mortgage–related securities, as
described in section 3(a)(41) of the Securities SR-97-21, ‘‘Risk Management and Capital
Exchange Act of 1934 (15 USC 78c(a)(41)), Adequacy of Exposures Arising from
that are rated in one of the two highest Secondary-Market Credit Activities.’’ July
investment-grade rating categories 1997.
• investment-grade commercial mortgage secu- SR-96-30, ‘‘Risk-Based Capital Treatment of
rities offered or sold pursuant to section 4(5) Asset Sales with Recourse.’’ November 1996.
of the Securities Act of 1933 (15 USC 77d(5)) SR-92-11, ‘‘Asset-Backed Commercial Paper
• commercial mortgage securities, as described Programs.’’ April 1992.
in section 3(a)(41) of the Securities Exchange Dierdorff, Mary D., and Annika Sandback.
Act of 1934 (15 USC 78c(a)(41)), that are ‘‘ABCP Market Overview: 1996 Was Another
rated in one of the two highest investment- Record-Breaking Year.’’ Moody’s Structured
grade rating categories Finance Special Report. 1st Quarter 1997.
• investment-grade, small-business loan securi- Kavanaugh, Barbara, Thomas R. Boemio, and
ties as described in section 3(a)(53)(A) of the Gerald A. Edwards, Jr. ‘‘Asset-Backed Com-
Securities Exchange Act of 1934 (15 USC mercial Paper Programs.’’ Federal Reserve
78c(a)(53)(A)) Bulletin. February 1992, pp. 107–116.
Moody’s Structured Finance Special Report.
For all type IV commercial and residential ‘‘More of the Same. . .or Worse? The
mortgage securities and for type IV small- Dilemma of Prefunding Accounts in Automo-
business loan securities rated in the top two bile Loan Securitizations." August 4, 1995.
rating categories, there is no limitation on the Rosenberg, Kenneth J., J. Douglas Murray, and
amount a bank can purchase or sell for its own Kathleen Culley. ‘‘Asset-Backed CP’s New
account. Type IV investment-grade small- Look.’’ Fitch Research Structured Finance
business loan securities that are not rated in the Special Report. August 15, 1994.
top two rating categories are subject to a limit of Silver, Andrew A., and Jay H. Eisbruck. ‘‘Credit

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 6
Asset-Backed Securities and Asset-Backed Commercial Paper 4105.1

Card Master Trusts: The Risks of Account Card Securitizations: Catching Up with Wind-
Additions.’’ Moody’s Structured Finance Spe- Downs.’’ Moody’s Structured Finance Spe-
cial Report. December 1994. cial Report. November 1994.
Silver, Andrew A., and Jay H. Eisbruck. ‘‘Credit van Eck, Tracy Hudson. ‘‘Asset-Backed Securi-
Card Master Trusts: Assessing the Risks of ties.’’ In The Handbook of Fixed Income
Cash Flow Allocations.’’ Moody’s Structured Securities. Fabozzi, F., and T.D. Fabozzi.
Finance Special Report. May 26, 1995. Chicago: Irwin Professional Publishers, 1995.
Stancher, Mark, and Brian Clarkson. ‘‘Credit

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Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities
Section 4110.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION investors by collecting and proportionally

distributing monthly cash flows generated by
A mortgage loan is a loan which is secured by homeowners making payments on their home
the collateral of a specified real estate property. mortgage loans. The pass-through certificate
The real estate pledged with a mortgage can be represents a sale of assets to the investor, thus
divided into two categories: residential and non- removing the assets from the balance sheet of
residential. Residential properties include houses, the issuer.
condominiums, cooperatives, and apartments.
Residential real estate can be further subdivided
into single-family (one- to four-family) and Collateralized Mortgage Obligations
multifamily (apartment buildings in which more and Real Estate Mortgage Investment
than four families reside). Nonresidential prop- Conduits
erty includes commercial and farm properties.
Common types of mortgages which have been Collateralized mortgage obligations (CMOs)
securitized include traditional fixed-rate level- and real estate mortgage investment conduit
payment mortgages, graduated-payment mort- (REMICs) securities represent ownership inter-
gages, adjustable-rate mortgages (ARMs), and ests in specified cash flows arising from under-
balloon mortgages. lying pools of mortgages or mortgage securities.
Mortgage-backed securities (MBS) are prod- CMOs and REMICs involve the creation, by the
ucts that use pools of mortgages as collateral for issuer, of a single-purpose entity designed to
the issuance of securities. Although these secu- hold mortgage collateral and funnel payments of
rities have been collateralized using many types principal and interest from borrowers to inves-
of mortgages, most are collateralized by one- to tors. Unlike pass-through securities, however,
four-family residential properties. MBS can be which entail a pro rata share of ownership of all
broadly classified into four basic categories: underlying mortgage cash flows, CMOs and
REMICs convey ownership only of cash flows
1. mortgage-backed bonds assigned to specific classes based on established
2. pass-through securities principal distribution rules.
3. collateralized mortgage obligations and real
estate mortgage investment conduits
4. stripped mortgage-backed securities Stripped Mortgage-Backed Securities
Stripped mortgage-backed securities (SMBS)
Mortgage-Backed Bonds entail the ownership of either the principal or
interest cash flows arising from specified mort-
Mortgage-backed bonds are corporate bonds gages or mortgage pass-through securities.
which are general obligations of the issuer. Rights to the principal are labeled POs (princi-
These bonds are credit enhanced through the pal only), and rights to the interest cash flows
pledging of specific mortgages as collateral. are labeled IOs (interest only).
Mortgage-backed bonds involve no sale or con-
veyance of ownership of the mortgages acting as
collateral. CHARACTERISTICS AND
FEATURES
Pass-Through Securities Products Offered under Agency
Programs
A mortgage-backed pass-through security pro-
vides its owner with a pro rata share in under- The Government National Mortgage Associa-
lying mortgages. The mortgages are typically tion (GNMA or Ginnie Mae), Federal Home
placed in a trust, and certificates of ownership Loan Mortgage Corporation (FHLMC or Freddie
are sold to investors. Issuers of pass-through Mac), and the Federal National Mortgage Asso-
instruments primarily act as a conduit for the ciation (FNMA or Fannie Mae) are the three

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4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

main government-related institutions which Public Securities Association

securitize like groups of mortgages for sale to Prepayment Rates
investors. Major mortgage-purchasing programs
sponsored by these three agencies are listed Mortgagors have the option to prepay the prin-
below. cipal balance of their mortgages at any time. The
value of the prepayment option to investors and
mortgagors depends on the level of interest rates
Abbreviation Description
and the volatility of mortgage prepayments.
Prepayment rates depend on many variables,
GNMA and their response to these variables can be
30-YR 30-year single-family programs unpredictable. The single biggest influence on
15-YR 15-year single-family programs
prepayment rates is the level of long-term mort-
GPMs Graduated-payment programs
gage rates; mortgage prepayments generally
PROJ Loans Project-loan programs
ARMs Single-family adjustable-rate increase as long-term rates decrease. While
programs future long-term rates are not known, higher
volatility in long-term interest rates means lower
FNMA rates are more likely, making the prepayment
30-YR SF 30-year single-family programs option more valuable to the mortgagor. This
30-YR MF 30-year multifamily programs higher value of the prepayment option is reflected
30-YR FHA/ in lower mortgage security prices, as mortgage
VA FHA/VA 30-year single- and investors require higher yields to compensate
multifamily programs for increased prepayment risk.
15-YR 15-year single-family programs The importance of principal prepayment to
SF ARMs Single-family adjustable-rate the valuation of mortgage securities has resulted
programs in several standardized forms of communicating
MF ARMs Multifamily adjustable-rate the rate of prepayments of a mortgage security.
programs One standard form is that developed by the
Balloons Balloon-payment seven-year Public Securities Association (PSA). The PSA
programs standard is more accurately viewed as a bench-
Two-step Five- and seven-year two-step
mark or reference for communicating prepay-
programs
ment patterns. It may be helpful to think of the
FHLMC PSA measurement as a kind of speedometer,
30-YR 30-year single-family programs used only as a unit for measuring the speed of
15-YR 15-year single-family programs prepayments.
TPMs Tiered-payment single-family For a pool of mortgage loans, the PSA stan-
programs dard assumes that the mortgage prepayment rate
ARMs Single-family adjustable-rate increases at a linear rate over the first 30 months
programs following origination, then levels off at a con-
MF Multifamily programs stant rate for the remaining life of the pool.
5- & 7-year Under the PSA convention, prepayments are
balloons Balloon-payment, five- to assumed to occur at a 0.2 percent annual rate in
seven-year programs the first month, 0.4 percent annual rate in the
second month, escalating to a 6.0 percent annual
While the majority of outstanding mortgage rate by month 30. The PSA’s annualized pre-
loans are structured as 30-year fixed-rate loans, payment rate then remains at 6.0 percent over
in recent years the size of the 15-year, fixed-rate the remaining life of the mortgage pool (see
sector has grown. Declining interest rates and a chart 1). Using this convention, mortgage pre-
steep yield curve have led many borrowers to payment rates are often communicated in mul-
refinance or prepay existing 30-year, higher- tiples of the PSA standard of 100 percent. For
coupon loans and replace them with a shorter example, 200 percent PSA equals two times the
maturity. This experience also has demonstrated PSA standard, whereas 50 percent PSA equals
the prepayment risk inherent in all mortgages. one-half of the PSA standard.

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Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities 4110.1

Mortgage Pass-Through Securities Nonagency pass-throughs are composed of

specific pools and do not trade on a TBA basis.
Mortgage pass-through securities are created New issues settle on the date provided in the
when mortgages are pooled together and sold as prospectus. In the secondary market, these
undivided interests to investors. Usually, the securities trade on an issue-specific basis and
mortgages in the pool have the same loan type generally settle on a corporate basis (three
and similar maturities and loan interest rates. business days after the trade).
The originator (for instance, a bank) may con-
tinue to service the mortgage and will ‘‘pass
through’’ the principal and interest, less a ser- Collateralized Mortgage Obligations
vicing fee, to an agency or private issuer of
mortgage-backed securities. Mortgages are then Since 1983, mortgage pass-through securities
packaged by the agency or private issuer and and mortgages have been securitized as collat-
sold to investors. The principal and interest, eralized mortgage obligations (CMOs).1 While
less guaranty and other fees are then ‘‘passed pass-through securities share prepayment risk
through’’ to the investor, who receives a pro rata on a pro rata basis among all bondholders,
share of the resulting cash flows. CMOs redistribute prepayment risk among dif-
Every agency pass-through pool is unique, ferent classes or tranches. The CMO securitiza-
distinguished by features such as size, prepay- tion process recasts prepayment risk into classes
ment characteristics, and geographic concentra- or tranches. These tranches have risk profiles
tion or dispersion. Most agency pass-through ranging from extremely low to significantly high
securities, however, trade on a generic or to-be- risk. Some tranches can be relatively immune to
announced (TBA) basis. In a TBA trade, the prepayment risk, while others bear a dispropor-
seller and buyer agree to the type of security, tionate share of the risk associated with the
coupon, face value, price, and settlement date at underlying collateral.
the time of the trade, but do not specify the CMO issuance has grown dramatically
actual pools to be traded. Two days before throughout the 1980s and currently dominates
settlement, the seller identifies the specific pools the market for FNMA and FHLMC pass-
to be delivered to satisfy the commitment. throughs or agency collateral. Given the dra-
Trading in agency pass-throughs may take place matic growth of the CMO market and its com-
on any business day, but TBA securities usually plex risks, this subsection discusses the structures
settle on one specific date each month. The and risks associated with CMOs.
Public Securities Association releases a monthly In 1984, the Treasury ruled that multiple-
schedule that divides all agency pass-throughs class pass-throughs required active manage-
into six groups, each settling on a different day. ment; this resulted in the pass-through entities’
Agency pass-throughs generally clear through being considered corporations for tax purposes
electronic book-entry systems. rather than trusts. Consequently, the issuer was
no longer considered a grantor trust, and the
income was taxed twice: once at the issuer level
Chart 1—PSA Model and again at the investor level. This ruling
ultimately had complex and unintended ramifi-
cations for the CMO market.
Conditional Prepayment Rate (%) The issue was ultimately addressed in the Tax
14
Reform Act of 1986 through the creation of real
200% PSA
12 estate mortgage investment conduits (REMICs).
These instruments are essentially tax-free vehi-
10
cles for issuing multiple-class mortgage-backed
8 securities. REMIC is a tax designation; a REMIC
100% PSA may be originated as a trust, partnership, or
6
other entity.
50% PSA 4

2
0 1. Today almost all CMOs are structured as real estate
0 30 60 90 120 150 180 210 240 270 300 330 360 mortgage investment conduits (REMICs) to qualify for desir-
Mortgage Age (Months) able tax treatment.

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4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

The Tax Reform Act of 1986 allowed for a divided into four tranches, labeled A, B, C, and
five-year transition during which mortgage- Z. Tranche A might receive the first 25 percent
backed securities could be issued pursuant of principal payments and have an average
to existing Treasury regulations. However, as of maturity, or average life, of one to three years.2
January 1, 1992, REMICs became the sole Tranche B, with an average life of between three
means of issuing multiple-class mortgage- and seven years, would receive the next 25 per-
backed securities exempt from double taxation. cent of principal. Tranche C, receiving the
As a practical matter, the vast majority of CMOs following 25 percent of principal, would have an
carry the REMIC designation. Indeed, many average life of 5 to 10 years. The Z tranche,
market participants use the terms ‘‘CMO’’ and receiving the final 25 percent, would be an
‘‘REMIC’’ interchangeably. ‘‘accrual’’ bond with an average life of 15 to
CMOs do not trade on a TBA basis. New- 20 years.3
issue CMOs settle on the date provided in the The sequential pay structure was the first step
prospectus and trade on a corporate basis (three in creating a mortgage yield curve, allowing
business days after the trade) in the secondary mortgage investors to target short, intermediate,
market. Common CMO structures include or long maturities. Nevertheless, sequential pay
sequential pay, PACs, TACs, and floaters and structure maturities remained highly sensitive to
inverse floaters as described below. prepayment risks, as prepayments of the under-
lying collateral change the cash flows for each
Sequential pay structure. The initial form of tranche, affecting the longer-dated tranches most,
CMO structure was designed to provide more especially the Z tranche. If interest rates declined
precisely targeted maturities than the pass- and prepayment speeds doubled (from 100 per-
through securities. Now considered a relatively cent PSA to 200 percent PSA as shown on chart
simple design for CMOs, the sequential pay 2), the average life of the A tranche would
structure dominated CMO issuance from 1983 change from 35 months to 25 months, but the
(when the first CMO was created) until the late average life of the Z bond would shift from
1980s. In the typical sequential pay deal of the 280 months to 180 months. Hence, the change in
1980s (see chart 2), mortgage cash flows were the value of the Z bond would be similarly
greater than the price change of the A tranche.
Chart 2—Four-Tranche Sequential Planned amortization class (PAC) structure.
Pay CMO The PAC structure, which now dominates CMO
issuance, creates tranches, called planned amor-
Monthly Payment, Thousands of Dollars
1.5
tization classes, with cash flows that are pro-
200 Percent PSA tected from prepayment changes within certain
Tranche A limits. However, creating this ‘‘safer’’ set of
Tranche B 1.0 tranches necessarily means that there must be
Tranche C
other tranches, called ‘‘support’’ bonds, that are
by definition more volatile than the underlying
Tranche Z
.5 pass-throughs. While the PAC tranches are rela-
tively easy to sell, finding investors for higher-
yielding, less predictable support bonds has
0 been crucial for the success of the expanding
CMO market.
1.5 Chart 3 illustrates how PACs are created. In
100 Percent PSA the example, the estimated prepayment rate
for the mortgages is 145 percent of the PSA
1.0
standard, and the desired PAC is structured to

.5
2. Average life, or weighted average life (WAL), is defined
as the weighted average number of years that each principal
dollar of the mortgage security remains outstanding.
0 3. Unlike the Z tranche, the A, B, and C tranches receive
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 regular interest payments in the early years before the princi-
Month pal is paid off.

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Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities 4110.1

be protected if prepayments slow to 80 percent protection can break down from extremely high,
PSA or rise to 250 percent PSA. The PACs extremely low, or extremely volatile prepay-
therefore have some protection against both ment rates.
‘‘extension risk’’ (slower than expected prepay- A PAC bond classified as PAC 1 in a CMO
ments) and ‘‘call risk’’ (faster than expected structure has the highest cash-flow priority and
prepayments). In order to create this 80 to 250 the best protection from both extension and
percent ‘‘PAC range,’’ principal payments are prepayment risk. In the past, deals have also
calculated for 80 percent PSA and 250 percent included super PACs, another high-protection,
PSA. lower-risk-type tranche distinguished by
The area underneath both curves indicates extremely wide bands. The mechanisms that
that amount of estimated principal that can be protect a PAC tranche within a deal may dimin-
used to create the desired PAC tranche or ish, and its status may shift more toward the
tranches. That is, as long as the prepayment support end of the spectrum. The extent of a
rates are greater than 80 percent PSA or less support-type role that a PAC might play depends
than 250 percent PSA, the four PACs will in part on its original cash-flow priority status
receive their scheduled cash flows (represented and the principal balances of the other support
by the shaded areas). tranches embedded within the deal. Indeed, as
This PAC analysis assumes a constant prepay- prepayments accelerated in 1993, support
ment rate of between 80 and 250 percent of the tranches were asked to bear the brunt, and many
PSA standard over the life of the underlying disappeared. A PAC III, for example, became a
mortgages. Since PSA speeds can change every pure support tranche, foregoing any PAC-like
month, this assumption of a constant PSA speed characteristics in that case.
for months 1 to 360 is never realized. If prepay- A variation on the PAC theme has emerged in
ment speeds are volatile, even within the PAC the scheduled tranche (SCH). Like a PAC, an
range, the PAC range itself may narrow over SCH has a predetermined cash-flow collar, but it
time. This phenomenon, termed ‘‘effective PAC is too narrow even to be called a PAC III. An
band,’’ affects longer-dated PACs more than SCH tranche is also prioritized within a deal
short-maturity PACs. Thus, PAC prepayment using the above format, but understand that its
initial priority status is usually below even that
of a PAC III. These narrower band PAC-type
bonds were designed to perform well in low-
Chart 3—Principal Payments volatility environments and were popular in late
Monthly Payment, in Thousands of Dollars 1992 and early 1993. At that time, many inves-
2.0 tors failed to realize what would happen to the
145 Percent PSA tranche when prepayments violated the band.
Tranche A
1.5 In chart 3, the four grey shaded areas repre-
Support Tranche
sent the PAC structure, which has been divided
Tranche B into four tranches to provide investors with an
1.0
Tranche C instrument more akin to the bullet maturity of
Tranche D Treasury and corporate bonds.4 The two support
.5
tranches are structured to absorb the full amount
of prepayment risk to the extent the prepayment
0
rate for the PAC tranches is within the specified
range of 80 to 250 percent PSA. The second
2.0 panel of chart 3 shows principal cash flows at
Multi-PAC Redemption Schedule
with a Range of 80%–250% PSA the original estimated speed of 145 percent PSA,
1.5 which are divided between the PAC and support
bonds throughout the life of the underlying
1.0 mortgages.

.5

0 4. Treasury and corporate bonds usually return principal to

0 60 120 180 240 300 360 investors at stated maturity; the PAC structure narrows the
Month time interval over which principal is returned to the investors.

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4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

Chart 4 shows how both PACs and the sup- than PAC bonds.5 Conversely, PAC bond inves-
port tranches react to different prepayment tors are willing to give up yield in order to
speeds. The average lives of the support bonds reduce their exposure to prepayment risk or
in this example could fluctuate from 11⁄2 to negative convexity. Nevertheless, PAC bond
25 years depending on prepayment speeds. Sim- holders are exposed to prepayment risk outside
ply put, support-bond returns are diminished the protected range and correspondingly receive
whether prepayment rates increase or decrease yields above those available on comparable
(a lose-lose proposition). To compensate holders Treasury securities. In extreme cases, even PAC
of support bonds for this characteristic (some- tranches are subject to prepayment risk. For
times referred to as ‘‘negative convexity’’), example, at 500 percent PSA (see the third panel
support bonds carry substantially higher yields of chart 4), the PAC range is broken. The
support bonds fail to fully protect even the first
PAC tranche; principal repayment accelerates
sharply at the end of the scheduled maturity of
PAC A.
Chart 4—Principal Payments
Targeted amortization tranche structure. A tar-
Monthly Payment, Thousands of Dollars geted amortization tranche (TAC) typically offers
2.0
80 Percent PSA protection from prepayment risk but not exten-
sion risk. Similar to the cash-flow schedule of
PAC A
1.5 a PAC that is built around a collar, a TAC’s
PAC B
schedule is built around a single pricing speed,
PAC C and the average life of the tranche is ‘‘targeted’’
PAC D 1.0 to that speed. Any excess principal paid typi-
Support cally has little effect on the TAC; its targeted
Tranche speed acts as a line of defense. Investors in
.5
TACs, however, pay the price for this defense
with their lack of protection when rates increase,
0 subjecting the tranche to potential extension
risk.
2.0
250 Percent PSA Floaters and inverse floaters. CMOs and REMICs
can include several floating-rate classes. Floating-
1.5
rate tranches have coupon rates that float with
movements in an underlying index. The most
1.0 widely used indexes for floating-rate tranches
are the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR)
and the Eleventh District Cost of Funds Index
.5 (COFI). While LIBOR correlates closely with
interest-rate movements in the domestic federal
0 funds market, COFI has a built-in lag feature
and is slower to respond to changes in interest
2.0 rates. Thus, the holders of COFI-indexed float-
500 Percent PSA ers generally experience a delay in the effects of
changing interest-rate movements.
1.5

1.0
5. Price/yield curves for most fixed-income securities have
a slightly convex shape, hence the securities are said to
possess convexity. An important and desirable attribute of the
.5 convex shape of the price/yield curve for Treasury securities
is that prices rise at a faster rate than they decline. Mortgage
price/yield curves tend to be concave, especially in the range
0 of premium prices, and are said to possess negative convexity.
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 Securities with negative convexity rise in price at a slower rate
Month than they fall in price.

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Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities 4110.1

Since most floating-rate tranches are backed sensitive to prepayment rates than the under-
by fixed-rate mortgages or pass-through securi- lying pass-throughs.6 Despite the increased
ties, floating-rate tranches must be issued in exposure to prepayment risk, these instruments
combination with some kind of ‘‘support.’’ The have proved popular with several groups of
designed support mechanism on floaters is an investors. For example, mortgage servicers may
interest-rate cap, generally coupled with a sup- purchase POs to offset the loss of servicing
port bond or inverse floater. If interest rates rise, income from rising prepayments. IOs are often
where does the extra money come from to pay used as a hedging vehicle by fixed-income
higher rates on the floating CMO tranches? The portfolio managers because the value of IOs
solution is in the form of an inverse floating-rate rises when prepayments slow—usually in rising
tranche. The coupon rate on the inverse tranche interest-rate environments when most fixed-
moves opposite of the accompanying floater income security prices decline.
tranche, thus allowing the floater to pay high Two techniques have been used to create IOs
interest rates. The floater and the inverse tranches and POs. The first, which dominates outstand-
‘‘share’’ interest payments from a pool of fixed- ings in IOs and POs, strips pass-throughs into
rate mortgage securities. If rates rise, the coupon their interest and principal components, which
on the floater moves up; the floater takes more are then sold as separate securities. As of
of the shared interest, leaving less for the October 1993, approximately $65 billion of the
inverse, whose coupon rate must fall. If rates supply of outstanding pass-throughs had been
fall, the rate on the floater falls, and more money stripped into IOs and POs.7 The second tech-
is available to pay the inverse floater investor nique, which has become increasingly popular
and the corresponding rate on the inverse rises. over the past few years, simply slices off an
Effectively, the interest-payment characteris- interest or principal portion of any CMO tranche
tics of the underlying home mortgages have not to be sold independently. In practice, IO slices,
changed; another tranche is created where risk is called ‘‘IOettes,’’ 8 far outnumber PO slices.
shifted. This shifting of risk from the floater Since IOs and IOettes produce cash flows in
doubles up the interest-rate risk in the inverse proportion to the mortgage principal outstand-
floater, with enhanced yield and price ramifica- ing, IO investors are hurt by fast prepayments
tions as rates fluctuate. If rates fall, the inverse and aided by slower prepayments. The value of
floater receives the benefit of a higher-rate- POs rises when prepayments quicken and falls
bearing security in a low-rate environment. when prepayments slow because of the increases
Conversely, if rates rise, that same investor pays in principal cash flows coupled with the deep
the price of holding a lower-rate security in a discount price of the PO.
high-rate environment. As with other tranche IOs and IOettes are relatively high-yielding
types, prepayments determine the floating cash tranches that are generally subject to consider-
flows and the weighted average life of the able prepayment volatility. For example, falling
instrument (WAL). interest rates and rising prepayment speeds in
With respect to floaters, the two most impor- late 1991 caused some IOs (such as those
tant risks are the risk that the coupon rate will backed by FNMA 10 percent collateral) to fall
adjust to its maximum level (cap risk) and the up to 40 percent in value between July and
risk that the index will not correlate tightly with December. IOs also declined sharply on several
the underlying mortgage product. Additionally, occasions in 1992 and 1993 as mortgage rates
floaters that have ‘‘capped out’’ and that have moved to 20- and 25-year lows, resulting in very
WALs that extend as prepayments slow may high levels of prepayment. CMO dealers use
experience considerable price depreciation. IOettes to reduce coupons on numerous tranches,
allowing these tranches to be sold at a discount

Stripped Mortgage-Backed Securities:

6. This counterintuitive result arises because IO and PO
Interest-Only and Principal-Only prices are negatively correlated.
7. Of this amount, FNMA has issued $26 billion, FHLMC
Interest-only (IO) and principal-only (PO) secu- $2.3 billion, and private issuers $6.5 billion.
rities are another modification of the mortgage 8. Securities and Exchange Commission regulations forbid
pure IO slices within CMOs. IO slices therefore include
pass-through product. This market is referred to nominal amounts of principal and are termed ‘‘IOettes.’’ As a
as the stripped mortgage-backed securities practical matter, IOettes have the price performance charac-
(SMBS) market. Both IOs and POs are more teristics of IOs.

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4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

(as preferred by investors). In effect, much of To the extent that banks do operate as market
the call risk is transferred from these tranches to makers, the risks are more diverse and challeng-
the IOette. ing. The key areas of focus for market makers
The fact that IO prices generally move are risk-management practices associated with
inversely to most fixed-income securities makes trading, hedging, and funding their inventories.
them theoretically attractive hedging vehicles in The operations and analytic support staff required
a portfolio context. Nevertheless, IOs represent for a bank’s underwriting operation are much
one of the riskiest fixed-income assets available greater than those needed for its more traditional
and may be used in a highly leveraged way to role of investor.
speculate about either future interest rates or Regulatory restrictions limit banks’ owner-
prepayment rates. Given that their value rises ship of high-risk tranches. These tranches are so
(falls) when interest rates increase (decrease), complex that the most common approaches and
many financial institutions, including banks, techniques for hedging interest-rate risks could
thrifts, and insurance companies, have pur- be ineffective. High-risk tranches are so elabo-
chased IOs and IOettes as hedges for their rately structured and highly volatile that it is
fixed-income portfolios, but such hedges might unlikely that a reliable hedge offset exists.
prove problematic as they expose the hedger to Hedging these instruments is largely subjective,
considerable basis risk. and assessing hedge effectiveness becomes
extremely difficult. Examiners must carefully
assess whether owning such high-risk tranches
reduces a bank’s overall interest-rate risk.
USES
Both pass-through securities and CMOs are
purchased by a broad array of institutional DESCRIPTION OF
customers, including banks, thrifts, insurance MARKETPLACE
companies, pension funds, mortgage ‘‘bou-
tiques,’’9 and retail investors. CMO underwriters Primary Market
customize the majority of CMO tranches for
specific end-users, and customization is espe- The original lender is called the mortgage orig-
cially common for low-risk tranches. Since this inator. Mortgage originators include commercial
customization results from investors’ desire to banks, thrifts, and mortgage bankers. Origina-
either hedge an existing exposure or to assume a tors generate income in several ways. First, they
specific risk, many end-users perceive less need typically charge an origination fee, which is
for hedging. For the most part, end-users gen- expressed in terms of basis points of the loan
erally adopt a buy-and-hold strategy, perhaps in amount. The second source of revenue is the
part because the customization makes resale profit that might be generated from selling a
more difficult. mortgage in the secondary market, and the profit
is called secondary-marketing profit. The mort-
gage originator may also hold the mortgage in
its investment portfolio.
Uses by Banks
Within the mortgage securities market, banks Secondary Market
are predominately investors or end-users rather
than underwriters or market makers. Further- The process of creating mortgage securities
more, banks tend to invest in short to inter- starts with mortgage originators which offer
mediate maturities. Indeed, banks aggressively consumers many different types of mortgage
purchase short-dated CMO tranches, such as loans. Mortgages that meet certain well-defined
planned amortization classes, floating-rate criteria are sold by mortgage originators to
tranches, and adjustable-rate mortgage securities. conduits, which link originators and investors.
These conduits will pool like groups of mort-
9. Mortgage boutiques are highly specialized investment
gages and either securitize the mortgages and
firms which typically invest in residuals and other high-risk sell them to an investor or retain the mortgages
tranches. as investments in their own portfolios. Both

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Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities 4110.1

government-related and private institutions act prepayment rates. Despite the application of
in this capacity. Ginnie Mae; Freddie Mac, and highly sophisticated interest-rate simulation
Fannie Mae are the three main government- techniques, results from diverse proprietary
related conduit institutions; all of them purchase prepayment models and assumptions about future
conforming mortgages which meet the under- interest-rate volatility still drive valuations. The
writing standards established by the agencies for subjective nature of mortgage valuations makes
being in a pool of mortgages underlying a marking to market difficult due to the dynamic
security that they guarantee. nature of prepayment rates, especially as one
Ginne Mae is a government agency, and the moves farther out along the price-risk con-
securities it guarantees carry the full faith and tinuum toward high-risk tranches. Historical
credit of the U.S. government. Fannie Mae and price information for various CMO tranche
Freddie Mac are government-sponsored agen- types is not widely available and, moreover,
cies; securities issued by these institutions are might have limited value given the generally
guaranteed by the agencies themselves and are different methodologies used in deriving mort-
generally assigned an AAA credit rating partly gage valuation.
due to the implicit government guarantee.
Mortgage-backed securities have also been
issued by private entities such as commercial
banks, thrifts, homebuilders, and private con- Decomposition of MBS
duits. These issues are often referred to as
private label securities. These securities are not A popular approach to analyzing and valuing a
guaranteed by a government agency or GSE. callable bond involves breaking it down into its
Instead, their credit is usually enhanced by pool component parts—a long position in a noncall-
insurance, letters of credit, guarantees, or over- able bond and a short position in a call option
collateralization. These securities usually receive written to the issuer by the investor. An MBS
a rating of AA or better. investor owns a callable bond, but decomposing
Private issuers of pass-throughs and CMOs it is not as easy as breaking down more tradi-
provide a secondary market for conventional tional callables. The MBS investor has written a
loans which do not qualify for Freddie Mac and series of put and call options to each homeowner
Fannie Mae programs. There are several reasons or mortgagor. The analytical challenge facing an
why conventional loans may not qualify, but the examiner is to determine the value and risk
major reason is that the principal balance exceeds profile of these options and their contribution to
the maximum allowed by the government (these the overall risk profile of the portfolio. Com-
are called ‘‘jumbo’’ loans in the market). pounding the problem is the fact that mortgagors
Servicers of mortgages include banks, thrifts, do not exercise these prepayment options at the
and mortgage bankers. If a mortgage is sold to a same time when presented with identical situa-
conduit, it can be sold in total, or servicing tions. Most prepayment options are exercised at
rights may be maintained. The major source of the least opportune time from the standpoint of
income related to servicing is derived from the the MBS investor. In a falling-rate environment,
servicing fee. This fee is a fixed percentage of a homeowner will have a greater propensity to
the outstanding mortgage balance. Consequently, refinance (or exercise the option) as prevailing
if the mortgage is prepaid, the servicing fee will mortgage rates fall below the homeowner’s
no longer accrue to the servicer. Other sources original note (as the option moves deeper into
of revenue include interest on escrow, float the money). Under this scenario, the MBS
earned on the monthly payment, and late fees. investor receives a cash windfall (principal pay-
Also, servicers who are lenders often use their ment) which must be reinvested in a lower-rate
portfolios of borrowers as potential sources to environment. Conversely, in a high- or rising-
cross-sell other bank products. rate environment, when the prevailing mortgage
rate is higher than the mortgagor’s original term
rate, the homeowner is less apt to exercise the
option to refinance. Of course, the MBS investor
PRICING would like nothing more than to receive his or
her principal and be able to reinvest that princi-
Mortgage valuations are highly subjective pal at the prevailing higher rates. Under this
because of the unpredictable nature of mortgage scenario, the MBS investor holds an instrument

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4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

with a stated coupon that is below prevailing negative one.11 If that were the case, the value of
market rates and relatively unattractive to poten- a pass-through security would always be hedged
tial buyers. with respect to interest rates. However, IOs and
Market prices of mortgages reflect an expected POs do represent extremities in MBS theory
rate of prepayments. If prepayments are faster and, properly applied, can be used as effective
than the expected rate, the mortgage security is risk-reduction tools. Because the value of the
exposed to call risk. If prepayments are slower prepayment option and the duration of an IO and
than expected, the mortgage securities are PO are not constant, hedges must be continually
exposed to extension risk (similar to having managed and adjusted.
written a put option). Thus, in practice, mort- In general, a decline in prepayment speeds
gage security ownership is comparable to own- arises largely from rising mortgage rates, with
ing a portfolio of cash bonds and writing a fixed-rate mortgage securities losing value. At
combination of put and call options on that the same time, IO securities are rising in yield
portfolio of bonds. Call risk is manifested in a and price. Thus, within the context of an overall
shortening of the bond’s effective maturity or portfolio, the inclusion of IOs serves to increase
duration, and extension risk manifests itself in yields and reduce losses in a rising-rate environ-
the lengthening of the bond’s effective maturity ment. More specifically, IOs can be used to
or duration. hedge the interest-rate risk of Treasury strip
securities. As rates increase, an IO’s value
increases. The duration of zero-coupon strips
Option-Adjusted Spread Analysis equals their maturity, while IOs have a negative
duration.12 Combining IOs with strips creates a
For a further discussion of option-adjusted spread portfolio with a lower duration than a position in
(OAS) analysis or optionality in general, see strips alone.13
section 4330.1, ‘‘Options.’’ POs are a means to synthetically add discount
(and positive convexity) to a portfolio, allowing
it to more fully participate in bull markets. For
example, a bank funding MBS with certificates
HEDGING of deposit (CDs) is exposed to prepayment risk.
If rates fall faster than expected, mortgage
Hedging mortgage-backed securities ultimately holders (in general) will exercise their prepay-
comes down to an assessment of one’s expecta- ment option while depositors will hold their
tion of forward rates (an implied forward curve). higher-than-market CDs as long as possible.
A forward-rate expectation can be thought of as The bank could purchase POs as a hedge against
a no-arbitrage perspective on the market, serv- its exposure to prepayment and interest-rate
ing as a pricing mechanism for fixed-income risk. As a hedging vehicle, POs offer preferable
securities and derivatives, including MBS. alternatives to traditional futures or options; the
Investors who wish to hedge their forward-rate performance of a PO is directly tied to actual
expectations can employ strategies which involve prepayments, thus the hedge should experience
purchasing the underlying security and the use potentially less basis risk than other cross-
of swaps, options, futures, caps, or combinations market hedging instruments.
thereof to hedge duration and convexity risk.10
With respect to intra-portfolio techniques,
one can employ IOs and POs as hedge vehicles.
Although exercise of the prepayment option RISKS
generally takes value away from the IO class Prepayment Risk
and adds value to the PO class, IOs and POs
derived from the same pool of underlying mort- All investors in the mortgage sector share a
gages do not have a correlation coefficient of common concern: the mortgage prepayment

11. Zissu, Anne, and Charles Austin Stone. ‘‘The Risks of

10. Davidson, Andrew S., and Michael D. Herskovitz. MBS and Their Derivatives.’’ Journal of Applied Corporate
Mortgage Backed Securities—Investment Analysis and Finance, Fall 1994.
Advanced Valuation Techniques. Chicago: Probus Publishing, 12. Ibid., p. 102.
1994. 13. Ibid., p. 104.

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Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities 4110.1

option. This option is the homeowner’s right to pass-throughs have little credit risk.14 Approxi-
prepay a mortgage any time, at par. The prepay- mately 90 percent of all outstanding pass-
ment option makes mortgage securities different through securities have been guaranteed by
from other fixed-income securities, as the timing Ginnie Mae, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac.15
of mortgage principal repayments is uncertain. This credit guarantee gives ‘‘agency’’ pass-
The cash-flow uncertainty that derives from through securities and CMOs a decisive advan-
prepayment risk means that the maturity and tage over nonagency pass-throughs and CMOs,
duration of a mortgage security are uncertain. which comprise less than 10 percent of the
For investors, the prepayment option creates an market.
exposure similar to that of having written a call In general, nonagency pass-through securities
option. That is, if mortgage rates move lower, and CMOs use mortgages that are ineligible for
causing mortgage bond prices to move higher, agency guarantees. Issuers can also obtain credit
the mortgagor has the right to call the mortgage enhancements, such as senior subordinated struc-
away from the investor at par. tures, insurance, corporate guarantees, or letters
While lower mortgage interest rates are the of credit from insurance companies or banks.
dominant economic incentive for prepayment, The rating of the nonagency issue then partially
idiosyncratic, noneconomic factors to prepay a depends upon the rating of the insurer and its
mortgage further complicate the forecasting of credit enhancement.
prepayment rates. These factors are sometimes
summarized as the ‘‘five D’s’’: death, divorce,
destruction, default, and departure (relocation). Settlement and Operational Risk
Prepayments arising from these causes may lead
to a mortgage’s being called away from the The most noteworthy risk issues associated with
investor at par when it is worth more or less than the trading of pass-through securities is the
par (that is, trading at a premium or discount). forward settlement and operational risk associ-
ated with the allocation of pass-through trades.
Most pass-through trading occurs on a forward
basis of two to three months, often referred to as
Funding and Reinvestment Risk ‘‘TBA’’ or ‘‘to be announced’’ trading.16 During
this interval, participants are exposed to coun-
The uncertainty of the maturities of underlying terparty credit risk.
mortgages also presents both funding and rein- Operating risk grows out of the pass-through
vestment risks for investors. The uncertainty of seller’s allocation option that occurs at settle-
a mortgage security’s duration makes it difficult ment. Sellers in the TBA market are allowed a
to obtain liabilities for matched funding of these 2.0 percent delivery option variance when meet-
assets. This asset/liability gap presents itself ing their forward commitments. That is, between
whether the mortgage asset’s life shortens or 98 and 102 percent of the committed par amount
lengthens, and it may vary dramatically. may be delivered. This variance is provided to
Reinvestment risk is normally associated with ease the operational burden of recombining
duration shortening or call risk. Investors receive various pool sizes into round trading lots.17 This
principal earlier than anticipated, usually as a delivery convention requires significant opera-
result of declines in mortgage interest rates; the tional expertise and, if mismanaged, can be a
funds can then be reinvested only at the new
lower rates. Reinvestment risk is also the oppor-
tunity cost associated with lengthening dura-
tions. Mortgage asset durations typically extend 14. Credit risk in a pass-through stems from the possibility
as rates rise. This results in lower investor that the homeowner will default on the mortgage and that the
foreclosure proceeds from the resale of the property will fall
returns as they are unable to reinvest at the now short of the balance of the mortgage.
higher rates. 15. For a full explanation of the minor differences between
these agencies, see chapter 5 in Fabozzi, The Handbook of
Mortgage-Backed Securities, 1995.
16. In the forward mortgage pass-through trading, or TBA
Credit Risk trading, the seller announces the exact pool mix to be
delivered the second business day before settlement day.
17. ‘‘Good delivery’’ guidelines are promulgated by the
While prepayments expose pass-throughs and Public Securities Association in its Uniform Practices
CMOs to considerable price risk, most MBS publication.

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4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

source of significant risk in the form of failed are exceeded. Even floating-rate tranches face
settlements and unforeseen carrying costs. risks, especially when short-term rates rise sig-
nificantly and floaters reach their interest-rate
caps. At the same time, long rates may rise and
Price Volatility in High-Risk CMOs prepayments slow, causing the floaters’ maturi-
ties to extend significantly since the floater is
When the cash flow from pass-through securi- usually based on a support bond. Under such
ties is allocated among CMO tranches, prepay- circumstances, floater investors could face sig-
ment risk is concentrated within a few volatile nificant losses.
classes, most notably residuals, inverse floaters, In addition to possible loss of market value,
IOs and POs, Z bonds, and long-term support these safe tranches may lose significant liquidity
bonds. These tranches are subject to sharp price under extreme interest-rate movements. These
fluctuations in response to changes in short- and tranches are currently among the most liquid
long-term interest rates, interest-rate volatility, CMOs. Investors who rely on this liquidity
prepayment rates, and other macroeconomic when interest-rate volatility is low may find it
conditions. Some of these tranches—especially difficult to sell these instruments to raise cash in
residuals and inverse floaters—are frequently times of financial stress. Nevertheless, investors
placed with a targeted set of investors willing to in these tranches face lower prepayment risk
accept the extra risk. These classes are also than investors in either mortgage pass-throughs
among the most illiquid bonds traded in the or the underlying mortgages themselves.
CMO market.
These high-risk tranches, whether held by
dealers or investors, have the potential to incur Cap Risk
sizable losses (and sometimes gains) within a
short period of time.18 Compounding this price The caps in many floating-rate CMOs and ARMs
risk is the difficulty of finding effective hedging are an embedded option. The value of floating-
strategies for these instruments. Using different rate CMOs or ARMs is equal to the value of an
CMOs to hedge each other can present prob- uncapped floating-rate security less the value of
lems. Although pass-through securities from the cap. As the coupon rate of the security
different pools tend to move in the same direc- approaches the cap rate, the value of the option
tion based on the same event, the magnitude of increases and the value of the security falls. The
these moves can vary considerably, especially if rate of change is non-linear and increases as the
the underlying mortgage pools have different coupon approaches the cap. As the coupon rate
average coupons.19 equals or exceeds the cap rate, the security will
exhibit characteristics similar to those of a
fixed-rate security, and price volatility will
increase. All else being equal, securities with
Risks in ‘‘Safe’’ Tranches coupon rates close to their cap rates will tend to
exhibit greater price volatility than securities
Investors may also be underestimating risks in with coupon rates farther away from their cap
some ‘‘safe’’ tranches, such as long-maturity rates. Also, the tighter the ‘‘band’’ of caps and
PACs, PAC 2s, and 3s, and floaters, because floors on the periodic caps embedded in ARMs,
these tranches can experience abrupt changes in the greater the price sensitivity of the security
their average lives once their prepayment ranges will be. The value of embedded caps also
increases with an increase in volatility. Thus, all
else being equal, higher levels of interest-rate
volatility will reduce the value of the floating-
rate CMO or ARM.
18. Examples of single-firm losses include a $300 million
to $400 million loss by one firm on POs in the spring of 1987;
more recently, several firms have lost between $50 million and
$200 million on IO positions in 1992 and 1993. FFIEC Regulations Concerning
19. For a discussion of the idiosyncratic prepayment Unsuitable Investments
behavior of pass-throughs, see Sean Becketti and Charles S.
Morris, The Prepayment Experience of FNMA Mortgage-
Backed Securities. New York University Salomon Center, The Federal Financial Institutions Examination
1990, pp. 24–41. Council (FFIEC) issued a revised policy state-

February 1998 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 12
Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities 4110.1

ment concerning securities activities for mem- Extinguishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting

ber banks. These rules became effective Febru- treatment for derivatives used as investments or
ary 10, 1992, for member banks and bank for hedging purposes is determined by State-
holding companies under the Board’s jurisdic- ment of Financial Accounting Standards No.
tion. A bank’s CMO investments are deemed 133 (FAS 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives
unsuitable if— and Hedging Activities,’’ as amended by State-
ment of Financial Accounting Standards Nos.
• the present weighted average life (WAL) is 137 and 138 (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See
greater than ten years, section 2120.1, ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further
• the WAL extends more than four years or discussion.)
shortens more than six years for a parallel
interest-rate shift of up and down 300 basis
points, or RISK-BASED CAPITAL
• the price changes by more than 17 percent WEIGHTING
from the asking price for a parallel interest-
rate shift of up and down 300 basis points. Pass-through securities are assigned the follow-
ing weights:
An affirmation of any of these three parameters
means that the bond in question (1) may be GNMA (Ginnie Mae) zero percent
considered high risk and (2) may not be a FNMA (Fannie Mae) 20 percent
suitable investment for banks or bank holding FHLMC (Freddie Mac) 20 percent
companies. An institution holding high-risk Private label 50 percent–
securities must demonstrate that these securities 100 percent
reduce overall interest-rate risk for the bank.
Floating-rate CMOs with coupons tied to Collaterialized mortgage obligations are assigned
indexes other than LIBOR (sometimes called the following weights:
‘‘mismatched floaters’’) are generally exempt
from the average-life and average-life-sensitivity Backed by Ginnie Mae,
tests. Given the degree of price sensitivity asso- Fannie Mae, or
ciated with these securities, however, institu- Freddie Mac
tions that purchase non-LIBOR-indexed floaters securities 20 percent–100 percent
must maintain documentation showing that they
understand and are able to monitor the risks of Backed by whole loans
these instruments. The documentation should or private-label
include a prepurchase analysis and at least an pass-throughs 50 percent–100 percent
annual analysis of the price sensitivity of the
security under both parallel and nonparallel Stripped MBS are assigned a 100 percent risk
shifts of the yield curve. See the Commercial weighting.
Bank Examination Manual for more informa-
tion on the FFIEC testing parameters detailed
above. LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
INVESTMENT
Pass-Through Securities
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
Ginnie Mae, Fannie Mae, and Freddie Mac
The accounting treatment for investments in pass-through securities are type I securities.
mortgage-backed securities is determined by the Banks can deal in, underwrite, purchase, and sell
Financial Accounting Standards Board’s State- these securities for their own accounts without
ment of Financial Accounting Standards No. limitation.
115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Invest-
ments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as
amended by Statement of Financial Accounting CMOs and Stripped MBS
Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for
Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and CMOs and stripped MBS securitized by small

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

Page 13
4110.1 Residential Mortgage–Backed Securities

business–related securities and certain residential- Backed Securities. New York: New York
and commercial-related securities rated Aaa and University Salomon Center, 1990.
Aa are type IV securities. As such, a bank may Cilia, Joseph. Advanced CMO Analytics for
purchase and sell these securities for its own Bank Examiners—Practical Applications
account without limitation. CMOs and stripped Using Bloomberg. Product Summary. Chicago:
MBS securitized by small business–related Federal Reserve Bank of Chicago, May 1995.
securities rated A or Baa are also type IV Davidson, Andrew S., and Michael D.
securities and are subject to an investment Herskovitz. Mortgage-Backed Securities—
limitation of 25 percent of a bank’s capital and Investment Analysis and Advanced Valuation
surplus. Banks may deal in type IV securities Techniques. Chicago: Probus Publishing,
that are fully secured by type I transactions 1994.
without limitations. Fabozzi, Frank J., ed. The Handbook of Mortgage-
CMOs and stripped MBS securitized by cer- Backed Securities. Chicago: Probus Publish-
tain residential- and commercial-mortgage- ing, 1995.
related securities rated A or Baa are type V Fabozzi, Frank J. Valuation of Fixed-Income
securities. For type V securities, the aggregate Securities. Summit, N.J.: Frank J. Fabozzi
par value of a bank’s purchase and sales of the Associates, 1994.
securities of any one obligor may not exceed Klinkhammer, Gunner, Ph.D. ‘‘Monte Carlo
25 percent of its capital and surplus. Analytics Provides Dynamic Risk Assess-
ment for CMOs.’’ Capital Management
Sciences, Inc. October 1995.
REFERENCES Kopprasch, Robert W. ‘‘Option Adjusted Spread
Analysis: Going Down the Wrong Path?’’
Bartlett, William W. Mortgage-Backed Securi- Financial Analysts Journal. May/June 1994.
ties. Burr Ridge, Ill.: Irwin Publishing, 1994. Zissu, Anne, and Charles Austin Stone. ‘‘The
Becketti, Sean, and Charles S. Morris. The Risks of MBS and Their Derivatives.’’ Jour-
Prepayment Experience of FNMA Mortgage- nal of Applied Corporate Finance. Fall 1994.

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

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Australian Commonwealth Government Bonds
Section 4205.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION because (1) they offer high yields relative to

those available on other sovereign debt instru-
The Australian Treasury issues Australian ments and (2) the Australian bond market is
Commonwealth Government Bonds (CGBs) to regarded as stable. Although the bond market
finance the government’s budget deficit and to has a substantial foreign participation, due to
refinance maturing debt. Since 1982, bonds have its attractive yield and a much shorter period
been issued in registered form only, although of time required for the bonds to mature, the
some outstanding issues may be in bearer form. majority of CGB investors are domestic. U.S.
The principal and interest on CGBs are guaran- banks purchase CGBs to diversify their port-
teed by the Commonwealth Government of folios, speculate on currency and Australian
Australia. interest rates, and to hedge Australian-
denominated currency positions and positions
along the Australian yield curve.

CHARACTERISTICS AND
FEATURES
CGBs, with maturities ranging from one to DESCRIPTION OF
20 years, are issued every six to eight weeks in MARKETPLACE
an average tender size totaling A$800 million.
Most CGBs are noncallable, fixed-coupon secu- Issuing Practices
rities with bullet maturities. The Australian
Treasury has issued some indexed-linked bonds
with either interest payments or capital linked to CGBs are issued periodically on an as-needed
the Australian consumer price index. However, basis, typically every six to eight weeks. Gen-
there are few of these issues and they tend to be erally, issuance is through a competitive tender
very illiquid. CGBs can be issued with current whereby subscribers are invited to submit bids
market coupons, but in many cases the Austra- as they would in an auction. Issue size is
lian Treasury will reopen existing issues. announced one day before the tender day. Bids,
Interest for government bonds is paid semi- which are sent to the Reserve Bank of Australia
annually on the 15th day of the month, and it is through the Reserve Bank Information Transfer
calculated on an actual/365 day-count basis. System (RBITS), are submitted to the Reserve
Coupon payments that fall on weekends or Bank of Australia on a semiannual, yield-to-
public holidays are paid on the next business maturity basis. Specific information on the issue
day. Semiannual coupon payments are precisely is announced later on the tender day, such as the
half the coupon rate. Bonds that have more than amounts tendered and issued, the average and
six months left to maturity settle three business range of accepted bids, and the percentage of
days after the trade date (T+3). Bonds with less bids allotted at the highest yield.
than six months left to maturity may settle on
the same day, provided they are dealt before
noon; otherwise, they settle the next day.
Secondary Market

While CGBs are listed on the Australian Stock

USES Exchange, nearly all trading takes place over the
counter (OTC), by screen or direct trading. The
Australian banks are the largest single group of primary participants in the secondary market are
investors in outstanding CGB issues. They use authorized dealers and share brokers. OTC trans-
these securities to meet regulatory capital actions must be in amounts of A$250,000 or
requirements. The Australian pension industry more. Stock-exchange transactions are essen-
holds CGBs mainly as investment vehicles. In tially limited to retail transactions under A$1 mil-
addition, CGBs are viewed as attractive invest- lion. Usually, authorized dealers trade bonds
ment vehicles by many foreign investors which are within five years of maturing.

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4205.1 Australian Commonwealth Government Bonds

Market Participants RISKS

Sell Side Liquidity Risk
Authorized dealers are the primary participants The CGB market is considered fairly active and
in the sell side of the CGB market. liquid. Trading volume among the benchmark
bonds is about equal, although the three-year
and 10-year benchmark issues tend to have the
Buy Side most turnover.

Australian banks and other financial institutions

are the largest single group of investors in Interest-Rate Risk
CGBs. These entities usually hold large quan-
tities of shorter-term government bonds for CGBs are subject to price fluctuation resulting
regulatory purposes, as these securities may be from interest-rate volatility. Generally, longer-
included in the prime asset ratios of banks. In term bonds have more price volatility than
addition, a variety of other domestic investors shorter-term instruments. If an institution has a
participate in the CGB market. large concentration of long-term maturities, it
The Australian bond market has been known may be subject to unwarranted interest-rate risk.
to attract substantial foreign participation over
the years, primarily because it is regarded as a
stable market which offers relatively high yields. Foreign-Exchange Risk
In general, foreign market participants are insti-
tutional investors, such as securities firms, life Currency fluctuations may affect the bond’s
insurance companies, banks, and fund managers. yield as well as the value of coupons and
principal paid in U.S. dollars. A number of
factors may influence a country’s foreign-
Market Transparency exchange rate, including its balance of payments
and prospective changes in that balance; infla-
tion and interest-rate differentials between that
Prices tend to be active and liquid. Price trans-
country and the United States; the social and
parency is enhanced by the dissemination of
political environment, particularly with regard
prices by several information vendors including
to the impact on foreign investment; and central
Reuters and Telerate.
bank intervention in the currency markets.

PRICING Political Risk

CGBs are quoted in terms of yield and rounded A change in the political environment, withhold-
to three decimal places to determine gross price ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an
for settlement purposes. While tick size is adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
equivalent to one basis point, yields are often investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be
quoted to the half basis point. familiar with the local laws and regulations
governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
actions, and authorized counterparties.

HEDGING
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
Interest-rate risk may be hedged by taking an
offsetting position in other government bonds or The accounting treatment for investments in
by using interest-rate forward, futures, options, foreign debt is determined by the Financial
or swap contracts. Foreign-exchange risk may Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
be hedged by using foreign-currency derivatives Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
and swaps. 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in

September 2001 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

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Australian Commonwealth Government Bonds 4205.1

Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK

Statement of Financial Accounting Standards INVESTMENT
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin- Australian CGBs are a type III security. As such,
guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat- a bank’s investment is limited to 10 percent of
ment for derivatives used as investments or for its equity capital and reserves.
hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan- REFERENCES
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
de Caires, Bryan, ed. The Guide to International
(FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
Capital Markets 1990. London: Euromoney
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
Publications PLC, 1990.
Crossan, Ruth, and Mark Johnson, ed. The
Guide to International Capital Markets 1991.
RISK-BASED CAPITAL London: Euromoney Publications PLC, 1991.
WEIGHTING J.P. Morgan Securities. Government Bond Out-
lines. 9th ed. April 1996.
Australian CGBs are assigned to the zero per-
cent risk-weight category.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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Canadian Government Bonds
Section 4210.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION diversify their portfolios, speculate on currency

and Canadian interest rates, and hedge Canadian-
The federal government of Canada issues bonds, denominated currency positions and positions
known as ‘‘Canadas,’’ to finance its public debt. along the Canadian yield curve.
The Canadian government bond market is struc-
turally similar to the U.S. bond market, particu-
larly with regard to the types of securities
issued. Canadas come in a wide variety of DESCRIPTION OF
maturities ranging from two to thirty years. MARKETPLACE
Recently, the longer-maturity bonds have
increased in popularity. Issuing Practices
Canadas are issued by two methods: allotment
and auction. In the allotment system, the amount,
CHARACTERISTICS AND coupon, and issue price for each of the maturity
FEATURES tranches is announced after consultation with
the primary distributors. The Bank of Canada
Canadas are issued at a price close to par value pays a commission to all primary distributors
and are denominated in C$1,000, C$25,000, who are responsible for placing the issue.
C$100,000, and C$1 million allotments. Cana- The auction system is very similar to the U.S.
das are available in bearer form with coupons system. On the Thursday before the regular
attached or in registered form. All new Canadian Wednesday auction, the Bank of Canada
bonds are issued with bullet maturities and announces details, including the size, maturity,
generally are not callable. All Canadas have and delivery date for the upcoming auction, and
fixed coupons. Principal and coupon payments active open market trading begins on a yield
for these bonds are linked to the Canadian basis. The coupon for new issues is not known
consumer price index. until auction results are released, and it is set
Interest on Canadas is paid semiannually and at the nearest 1⁄4 percent increment below the
is accrued from the previous coupon date auction average. The Bank of Canada accepts
(exclusive) to the settlement date (inclusive) up both competitive and noncompetitive bids from
to a maximum value of 181.5 days. As a result, primary distributors. However, it will only accept
the value date is always the same as the settle- one noncompetitive bid, which may have a
ment date. New issues may offer short first maximum value of C$2 million.
coupons but not long first coupons. Interest on On the auction date, bids are submitted to the
short first coupons is accrued from the dated Bank of Canada, and primary distributors receive
date to the first coupon date. Any ‘‘reopened’’ bonds of up to 20 percent of the total amount
bonds include the accrued interest in the issue issued based on the competitiveness of their
price to ensure that the new tranches carry the bids. The delivery date and dated date are
same coupons as the existing bond and that they usually ten days to two weeks after the auction.
trade indistinguishably. Canadas with remaining Issues typically range from C$100 million to
maturities of less than three years settle two C$8.8 billion, and any issue may be reopened by
market days after the trade date (T+2), while the Department of Finance on the basis of
Canadas with maturities over three years market conditions.
settle three market days after the trade date
(T+3).
Secondary Market

USES Canadas are not listed on any stock exchanges

but trade in over-the-counter (OTC) markets
Canadas are held for investment, hedging, and 24 hours a day. Settlement occurs through a
speculative purposes by both domestic and for- book-entry system between market participants
eign investors. U.S. banks purchase Canadas to and the Canadian Depository for Securities

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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4210.1 Canadian Government Bonds

(CDS). Therefore, Canadas may trade when- using interest-rate swaps, forwards, futures (such
issued without an exchange of cash. as futures on 10-year and 5-year Canadas, which
are traded on the Montreal Stock Exchange
(MSE)), and options (such as options on all
Market Participants Canadas issues, which are traded on the MSE).
Sell Side Hedging may also be effected by taking a contra
position in another Canadian government bond.
Primary distributors include investment dealers Foreign-exchange risk may be hedged through
and Canadian chartered banks. the use of currency forwards, futures, swaps,
and options. The effectiveness of a particular
hedge depends on the yield curve and basis risk.
Buy Side For example, hedging a position in a 10-year
Canadas future with an overhedged position in a
A wide range of investors use Canadas for 5-year bond may expose the dealer to yield-
investing, hedging, and speculation, including curve risk. Hedging a 30-year bond with a
domestic banks, trust and insurance companies, Canadas future exposes the dealer to basis risk if
and pension funds. The largest Canadian holders the historical price relationships between futures
of Canadas are trust pension funds, insurance and cash markets are not stable. Also, if a
companies, chartered banks, and the Bank of position in notes or bonds is hedged using an
Canada. OTC option, the relative illiquidity of the option
Foreign investors are also active participants may diminish the effectiveness of the hedge.
in the Canadian government bond market. In
general, foreign market participants are institu-
tional investors such as banks, securities firms,
life insurance companies, and fund managers. RISKS
Liquidity Risk
Market Transparency
The Canadian bond market is considered to be
Price transparency is relatively high for Cana- one of the most liquid bond markets in the
das; several information vendors disseminate world, and Canadas are traded actively in both
prices to the investing public. Trading of Cana- domestic and international capital markets. Most
das, both domestically and internationally, is investment dealers in Canadas will make mar-
active and prices are visible. kets on all outstanding issues. The most liquid
issues are the short-term issues of less than
10 years, but several 15-year and 30-year Cana-
PRICING das are actively traded and very liquid. All
government bond issues are reasonably liquid
Bonds trade on a clean-price basis (net of
when their outstanding size, net of stripping, is
accrued interest) and are quoted in terms of a
over C$1 billion. ‘‘Orphaned’’ issues, small
percentage of par value, with the fraction of a
issues that are not reopened, are the only Cana-
percent expressed in decimals. Canadas typi-
das that are very illiquid because they are not
cally trade with a 1⁄8- to 1⁄4-point spread between
actively traded.
bid and offer prices. Canadas do not trade
ex-dividend. If a settlement date occurs in the
two weeks preceding a coupon payment date,
the seller retains the upcoming coupon but must Interest-Rate Risk
compensate the buyer by postdating a check
payable to the buyer for the amount of the Canadas are subject to price fluctuations caused
coupon payment. by changes in interest rates. Longer-term issues
tend to have more price volatility than shorter-
term issues; therefore, a large concentration of
HEDGING longer-term maturities in a bank’s portfolio may
subject the bank to a high degree of interest-rate
Interest-rate risk on Canadas may be hedged risk.

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 2
Canadian Government Bonds 4210.1

Foreign-Exchange Risk 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging

Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
Because of the low volatility of the Canadian cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
dollar exchange rate, there has been a low level (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
of foreign-exchange risk associated with Cana- ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
dian bonds. To the extent that this risk exists, it
can be easily reduced by using foreign-currency
derivatives instruments as described above. RISK-BASED CAPITAL
WEIGHTING
Political Risk Canadas are assigned to the zero percent risk-
weight category.
A change in the political environment, withhold-
ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an
adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be INVESTMENT
familiar with the local laws and regulations
governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans- Canadas are type III securities. As such, a
actions, and authorized counterparties. bank’s investment in them is limited to 10 per-
cent of its equity capital and reserves.

ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
REFERENCES
The accounting treatment for investments in
foreign debt is determined by the Financial Crossan, Ruth, and Mark Johnson, ed. ‘‘Cana-
Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of dian Dollar.’’ The Guide to International Capi-
Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS tal Markets 1991. London: Euromoney Pub-
115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in lications PLC, 1991, pp. 37–49.
Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by Fabozzi, Frank J. Bond Markets, Analysis, and
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards Strategies. 3d ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.:
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers Prentice-Hall, 1996.
and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin- Fabozzi, Frank J., and T. Dessa Fabozzi, ed. The
guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat- Handbook of Fixed Income Securities. 4th ed.
ment for derivatives used as investments or for New York: Irwin, 1995.
hedging purposes is determined by Statement of J.P. Morgan Securities. Government Bond Out-
Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS lines. 9th ed., April 1996.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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French Government Bonds and Notes
Section 4215.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OATs and subsequently reconstitute them. All

stripped coupons carry a uniform face value to
The French Treasury is an active issuer of three ensure the fungibility of receipts that have the
types of government debt securities, which cover same maturities but that are derived from OATs
all maturities. Obligation Assimilable du Tresor of different maturities.
(OATs), issued since 1985, are the French gov-
ernment’s long-term debt instruments of up to
thirty years. Bons du Tresor a Taux Fixe et
Interest Annuel (BTANs) are medium-term, USES
fixed-rate notes of up to five years. The French
Treasury also issues discount Treasury bills, French government securities are used for invest-
Bons du Tresor a Taux Fixe et Interest Pre- ment, hedging, and speculative purposes. They
comptes (BTFs), that have maturities of up to are considered attractive for investment pur-
one year. In addition, an active market for poses by foreign and domestic investors because
stripped OATs has developed. Stripping involves of the market’s liquidity, lack of credit risk, and
separating a bond’s interest and principal pay- wide range of maturities and structures (for
ments into several zero-coupon bonds. example, fixed versus floating rates). Foreign
investors often choose to invest internationally
to enhance the diversification of their invest-
ment portfolios or derive higher returns. Stripped
CHARACTERISTICS AND OATs can be used as tools for hedging or asset-
FEATURES liability management purposes, for example, to
immunize a portfolio in terms of interest-rate
The French Treasury issues OATs that have risk. Speculators also use OATs, BTANs, and
maturities of up to thirty years. Most OATs carry stripped OATs to take positions on the direction
a fixed interest rate and have bullet maturities. of interest-rate changes and yield-curve shifts.
However, some OATs are issued with floating Finally, there is an active market for futures and
rates that are referenced to various short-term or options on French government securities traded
long-term indexes. OATs generally pay interest on the Marche a Terme International de France
annually. OATs are settled three days after the (Matif), the Paris financial futures exchange.
trade date (T+3), both domestically and interna-
tionally. Domestically, OATs are cleared through
the SICOVAM Relit system (a French securities
settlement system), while OATs that settle inter- DESCRIPTION OF
nationally are cleared through Euroclear or Cedel MARKETPLACE
(international clearing organizations).
BTANs are fixed-rate, bullet-maturity notes Issuing Practices
that have maturities of up to five years. Interest
on BTANs is paid annually on the 12th of the The French Treasury issues OATs, BTANs, and
month. Domestic settlement for BTANs and BTFs through Dutch auction. The Treasury
BTFs usually occurs one day after the trade date usually issues tranches of securities that are part
(T+1) through the Bank of France’s Saturne of a single borrowing line. The auction schedule
system. Internationally, BTANs and BTFs settle is generally announced several months in
three days after the trade date. Like OATS, advance. Securities are supplied at the price or
BTANs and BTFs may also be cleared through effective rate tendered by the bidder rather than
Euroclear or Cedel. Interest on all government the marginal price or rate. The highest bids are
bonds and notes is calculated using a 30/360- filled first, followed by lower bids. Although
day-count convention in which each month is bidding is open to any institution that has an
assumed to have thirty days. account with the SICOVAM, Saturne, or Bank
Since May 1991, French government securi- of France, SVTs account for 90 percent of the
ties primary dealers, Specialistes en Valuers du securities bought in the primary market. SVTs
Tresor (SVTs), have been allowed to strip most also quote two-way prices on a when-issued
long-term OATs. Primary dealers may strip basis several business days before an auction.

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4215.1 French Government Bonds and Notes

Secondary Market decimal places. For example, the price quote of

106.85 refers to an OAT that is trading at
There is an active secondary market for most 106.85 percent of its par value. Strips are quoted
issues of French government securities. OATs, on the basis of their yield. BTANs and BTFs are
BTANs, and BTFs are listed on the Paris Stock quoted on an annual-yield basis to two decimal
Exchange. In 2000, HTS France, an electronic places.
trading system for the secondary market in
French government bonds, was launched.
Liquidity is ensured by the SVTs, who serve as
market makers. The repo market allows inves- HEDGING
tors to finance short-term positions.
The interest-rate risk of French government
securities can be hedged in the futures or options
Market Participants market at the Matif or by taking a contra
position in another French government security.
Sell Side Swaps and options can also be used to hedge
interest-rate risk. The effectiveness of a particu-
Since 1987, SVTs have managed the market for lar hedge is dependent on yield-curve and basis
French government securities. The SVTs work risk. For example, hedging a position in a
closely with the French Treasury in determining five-year note with an overhedged position in a
issuance policy, market conditions, and prices. three-year note may expose the dealer to yield-
SVTs are required to quote prices for clients and curve risk. Hedging a thirty-year bond with a
other primary dealers in tradable securities and Treasury bond future exposes the dealer to basis
are responsible for the maintenance of liquid risk if historical price relationships between
primary and secondary markets. In exchange, futures and cash markets are not stable. Also, if
the French Treasury permits SVTs to strip and a position in notes or bonds is hedged using an
reconstitute OATs and participate in noncom- OTC option, the relative illiquidity of the option
petitive bidding. may diminish the effectiveness of the hedge.
Non–euro zone investors are also exposed to
Buy Side foreign-exchange risk. Foreign-exchange risk
can be hedged using currency forwards, futures,
French government securities are used for invest- swaps, or options. An international investor can
ment, hedging, and speculative purposes by a use a series of forward foreign-exchange con-
wide range of institutional investors, both inter- tracts that correspond to each of the coupon
national and domestic. These investors include payments and the final principal payment to
insurance companies, pension funds, mutual hedge this risk. Swaps, futures contracts, or
funds, and commercial and investment banks. currency options, traded either on the Matif or
OTC, can also be used to hedge currency risk.

Market Transparency
RISKS
The market for French government bonds is
active, and market transparency is relatively Liquidity Risk
high for most issues. The French Treasury
regularly publishes the debt-issuance schedule French bonds are among the most liquid in
and other information on the management of its Europe. Because the French Treasury issues
debt. Auction results, trading information, and OATs and BTANs as tranches of existing bonds,
prices for most issues are available on inter- most bond issues have sizable reserves and
dealer broker screens such as Reuters, Telerate, liquidity. SVTs make a market in French gov-
and Bloomberg. ernment bonds, a practice that enhances liquid-
ity of the market. The most recently issued
ten-year OAT generally serves as the benchmark
PRICING and is thus the most liquid of these issues. For
the medium-term market, the most recent issues
OATs are quoted as a percentage of par to two of two- and five-year BTANs serve as the

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French Government Bonds and Notes 4215.1

benchmark. Next to the U.S. Treasury strip governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
market, French strips are the most liquid in the actions, and authorized counterparties.
world. As stated above, the face value of all
stripped OATs is uniform, ensuring the fungibil-
ity of coupons of different maturities. Because
primary dealers may reconstitute strips at any ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
time, their liquidity is comparable to the refer-
ence OAT. The accounting treatment for investments in
foreign debt is determined by the Financial
Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
Interest-Rate Risk Financial Acounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
From the perspective of an international inves- Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
tor, the market risk of French government bonds Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
consists primarily of interest-rate risk and No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
foreign-exchange risk. The interest-rate risk of a and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
French government bond depends on its dura- guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
tion and the volatility of French interest rates. ment for derivatives used as investments or for
Bonds with longer durations are more price hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
sensitive to changes in interest rates than bonds Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
with shorter durations. Because they are zero- 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
coupon instruments, French strips have longer Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
durations than OATs of comparable maturity, cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
and they are more volatile. (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)

Foreign-Exchange Risk
RISK-BASED CAPITAL
From the perspective of an international inves-
tor, the total return from investing in French
WEIGHTING
government securities is partly dependent on the
French government bonds and notes are assigned
exchange rate between the U.S. dollar and the
to the zero percent risk-weight category.
euro.

Political Risk LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK

INVESTMENT
A change in the political environment, withhold-
ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an French government bonds and notes are type III
adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an securities. A bank’s investment in them is lim-
investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be ited to 10 percent of its equity capital and
familiar with the local laws and regulations reserves.

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German Government Bonds and Notes
Section 4220.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION Treasury notes (Schätze) are one-off issues that

have a two-year maturity. Only credit institu-
The federal government of Germany issues tions that are members of the Bund Issues
several types of securities: bonds (Bunds), notes Auction Group may bid directly in auctions.
(Bobls and Schätze), and Treasury discount On the short end of the maturity range are
paper (U-Schätze). Government agencies such Federal Treasury financing paper that has matu-
as the Federal Post Office and the Federal rities of twelve to twenty-four months and
Railway have also issued bonds (Posts and Treasury discount paper (Bubills) that has
Bahns) and notes (Schätze). In addition, after the maturities of six months. Tap issues of Federal
unification of West and East Germany in Octo- Treasury financing paper are sold in the open
ber 1990, the German Unity Fund began to issue market unlike most sales of German government
Unity Fund bonds (Unities) and notes (Schätze). bonds, which occur through auctions.
The outstanding debt issues of the post office, Stock-exchange settlement takes place two
railway, and Unity Fund have since been folded market days after trade date (T+2). International
into the so-called Debt Inheritance Fund, which settlement takes place three business days after
has led to an explicit debt service of these issues trade date (T+3). As of January 1, 1994, German
through the federal government. Hence, these federal government notes and bonds no longer
issues are guaranteed by the full faith and credit trade ex-coupon. They trade on a cum-coupon
of the federal government. All government- basis; the purchaser of the bond pays the seller
guaranteed securities are available in book-entry accrued interest from the last coupon date to
form only. settlement. Interest is accrued on an actual/
The government also issues U-Schätze, zero- 365-day-count basis, except for Federal Trea-
coupon Treasury notes that have maturities of sury financing paper, for which a 30/360-day-
one to two years and that may not be purchased count basis is used.
by foreigners, and short-term Treasury bills that
have half-a-year to one-year maturities and that
may be purchased by foreigners. However, the USES
secondary market for these instruments is small
and does not attract substantial foreign invest- German government bonds and notes are used
ment. Therefore, the following discussion will for investment, hedging, and speculative pur-
focus on bonds and notes. poses. Foreign investors, including U.S. banks,
often purchase German government securities as
a means of diversifying their securities port-
CHARACTERISTICS AND folios. German government securities may also
FEATURES be used to hedge German interest-rate risk.
Speculators may use German government bonds
Bunds are issued regularly, usually in deutsche to take positions on changes in the level and
marks (DM) 20 billion to DM 30 billion blocks, term structure of German interest rates or on
and have maturities ranging from eight to thirty changes in the foreign-exchange rates between
years. Bunds are typically issued with a maturity the euro zone and the United States. Because the
of ten or thirty years. Bunds are redeemable in a German government bond market is deep and
lump sum at maturity at their face value (bullet efficient, some German futures contracts and
structure) with interest paid annually. Until 1990, options are priced relative to Bund issues.
all bonds issued by the federal government and
other public authorities were noncallable and
bore a fixed coupon. However, since February DESCRIPTION OF
1990, some callable floating-rate bonds have MARKETPLACE
been issued.
Special five-year federal notes (Bobls) have Issuing Practices
been issued by the federal government since
1979, but foreign investment in these securities Bunds are issued using a combination of syndi-
has been permitted only since 1988. Federal cation and bidding procedures. Part of the

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4220.1 German Government Bonds and Notes

issue is offered at fixed terms to the members of Secondary Market

the Federal Bond Consortium, which consists of
German banks, foreign banks in Germany, and German bonds are listed and traded on all eight
the Deutsche Bundesbank (German Central German stock exchanges seven days after they
Bank). The Bundesbank is the lead bank in the are issued. Bobl issues are officially listed on the
syndicate and determines the allocation of the stock exchanges after the initial selling period of
offerings among the syndicate members. These one to three months. In addition to the stock-
allocations are changed infrequently. During exchange transactions, substantial over-the-
the syndicate meeting, the coupon rate, matur- counter (OTC) trading occurs. In Germany, the
ity, and issue price are determined by the gov- secondary market for both stocks and bonds is
ernment and syndicate, although the total size primarily an interbank market.
of the issue is unknown. Syndicate members For some issues, prices are fixed once during
receive a fee from the government for stock-exchange hours (stock-exchange fixing
selling bonds received through syndicate takes place from 11:00 a.m. to 1:30 p.m. Green-
negotiations. wich mean time +1). However as of October 3,
A further tranche is issued to the syndicate 1988, variable trading was introduced at the
by means of an American-style auction. The German stock exchanges for larger issuances of
terms—coupon rate, maturity, and settlement Bunds, Bobls, Bahns, and Posts issued after
date—are the same as those determined in the January 2, 1987. The Unity Fund issues also
syndicate meeting, although the overall size of participate. After the fixing of the prices on the
the issue is not specified. The Deutsche Bundes- stock exchanges, the securities are traded on the
bank accepts bids starting with the highest price OTC market (OTC hours are from 8:30 a.m. to
and accepts lower bids until the supply of 5:30 p.m.).
securities it wishes to sell is depleted. Noncom- Seventy percent to 80 percent of the secondary-
petitive bids may also be submitted, which are market trading of Bunds, Bahns, and Posts takes
filled at the average accepted price of the auc- place in the OTC market. About 75 percent of
tion. The size of the issue is announced after the Bobl trading takes place in the OTC market, as
auction. The difference between the issue size does most Schätze trading. However, the stock
and the amount that has been issued through the markets are important because the prices deter-
underwriting syndicate plus the auction is mined there provide standard, publicly available
retained by the Bundesbank for its bond market benchmarks.
operations.
Five-year federal notes, Bobls, are issued on a
standing-issue basis (similar to a tap form in
which a fixed amount of securities at a fixed Market Participants
price is issued when market conditions are
considered favorable) with stated coupon and Sell Side
price. During the initial selling period, which
may last a few months, the price is periodically The underwriting of public authority bonds is
adjusted by the Ministry of Finance to reflect done by the Federal Bond Syndicate, which
changes in market conditions. The sales of a consists of German banks, foreign banks in
given series are terminated when either the Germany, and the Deutsche Bundesbank. Ger-
issuing volume has been exhausted or the nomi- man banks are responsible for placing Bobls
nal interest rate has moved too far away from with qualified investors.
the going market rate. The new series is launched
within a short period of time. Only domestic
private individuals and domestic nonprofit insti- Buy Side
tutions are permitted to purchase the issues in
the primary market. German banks (which can- Domestic banks, private German individuals,
not purchase these securities for their own German insurance companies, and German
account) receive a commission for selling the investment funds are major holders of German
bonds to qualified investors. After the selling bonds. Foreign investors, such as U.S. commer-
period is over and an issue is officially listed on cial and investment banks, insurance companies,
the German stock exchange, the securities may and money managers, also hold German gov-
be purchased by any investor. ernment securities.

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German Government Bonds and Notes 4220.1

Market Transparency maturity. Similar to Bunds, on-the-run Bobls are

the most liquid type of note. Off-the-run prices
The market for German government bonds and are not as transparent as current coupon securi-
notes is active and liquid, and price transparency ties, which makes these issues less liquid and
is considered to be relatively high for these trading more uncertain. Of course, larger issues
securities. Several vendors, including Reuters of bonds and notes are generally more liquid
and Telerate, disseminate price information to than smaller ones.
the investing public. At the stock exchange, the German Central
Bank makes a market in Bunds, Bobls, Unities,
and Post issues. The Deutsche Bundesbank is
PRICING responsible for maintaining an orderly second-
ary market in these securities and regularly
Bonds and notes are quoted as a percentage of intervenes to support or regulate their prices.
par to two decimal places. For example, a price This tends to increase the liquidity in the market
of 98.25 means that the price of the bond or note for these issues. However, the Bundesbank is
is 98.25 percent of par. Bonds are traded on a not responsible for stabilizing Schätze prices.
price basis, net of accrued interest (clean). For this reason, these securities tend to be much
less liquid than Bunds or Bobls; their issue sizes
are also normally much smaller. The Railway
HEDGING Bank makes a market in Bahn issues, which
enhances the liquidity of these issues.
Interest-rate risk can be hedged using swaps,
forwards, futures, or options or by taking a
contra position in another German government Interest-Rate Risk
security. The effectiveness of a particular hedge
is dependent on yield-curve and basis risk. For German bonds and notes are subject to price
example, hedging a position in a five-year note fluctuations caused by changes in German inter-
with an overhedged position in a three-year note est rates. The variation in the term structure of
may expose the dealer to yield-curve risk. Hedg- interest rates accounts for the greatest amount of
ing a thirty-year bond with a bond future exposes local market risk related to foreign bonds.
the dealer to basis risk if the historical price Longer-term issues have more price volatility
relationships between futures and cash markets because of interest-rate fluctuations than do
are not stable. Also, if a position in notes and shorter-term instruments. Therefore, a large con-
bonds is hedged using an OTC option, the centration of long-term maturities may subject a
relative illiquidity of the option may diminish bank’s investment portfolio to unwarranted
the effectiveness of the hedge. interest-rate risk.

RISKS Political Risk

Liquidity Risk A change in the political environment, withhold-
ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an
Bunds are the most liquid and actively traded adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
bond issues in Germany. Unities issued by the investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be
German Unity Fund are generally as liquid as familiar with the local laws and regulations
Bunds, but Bahn and Post issues of government governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
agencies are fairly limited compared with the actions, and authorized counterparties.
federal government’s bonds. Therefore, these
agency securities tend to be less liquid and
generally trade at a higher yield than Bunds. ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
The on-the-run (most recent) Bund issue is
the most liquid of its category and serves as the The accounting treatment for investments in
benchmark. The most liquid area of the Bund foreign debt is determined by the Financial
yield curve is in the eight- to ten-year maturity Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
range, as most Bund issues carry a ten-year Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS

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4220.1 German Government Bonds and Notes

115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in RISK-BASED CAPITAL

Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by WEIGHTING
Statement of Finanical Accounting Standards
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers German government bonds and notes are
and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin- assigned to the zero percent risk-weight category.
guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
ment for derivatives used as investments or for
hedging purposes is determined by Statement of LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS INVESTMENT
133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan- German government bonds and notes are type III
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138 securities. As such, a bank’s investment in them
(FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1, is limited to 10 percent of its equity capital and
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.) reserves.

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Irish Government Bonds
Section 4225.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION DESCRIPTION OF

MARKETPLACE
Irish government bonds (IGBs) are issued by
the National Treasury Management Agency Issuing Practices
(NTMA), which is responsible for the manage-
ment of Ireland’s national debt.1 Bonds are About 80 percent of issuance is by the tap
issued to fund the government’s borrowing system, and the rest of the bonds are issued by
requirements and to fund maturing bond issues. regular auctions. Taps are sales of a fixed
amount of securities at a fixed price when
market conditions are considered favorable. The
type of bond and size of the tap issue are
CHARACTERISTICS AND communicated to the market, but the price is
FEATURES only communicated to the primary dealers who
bid by telephone. The auction system has both a
Bond issuance is confined to a limited number competitive and noncompetitive element. The
of designated fixed-rate benchmark bonds in key competitive auction is open to all investors who
maturities of four, ten, and thirteen years. The may bid directly or through a primary dealer or
amounts in issue in the benchmark bonds range stockbroker. Following the auction, noncompeti-
from euro 4.4 billion to euro 7.5 billion. Issues tive bids are filled at the average auction price.
are transferable in any amount and are listed and Only primary dealers may submit noncompeti-
traded on the Irish stock exchange. Coupons are tive bids.
paid annually or semiannually, depending on the
type of bond. Interest is accrued from the
coupon payment date to the settlement date.
Interest is computed using the actual/365-day- Secondary Market
count convention for semiannual coupon bonds
and the 30/365-day-count convention for annual IGBs are listed on the Dublin, Cork, and London
coupon bonds. Settlement takes place three days stock exchanges. They are also traded in the
after the trade date (T+3). The interest on annual over-the-counter (OTC) market.
coupon bonds that have an accrued ex-dividend
date is negative if the settlement date falls
between the ex-dividend date (exclusive) and
the coupon date (inclusive). The benchmark Market Participants
bonds carry no ex-dividend period. IGBs are
available in registered form and are cleared Sell Side
through Euroclear, an international clearing
organization. Seven primary dealers quote firm bid and offer
prices in each of a specified list of four bonds. In
return for their market-making services, the
NTMA provides these dealers with exclusive
USES access to the supply of bonds issued in tap form.
The designated brokers are ABN AMRO, AIB
Irish government bonds and notes are used for Capital Markets, Credit Agricole Indosuez, Davy,
investment, hedging, and speculative purposes, Deutsche Bank, NCB, and Schroder Salomon
by both domestic and foreign investors and Smith Barney.
traders. U.S. banks purchase Irish government
bonds to diversify their portfolios, speculate on
Irish interest rates, and hedge euro zone cur- Buy Side
rency positions and positions along the Irish
yield curve. The principal holders of IGBs are domestic and
foreign institutional investors, such as banks,
securities firms, insurance companies, pension
1. For more information, see www.ntma.ie/govtbonds. funds, and money managers.

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4225.1 Irish Government Bonds

Market Transparency Political Risk

Price transparency for Irish government securi- A change in the political environment, withhold-
ties is relatively high as a result of the structure ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an
of the primary dealer system, which enhances adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
liquidity. Several information vendors dissemi- investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be
nate prices to the investing public. familiar with the local laws and regulations
governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
actions, and authorized counterparties.
PRICING
Bonds are quoted as a percent of par to two ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
decimal places. The price paid by the buyer does
not include accrued interest. The bid/offer spread The accounting treatment for investments in
for maturities up to ten years ranges from euro foreign debt is determined by the Financial
.05 to euro .07. For longer-term maturities, the Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
bid/offer spread is euro .15. Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
HEDGING Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
Interest-rate risk may be hedged by taking and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
contra positions in government securities or by guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
using swaps or futures. Foreign-exchange risk ment for derivatives used as investments or for
can be hedged using currency swaps, futures, or hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
forward rate agreements. Finanical Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
RISKS (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
Liquidity Risk ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)

Active portfolio management, the wide range of

coupons and maturities available, and the devel- RISK-BASED CAPITAL
opment of a trading rather than a purely invest- WEIGHTING
ment outlook among Irish investors have
increased the liquidity of the Irish government Irish government bonds are assigned to the zero
bond market. The large issues tend to be very percent risk-weight category.
liquid throughout the yield curve; the four bonds
for which the primary dealers are obliged to
make markets are particularly liquid. LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
INVESTMENT
Interest-Rate Risk Irish government bonds are type III securi-
ties. As such, a bank’s investment in them is
IGBs are exposed to interest-rate risk as a result limited to 10 percent of its equity capital and
of the inverse relationship between bond prices reserves.
and interest rates. Longer-term issues have more
price volatility than short-term instruments.

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Italian Government Bonds and Notes
Section 4230.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION USES

The Italian Treasury issues bonds, notes, and Italian government securities are used for invest-
bills, which are guaranteed by the Italian ment, hedging, and speculative purposes. Inves-
government. These securities are issued with tors may buy Italian bonds as a way to diversify
maturities ranging from three months to thirty their investment portfolios, but the bonds may
years in a wide variety of structures. These also be used to hedge positions that are sensitive
structures include Treasury bonds, Treasury to movements in interest rates. Speculators, on
floating-rate notes, Treasury notes with a put the other hand, may use long-term bonds to take
option, and short-term Treasury bills. Govern- positions on changes in the level and term
ment securities are issued in book-entry form structure of interest rates.
but may be converted to bearer form following
their issuance.
DESCRIPTION OF
MARKETPLACE
CHARACTERISTICS AND Issuing Practices
FEATURES
Italian government bonds are issued through a
Treasury bonds, or Buoni del Tesero Poliennali marginal auction, in which there is no base
(BTPs), are fixed-coupon medium- to long-term price. Each allotment is made at the marginal
government bonds with semiannual dividend accepted bid, which represents the stop-out
payments. These bonds have played an impor- price. No bids are considered below the stop-out
tant role in financing the Treasury, especially price. Partial allotments may be given at the
after the establishment of the telematic market stop-out price if the amount bid at that price
for government bonds, which provides the exceeds the amount not covered by the higher-
liquidity necessary for these instruments. These priced bids. Each participant is limited to three
bonds are issued with five-, ten-, and thirty-year bids. The exclusion price, or the price below
maturities. Interest on the bonds is paid through which no bids will be accepted, is calculated by
deferred semiannual coupons. listing the bids in decreasing order and proceed-
Treasury floating-rate notes, or Certificati di ing as follows:
Credito del Tesoro (CCTs), are floating-rate
notes indexed to T-bill rates. CCTs are generally • If the amount of competitive bids is greater
issued with seven-year maturities, although five- than or equal to the amount offered—
and ten-year notes have also become popular. — take the amount of bids (in a decreasing
Interest on these bonds is paid through deferred price order) needed to cover half the
semiannual or annual dividend coupons, with offered amount,
rates indexed to Italian Treasury Bill (BOT) — calculate the weighted average of the above
yields. The coupon is calculated by adding a set of bids, and
spread of 30 basis points to the six-month T-bill — subtract 200 basis points from the weighted
recorded in the last auction. average to obtain the exclusion price.
Domestic and international settlement of Ital- • If the amount of competitive bids is less than
ian government bonds takes place three business the amount offered—
dates after the trade date (T+3). The only — take half of the bids in a decreasing price
exception is BOTs, which settle two business order,
dates after the trade date (T+2). Italian govern- — calculate the weighted average of the above
ment bonds with a coupon can be settled through set of bids, and
Euroclear or Cedel (international clearing orga- — subtract 200 basis points from the weighted
nizations). Settlement through Euroclear and average to obtain the exclusion price.
Cedel takes five days. Interest is calculated
using a 30/360-day count in which each month Once the exclusion yield is calculated, bids
is assumed to have 30 days. are accepted in decreasing order of price. Bids

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4230.1 Italian Government Bonds and Notes

are accepted to the point that covers the amount dealers, provided they are residents of the Euro-
to be offered up to the stop-out price. Noncom- pean Union and subject to comparable financial
petitive bids may also be accepted and awarded regulations.
at the average of accepted competitive bids plus
a Treasury spread.
The Treasury makes an announcement of Buy Side
auction dates annually and also makes a quar-
terly announcement of the types of bonds and A wide range of investors use Italian govern-
minimum issue sizes to be offered in the fol- ment bonds for investing, hedging, and specu-
lowing three months. The auctions are held at lation. These investors include domestic banks,
the beginning and middle of the month. Gener- nonfinancial corporate and quasi-corporate pub-
ally, three- and five-year bills are sold on the lic and private enterprises, insurance companies,
same day, ten- and thirty-year bonds are sold and private investors. Foreign investors, includ-
together, and CCTs are sold on the third day of ing U.S. commercial banks, securities firms,
the auctions. insurance companies, and money managers, are
The Bank of Italy may reopen issues, that is, also active in the Italian government bond
sell new tranches of existing bonds, until the market.
level outstanding reaches a certain volume.
After that threshold volume is reached, a new
bond must be issued. If an issue is reopened, the Market Transparency
Bank of Italy issues new tranches of securities
with the same maturities, coupons, and repay- The Italian government bond market is an active
ment characteristics as existing debt. The ability one. Price transparency is relatively high for
to reopen issues improves liquidity and avoids Italian government securities because several
the potential poor pricing of securities that often information vendors, including Reuters, dissemi-
occurs when a market is flooded with one very nate prices to the investing public.
large issue.

PRICING
Secondary Market
Prices and yields of Italian government securi-
Italian government bonds can be traded on any ties are stated as a percentage of par to two
of the following: the Milan Stock Exchange, the decimal places. For instance, a price of 97.50
telematic government bond spot market (Mer- means that the price of the bond is 97.50 percent
cato Telematico dei Titoli di Stato or MTS), and of par. The price spread is generally narrow due
the over-the-counter (OTC) market. Bonds may to the efficiency of the market.
be traded on the Milan Stock Exchange if they Bonds trade on a clean-price basis, quoted net
are transformed into bearer bonds (at least six of accrued interest. Italian government bonds do
months after being issued). The stock exchange not trade ex dividend. Interest on Italian bonds is
is the reference market for the small saver; only accrued from the previous coupon date to the
small dealings are transacted there. At the end of settlement date (inclusive). In this regard, Italian
the day, the exchange publishes an official list of bonds pay an extra day of interest compared
the prices and volumes of trading. The MTS is with other bond markets.
the reference market for professional dealers.

HEDGING
MARKET PARTICIPANTS
Italian government bonds can be hedged for
Sell Side interest-rate risk in the Italian futures market
(Mercato Italiano Futures or MIF) as well as the
Only banks authorized by the government of London International Financial Futures Exchange
Italy may act as primary dealers of Italian (LIFFE). The MIF and LIFFE offer futures on
government bonds. Branches of foreign banks ten-year Italian government securities, and the
and nonfinancial institutions can also act as MIF offers futures on five-year Italian govern-

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 2
Italian Government Bonds and Notes 4230.1

ment securities. The LIFFE also offers OTC investment portfolio may increase interest-rate
options on individual bonds as well as options risk.
on futures contracts. OTC forwards and swaps
can also be used to hedge interest-rate risk.
The effectiveness of a hedge depends on the Political Risk
yield-curve and basis risk. For example, hedging
a position in a five-year note with an overhedged A change in the political environment, withhold-
position in a two-year note may expose the ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an
dealer to yield-curve risk. Hedging a thirty-year adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
bond with an Italian bond future exposes the investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be
dealer to basis risk if the historical price rela- familiar with the local laws and regulations
tionships between futures and cash markets are governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
not stable. Additionally, if a position in notes or actions, and authorized counterparties.
bonds is hedged using an OTC option, the
relative illiquidity of the option may diminish
the effectiveness of the hedge.
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
The accounting treatment for investments in
RISKS foreign debt is determined by the Financial
Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
Liquidity Risk Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
The Italian bond market is one of the most liquid 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
markets in the world. Liquidity is maintained by Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
40 market makers, which include 16 specialists, Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
top-tier market makers (Morgan Guaranty, No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
Milan), and 24 other market makers who are and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
obligated to quote two-way prices. Ten market guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
makers have privileged access to the Bank of ment for derivatives used as investments or for
Italy on the afternoon of an auction to buy extra hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
bonds at the auction price. The purchases are Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
subject to a limit set by the Bank. For instance, 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
if a particular issue were oversubscribed and Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
prices were likely to shoot up, the selected cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
market makers would be able to buy more of the (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
same bond and maintain or increase market ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
liquidity.
Before selling a new bond, the Bank of Italy
may reopen issues until they reach a certain RISK-BASED CAPITAL
volume. Liquidity is also maintained by limiting WEIGHTING
the number of government entities that issue
debt. In the case of Italy, only the central Italian government bonds and notes are assigned
government may issue debt securities. to the zero percent risk-weight category.

Interest-Rate Risk LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK

INVESTMENT
Italian government bonds are subject to price
fluctuations due to changes in interest rates. Italian government notes and bonds are type III
Longer-term issues have more price volatility securities. As such, a bank’s investment in them
than shorter-term instruments. Therefore, a large is limited to 10 percent of its equity capital and
concentration of longer-term maturities in an reserves.

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Japanese Government Bonds and Notes
Section 4235.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION issued through a syndicate underwriting system,

in which 90 percent of the issue is distributed to
Japanese government bonds (JGBs) are issued syndicate members through a competitive price
by the Japanese national government. The Min- auction. The remaining 10 percent is executed at
istry of Finance (MOF) authorizes the issuance the average price paid in the competitive price
of coupon and non-coupon-bearing JGBs in a auction. For long-term coupon-bearing bonds,
variety of maturities: super-long-term (twenty 60 percent of the issue is distributed by syndi-
and thirty years), long-term (ten years), and cate members through an auction; the remaining
medium-term (two through six years). The MOF 40 percent is distributed by syndicate members
also issues short-term Treasury bills, which are on the basis of a preset share at a price set at the
issued at a discount with maturities of three average of the price paid in the auction. For
months, six months, or one year. medium-term coupon-bearing bonds, 90 percent
of the issue is distributed to syndicate members
through a competitive price auction, and the
remaining 10 percent is executed at the average
CHARACTERISTICS AND price paid in the competitive price auction.
FEATURES
JGB revenue bond issues are categorized as
construction bonds, deficit-financing bonds, or
refunding bonds, although there is no difference
Secondary Market
in these bonds from an investment perspective.
Super-long-term coupon-bearing bonds are issued Most JGBs are listed on the Japanese stock
quarterly (with a twenty-year maturity) or semi- exchanges, although the majority of JGB trading
annually (with a thirty-year maturity) in units of occurs in the over-the-counter (OTC) market.
yen 50,000 and have a fixed semiannual coupon. While the OTC market is characterized by very
Long-term coupon-bearing bonds are issued large trading volume, stock-exchange trading is
monthly in units of yen 50,000 and have a fixed important because it enhances transparency in
semiannual coupon. Medium-term coupon- pricing—the Tokyo Stock Exchange closing
bearing bonds are issued monthly (with a two- prices serve as a public pricing source for JGBs.
year maturity) or bimonthly (with four- and Long-term government bonds account for the
six-year maturities) in units of yen 50,000 and largest share of secondary-market trading of
have a semiannual coupon. government securities, partly because they have
higher credit ratings and greater marketability
than shorter-maturity JGBs. In the secondary
market, the broker and investor negotiate the
USES ‘‘invoice price,’’ which includes commissions
for the agent.
Domestic and foreign investors use JGBs for The secondary market for JGBs has some
investment, hedging, and speculative purposes. unusual features. The first relates to the bench-
U.S. investors, including commercial banks, may mark or bellwether bond issue. In the U.S.
purchase JGBs to speculate on interest rates or Treasury market, the on-the-run issue (the most
foreign-exchange rates, diversify portfolios, recently auctioned issue for a given maturity) is
profit from spreads between U.S. and Japanese the benchmark issue for each maturity. How-
interest rates, and hedge various positions. ever, the Japanese benchmark issue is deter-
mined through an informal process that occurs
over a few weeks. The characteristics of bench-
DESCRIPTION OF mark issues are (1) a coupon that is near the
MARKETPLACE prevailing rate, (2) a large outstanding amount
(approximately yen 1.5 trillion or more), (3) a
Issuing Practices wide distribution or placement after the bench-
mark’s issue, and (4) a remaining maturity that
Super-long-term coupon-bearing bonds are is very close to ten years.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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4235.1 Japanese Government Bonds and Notes

Another unusual feature of the JGB market is PRICING

the so-called reverse coupon effect. In most
bond markets, high-coupon bonds trade at a JGB prices are quoted in yield, specifically on
higher yield than low-coupon bonds of the same the basis of simple yield, in basis points. Market
duration. This ‘‘coupon effect,’’ which varies price is calculated from simple yield. The fol-
with the duration of the bond as well as over lowing formulas are used to calculate price and
time, is often attributed to such institutional yield:
factors as different taxation of capital gains and
ordinary income. In Japan, however, there is a Ys = [C + (100 − P / T] / P or
strong preference for high-coupon bonds. As a P = [(C * T) + 100] / [1 + (T * Ys)],
result, high-coupon bonds trade at lower yields
than low-coupon bonds for the same duration where
(the ‘‘reverse coupon effect’’). This effect occurs Ys = simple yield
in spite of the Japanese tax code that requires C = coupon stated in decimal form
income tax to be paid on coupon income but P = price
generally not on capital gains on Japanese gov- T = time to maturity = number of days to
ernment bonds. Banks prefer coupon interest maturity/365
because banks’ current income ratios are closely
monitored by Japanese bank regulators.
Discount Bonds
Discount bonds are quoted on a simple-yield
Market Participants basis, which is different from the simple yield
Sell Side used on coupon bonds. Simple yield is used for
discount bonds with a maturity of less than one
JGBs are issued through a syndicate consisting year, but the formula is adjusted to reflect the
of domestic banks, life insurance companies, fact that discount bonds do not pay interest.
other domestic financial institutions, and some Annually compounded yield is used for discount
foreign securities firms. bonds with a maturity greater than one year.
The yield on a discount bond with less than
one year remaining to maturity is the value of Ys
Buy Side that solves—

A wide range of domestic and foreign investors P = 100 / (1 + T + Ys).

use JGBs for investing, hedging, and specula-
tion. Japanese financial institutions, particularly The yield on a discount bond with more than
city banks, long-term credit banks, regional one year remaining to maturity is the value of
banks, and insurance companies, tend to be the Ym that solves—
largest investors in yen-denominated bonds,
although corporate and individual investors are P = 100 / (1 + Ym)T,
very active investors in the medium-term gov-
ernment bond market. Foreign investors, such as where T is the number of days to maturity
U.S. commercial banks, securities firms, insur- (excluding leap days) divided by 365.
ance companies, and money managers, are also
active in the Japanese government bond market.
HEDGING
Because of the multiple risks associated with
MARKET TRANSPARENCY positions in foreign government bonds, inves-
tors may need to hedge one position in several
Price transparency is relatively high for JGBs. markets using various instruments. Interest-rate
JGBs are actively traded and pricing informa- risk related to JGBs is typically hedged by
tion is available from a variety of price infor- taking contra positions in other government
mation services, including Reuters and Telerate. bonds or by investing in interest-rate forwards,

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

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Japanese Government Bonds and Notes 4235.1

futures, options, or swaps. Similarly, foreign- the U.S. dollar, the investor will benefit by
exchange risk can be reduced by using currency receiving more dollars than otherwise. Over the
forwards, futures, options, or swaps. last few years, volatility in the U.S.-Japanese
exchange rate has been particularly high, pri-
marily because of the Japanese banking crisis.
RISKS
Liquidity Risk Political Risk
The market for longer-term JGBs tends to be A change in the political environment, withhold-
more liquid than that for the shorter-term issues, ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an
although liquidity has improved for the shorter- adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
term issues in the past few years. The bench- investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be
mark ten-year JGB still accounts for the major- familiar with the local laws and regulations
ity of trading volume in the secondary market governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
and therefore enjoys the best liquidity. JGBs actions, and authorized counterparties.
issued more recently also tend to be more liquid
than older issues. The market for medium-term
bonds is less liquid because such bonds are ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
typically purchased by individuals and invest-
ment trust funds, which tend to be buy-and-hold The accounting treatment for investments in
investors. The existence of a large and active foreign debt is determined by the Financial
JGB futures market enhances the liquidity of Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
these issues. Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
Interest-Rate Risk Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
Like all bonds, the price of JGBs will change in and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
the opposite direction from a change in interest guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
rates. If an investor has to sell a bond before the ment for derivatives used as investments or for
maturity date, an increase in interest rates will hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
mean the realization of a capital loss (selling the Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
bond below the purchase price). This risk is by 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
far the major risk faced by an investor in the Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
bond market. Interest-rate risk tends to be greater cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
for longer-term issues than for shorter-term (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
issues. Therefore, a large concentration of long- ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
term maturities may subject a bank’s investment
portfolio to unwarranted interest-rate risk.
RISK-BASED CAPITAL
WEIGHTING
Foreign-Exchange Risk
Japanese government bonds and yields are
A non-dollar-denominated bond (a bond whose assigned to the zero percent risk-weight cate-
payments are made in a foreign currency) has gory.
unknown U.S. dollar cash flows. The dollar-
equivalent cash flows depend on the exchange
rate at the time the payments are received. For LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
example, a U.S. bank that purchases a ten-year INVESTMENT
JGB receives interest payments in Japanese yen.
If the yen depreciates relative to the U.S. dollar, Japanese government bonds and notes are type
fewer dollars will be received than would have III securities. As such, a bank’s investment in
been received if there had been no depreciation. them is limited to 10 percent of its equity capital
Alternatively, if the yen appreciates relative to and reserves.

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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Spanish Government Bonds
Section 4240.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION ish Treasury publishes the auction calendar at

the beginning of the year. On the first Tuesday
The Spanish Treasury issues medium- and long- of the month, the three- and ten-year bonds are
term bonds, Bonos del Estado (Bonos) and issued. The five- and fifteen-year bonds are
Obligaciones del Estado (Obligaciones), which issued on the following Wednesday. Each issue
are guaranteed by the Spanish government. is sold in at least three competitive tenders. Bids
Since 1987, these bonds have been issued in are submitted before 10:30 a.m. on the auction
book-entry form only. date. Auction results are announced at 11:30
a.m. on the same day on Reuters. Payments
generally occur on the 15th of the same month.
At the beginning of each issue, the Treasury
CHARACTERISTICS AND fixes the coupon to be paid for at least the next
FEATURES three auctions. After all bids are made, the
Treasury fixes the total issue amount and allo-
Bonos are issued with maturities of three or five
cates bids from the highest price to a cut-off
years, while Obligaciones are issued with matu-
price. The total issue amount is not disclosed.
rities of ten or fifteen years. Bonos and Obliga-
The lowest bid submitted is referred to as the
ciones are noncallable, have bullet maturities,
marginal price of the issue. Bids between the
and can be issued with either annual or semian-
average and the marginal price are filled at the
nual coupons. All Spanish government bonds
price the bidders submitted. Bids above the
bear a fixed coupon. Domestic settlement takes
average are filled at the average price bid.
place the market date after the trade date (T+1),
while international settlement takes place seven If the Treasury announces a target issuance
calendar days following the trade date (T+7). level and the volume awarded during the initial
Settlement is done on a delivery-against-payment bidding stage is equal to or higher than 70 per-
basis for all transactions between interbank cent of the target level—but does not reach the
market participants. Bonos and Obligaciones are target issuance level—the Treasury has the right,
also eligible for settlement through Euroclear but not the obligation, to hold a second auction
and Cedel (international clearing organizations). exclusively with the primary dealers. In this
Interest is calculated using an actual/365-day case, every primary dealer must submit bids for
count. an amount at least equal to—

(target issuance level − volume awarded) /

number of primary dealers.
USES
If the target issuance level is met with the first
Historically, Bonos and Obligaciones have been bidding stage or if the Treasury does not
used as medium- and long-term investments. announce a target issuance level, primary deal-
However, in the early 1990s, the trading volume ers may submit up to three additional bids.
of these bonds doubled as banks and corpora- These bids cannot have yields higher than the
tions began to use Bonos and Obligaciones for average yield during the first bidding stage. In
cash-management purposes. These securities can this scenario, the Treasury must accept bids
also be used for hedging and speculative equal to at least 10 percent of the volume
purposes. awarded during the first bidding stage if it had
accepted more than 50 percent of the bids. If it
had accepted less than 50 percent of the bids, the
DESCRIPTION OF Treasury must accept bids equal to at least
20 percent of the volume awarded during the
MARKETPLACE first bidding stage.
Issuing Practices Interest begins to accrue from a date nomi-
nated by the Treasury. Historically, the date has
Currently, all Bonos and Obligaciones are issued been set so that the first coupon period will be
through monthly competitive auctions. The Span- exactly one year. Thus, tranches issued before

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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4240.1 Spanish Government Bonds

the nominated date have an irregular period PRICING

during which they trade at a discount without
accrued interest. Bonos and Obligaciones are quoted in eighths
on a percentage-of-par basis. Bid/offer spreads
are typically five to ten basis points for actively
Secondary Market traded issues and about twenty basis points for
illiquid issues. Bonos and Obligaciones do not
About 40 percent of all bond transactions are trade ex dividend, but they do trade before the
executed through a system of interdealer brokers Treasury nominates a date to begin coupon
(blind brokers) instituted by the Bank of Spain. accruals. The period before the nomination date
In the secondary market, only entities desig- is referred to as the irregular period. Because
nated as ‘‘primary dealers’’ can deal directly there is no accrued interest until a coupon
with the Bank of Spain. For example, if a payment date is nominated by the Treasury,
customer wants to buy a bond that a dealer does issues outstanding before the nomination are
not have in inventory, a primary dealer can go to priced at a discount and adjustments to yield
the Bank of Spain to obtain the bond. Nonpri- must be made accordingly. The following price/
mary dealers would have to obtain the bonds yield relationship holds during the irregular
through interdealer trading. Interdealer trading period:
is executed through information screens. Amounts
and prices are quoted but counterparties are not PV0 = PV1 / (1 + y)(n / 365),
disclosed.
where
PV1 = standard price/yield on the nominated
Market Participants date
Sell Side y = annual internal rate of return
n = the number of days until the end of the
The dealers of government securities are classi- irregular period
fied as either primary dealers or nonprimary
dealers. The Bank of Spain designates primary
dealers with whom they will conduct business. HEDGING
Other dealers obtain government securities
through interdealer trading. Foreign-currency and interest-rate risk may be
hedged by using derivative instruments such as
forwards, futures, swaps, or options. Interest-
Buy Side rate risk may also be hedged by taking an
offsetting position in another Spanish fixed-
The primary holders of Bonos and Obligaciones income security.
are private and savings banks. The Bank of
Spain, corporations, and foreign investors,
including U.S. commercial banks, securities
firms, insurance companies, and money manag- RISKS
ers, also hold outstanding bonds. Liquidity Risk
Liquidity risk is increased when market volumes
MARKET TRANSPARENCY of a security are low. In the case of Bonos and
Obligaciones, market volumes have been vola-
Several information vendors disseminate price tile as investor objectives and strategies have
information on Spanish government bonds. changed, such as when banks and corporations
Reuters and Telerate provide pricing informa- began to use Bonos and Obligaciones as cash-
tion for Bonos and Obligaciones. A Telerate management instruments rather than as medium-
service called 38494 provides the latest auction term investments. These bonds may experience
information. Reuters carries bond prices, dealer varying levels of liquidity. Liquidity may also
prices, the latest auction results, and Spanish be a function of how close to maturity a bond
Treasury pages. issue is. In other words, more recently issued

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 2
Spanish Government Bonds 4240.1

bonds tend to be more liquid than bonds that Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
have been traded in the market for a longer 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
period of time. Debt and Equity Securities," as amended by
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
Interest-Rate Risk and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
Interest-rate risk is derived from price fluctua- ment for derivatives used as investments or for
tions caused by changes in interest rates. Longer- hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
term issues have more price volatility than Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
shorter-term issues. A large concentration of 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
long-term maturities may subject a bank’s invest- Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
ment portfolio to greater interest-rate risk. cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
(FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)
Political Risk
A change in the political environment, withhold- RISK-BASED CAPITAL
ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an WEIGHTING
adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be Spanish government bonds are assigned to the
familiar with the local laws and regulations zero percent risk-weight category.
governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
actions, and authorized counterparties.
LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK
INVESTMENT
ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
Spanish government bonds are type III securi-
The accounting treatment for investments in ties. As such, a bank’s investment in them is
foreign debt is determined by the Financial limited to 10 percent of its equity capital and
Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of reserves.

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Swiss Government Notes and Bonds
Section 4245.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION currency risk that is related to its positions in

Swiss francs. Speculators may use Swiss gov-
Swiss government notes (SGNs) and bonds ernment bonds to take positions on changes in
(SGBs), also known as confederation notes and the level and term structure of Swiss interest
bonds, are fully guaranteed debt obligations of rates or on changes in the foreign-exchange
the Swiss government. The Swiss government rates between Switzerland and the United States.
debt market has historically been relatively small
as a result of the country’s low level of debt and
its balanced-budget policy. The Swiss govern- DESCRIPTION OF
ment does not engage in open market operations
because of the high degree of liquidity in the
MARKETPLACE
banking system. However, budget deficits in
recent years have resulted in an increase in the Issuing Practices
volume of activity. Bonds and notes are issued
through the Swiss National Bank in bearer form The Swiss Treasury issues debt through a Dutch
only. auction, and allocations are made to the highest
bidders in descending order until the supply of
securities the Treasury wishes to sell is depleted.
The lowest accepted tender price is considered
CHARACTERISTICS AND the clearing price. The debt-issuance calendar is
FEATURES announced at the beginning of each year. Cur-
rently, issuance takes place on the fourth Thurs-
Bonds have average maturity ranges of seven to day of every second month.
twenty years and are issued in denominations
of Swiss franc (SFr) 1,000, SFr 5,000, and
SFr 100,000. Notes have average maturities of Secondary Market
three to seven years and are issued in denomi-
nations of SFr 50,000 and SFr 100,000. Both SGBs are listed on the Swiss stock exchanges in
bonds and notes are fixed-coupon securities Zurich, Geneva, and Basel, as well as on the
redeemable at par (bullets). Interest is paid over-the-counter (OTC) market. SGNs are traded
annually and there are no odd first coupons. OTC only.
Most issues are callable, but many recent issues
do not have a call feature. Settlement is based on
Euroclear (an international clearing organiza-
tion) conventions, three days after the trade date Market Participants
(T+3). Interest is calculated using the 30E+/360-
day-count convention. If a starting date is the Sell Side
31st, it is changed to the 30th, and an end date
that falls on the 31st is changed to the 1st. The main dealers of SGBs are the Union Bank
of Switzerland, Credit Suisse, and the Swiss
Bank Corporation. The Swiss National Bank
does not allow non-Swiss banks to underwrite or
USES manage issues.

Swiss government bonds and notes are used for

investment, hedging, and speculative purposes. Buy Side
Foreign investors, including U.S. banks, often
purchase Swiss government securities as a means Many investors, foreign and domestic, are
of diversifying their securities portfolios. The attracted to the Swiss bond market because
low credit risk and liquidity of Swiss govern- of the strength of the Swiss economy, the
ment bonds encourage their use. Swiss govern- country’s low inflation rates, and the stability
ment securities may also be used to hedge an of its political environment and currency, all of
investor’s exposure to Swiss interest rates or which contribute to a stable and low-risk

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual April 2003

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4245.1 Swiss Government Notes and Bonds

government bond market. Investors include have more price volatility than short-term instru-
banks, securities firms, insurance companies, ments. However, the Swiss capital market is
and money managers. characterized by relatively low and stable inter-
est rates.

Market Transparency
Foreign-Exchange Risk
The market of SGBs and SGNs is fairly active.
Price transparency is relatively high for Swiss Currency fluctuations may affect the bond’s
government securities since several information yield as well as the value of coupons and
vendors, including Reuters and Telerate, dissemi- principal paid in U.S. dollars. The Swiss franc is
nate prices to the investing public. one of the strongest currencies in the world as a
result of the strength of the Swiss economy and
the excess liquidity in the banking system.
PRICING Volatility of Swiss foreign-exchange rates has
historically been low.
Notes and bonds are quoted as a percentage of
par to two decimals. For example, a quote of Political Risk
98.16 would mean a price that is 98.16 percent
of par value. The price quoted does not include A change in the political environment, withhold-
accrued interest. Notes and bonds do not trade ing tax laws, or market regulations can have an
ex dividend. adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an
investment in foreign bonds. Investors should
be familiar with the local laws and regulations
HEDGING governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
actions, and authorized counterparties.
Interest-rate risk may be hedged by taking
contra positions in other government securities
or by using interest-rate swaps, forwards, ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
options, or futures. Foreign-exchange risk can
be hedged by using currency swaps, forwards, The accounting treatment for investments in
futures, or options. foreign debt is determined by the Financial
Accounting Standards Board’s Statement of
Financial Accounting Standards No. 115 (FAS
RISKS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain Investments in
Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as amended by
Liquidity Risk Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for Transfers
The market for SGBs is more liquid than the and Servicing of Financial Assets and Extin-
market for SGNs due to a lower number of SGN guishments of Liabilities.’’ Accounting treat-
issues. Bonds typically trade in a liquid market ment for derivatives used as investments or for
for the first few months after they are issued. hedging purposes is determined by Statement of
However, after a few months on the secondary Financial Accounting Standards No. 133 (FAS
market, liquidity tends to decrease as a result of 133), ‘‘Accounting for Derivatives and Hedging
the fact that issue size is relatively small. In Activities,’’ as amended by Statement of Finan-
addition, liquidity is hampered by buy-and-hold cial Accounting Standards Nos. 137 and 138
investment practices and by federal and cantonal (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See section 2120.1,
taxes levied on secondary transactions. ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further discussion.)

Interest-Rate Risk RISK-BASED CAPITAL

WEIGHTING
SGBs and SGNs are subject to interest-rate risk
as a result of the inverse relationship between Swiss government notes and bonds are assigned
bond prices and interest rates. Longer-term issues to the zero percent risk-weight category.

April 2003 Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual

Page 2
Swiss Government Notes and Bonds 4245.1

LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK Guide to International Capital Markets 1991.

INVESTMENT London: Euromoney Publications PLC, 1991.
Fabozzi, Frank J., and Franco Modigliani. Capi-
Swiss government notes and bonds are type III tal Markets: Institutions and Instruments.
securities. As such, a bank’s investment in them Englewood Cliffs, N.J,: Prentice-Hall, 1992.
is limited to 10 percent of its equity capital and J.P. Morgan Securities. Government Bond Out-
reserves. lines. 9th ed.
Kemp, L.J. A Guide to World Money and
REFERENCES Capital Markets. New York: McGraw Hill,
1981.
Crossan, Ruth, and Mark Johnson, ed. The

Trading and Capital-Markets Activities Manual September 2001

Page 3
United Kingdom Government Bonds
Section 4250.1

GENERAL DESCRIPTION USES

United Kingdom government bonds, known as Gilts are used for investment, hedging, and
‘‘gilts’’ or ‘‘gilt-edged stocks,’’ are sterling- speculative purposes by domestic and foreign
denominated bonds issued by the Bank of entities. Foreign investors may buy gilts as a
England (BOE) on behalf of the Treasury. means of diversifying their investment port-
Effective April 1, 1998, the Debt Management folios; however, gilts may also be used to hedge
Office assumed responsibility for gilt-market positions that are sensitive to movements in
oversight. The bonds are unconditionally guar- U.K. interest rates or foreign-exchange rates.
anteed by the U.K. government and, therefore, Speculators, on the other hand, may use long-
are considered to have very low credit risk. term bonds to take positions on changes in the
Shorts are those gilts having zero to five years level and term structure of interest rates.
remaining to maturity; mediums, five to fifteen
years; and longs, over fifteen years. The securi-
ties are generally held in registered form in the
domestic settlement system. The securities can DESCRIPTION OF
also be held through Euroclear and Cedel MARKETPLACE
(international clearing organizations).
Issuing Practices
Gilt-edged market makers (GEMMs) quote
CHARACTERISTICS AND prices on a when-issued basis. Deals cannot be
FEATURES settled until the business day after the auction
when trading in the newly issued bonds offi-
Gilts come in a variety of structures. Conven- cially begins. The existence of a shadow market,
tional gilts, or ‘‘straights,’’ are noncallable bullet however, ensures that the market can trade to a
issues that pay interest semiannually. These level in which new bonds will be easily absorbed,
bonds comprise around 80 percent of the out- thus limiting the chances of a surplus inventory
standing gilt-edged securities. The government of bonds. (See ‘‘Sell Side’’ below.)
also issues callable gilts, so-called double-dated During the auction process, bids are accepted
gilts, which may be called at the government’s on a competitive and noncompetitive basis.
discretion anytime after the designated call date. Competitive bids are for a minimum of £500,000
In addition to these bonds, a number of noncon- and can be made at any price. Bids are accepted
ventional gilt issues are considered to be of going from the highest price to the lowest price
minor importance because of their insignificant until the bank exhausts the amount of securities
issue sizes and lack of liquidity. Such noncon- it wants to sell. If the issue size is not large
ventional issues include convertible gilts (in enough to satisfy demand at the lowest accepted
which short-dated bonds may be converted to price, bidders get a proportion of their requests.
longer-dated bonds), index-linked gilts, and In such a bid, the BOE cannot give more than
irredeemable gilts (consols). Most gilt issues 25 percent of the amount offered to any one
pay a fixed coupon. Floating-rate gilts, first bidder. Noncompetitive bids vary between
issued in March 1994, have coupon payments £1,000 and £500,000 per bidder. Bonds are
linked to the London Interbank Bid Rate allocated to noncompetitive bidders at a price
(LIBID). Unlike fixed-rate gilts, interest on equal to that of the weighted average of bids
floating-rate gilts is paid quarterly to investors. filled in the competitive auction.
Settlement in the gilt market is usually done The BOE also sells a fixed amount of securi-
on the market date following the trade date ties at a fixed price (tap form). This form of
(T+1), although two-day and seven-day settle- issuance allows the BOE to respond to market
ments are also fairly common. Deals are nor- demand and add liquidity to the market. More
mally cleared through the Bank of England’s specifically, tap issues are normally done from
Central Gilt Office (CGO). The CGO is linked the supply of bonds that have not been sold at an
to Euroclear and Cedel. Interest is calculated auction. Typically, bonds are held back with the
using an actual/actual day count. intent to sell them when demand has improved

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4250.1 United Kingdom Government Bonds

or when there is an increased need for funds. In Market Transparency

a tap issuance, stock is issued to GEMMs in
the form of ‘‘tranchettes,’’ typically up to The gilt market is active and price transparency
£500 million. is relatively high for these securities. Several
Payment for gilts may be made in full or information vendors, including Reuters, dissemi-
in part. In a partly paid auction, competitive nate prices to the investing public.
bidders are required to deposit a portion of the
amount bid, and the rest is due after issue as
specified in the prospectus. In a partly paid PRICING
auction, the first coupon payment and the
market price reflect the partly paid status of Prices are quoted in decimals, rounded to two
the gilt. After the installments are cleared as decimal places.
specified in the prospectus, the partly paid
distinction disappears.

HEDGING
Secondary Market U.K. gilts may be hedged for foreign-exchange
risk using foreign-exchange options, forwards,
U.K. gilts are traded on the London Stock and futures. Gilts can be hedged for interest-rate
Exchange, International Stock Exchange, and risk by taking a contra position in another gilt or
London International Financial Futures Exchange by using derivative instruments such as for-
(LIFFE). Gilts can be traded 24 hours a day. wards, swaps, futures, or options. Currently, the
Generally, gilts are traded on the International LIFFE gilt futures contract is the most heavily
Stock Exchange between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. and traded hedging instrument. The effectiveness of
on the LIFFE between 8:30 a.m. and 4:15 p.m. a particular hedge depends on the yield curve
and between 4:30 p.m. and 6:00 p.m. The and basis risk. For example, hedging a position
typical transaction size in the secondary market in a six-year note with an overhedged position in
varies between £5 to £100 million. a two-year bill may expose the dealer to yield-
curve risk. Hedging a thirty-year bond with a
bond future exposes the dealer to basis risk if the
historical price relationships between futures
Market Participants and cash markets are not stable.
Sell Side
The primary dealers of U.K. government bonds RISKS
are the GEMMs. GEMMs quote the exact size,
amount, and terms of the issuance beginning Liquidity Risk
eight days before an auction, thereby creating a
‘‘shadow market.’’ At this time, they quote Gilts trade in an active and liquid market.
prices on a when-issued basis. Liquidity in the market is ensured by the BOE,
which is responsible for maintaining the liquid-
ity and efficiency of the market and, in turn,
Buy Side supervises the primary dealers of gilts. GEMMs,
who act as primary dealers, are required to quote
A wide range of investors use U.K. government two-way prices at all times. An increase in
bonds for investing, hedging, and speculation. foreign investment activity in the gilt market has
These investors include banks, nonfinancial cor- led to a substantial increase in competition and
porate and quasi-corporate public and private enhanced liquidity.
enterprises, pension funds, charities, the pension Liquidity is also enhanced through the BOE’s
divisions of life insurance companies, and pri- ability to reopen auctions and tap issues. The
vate investors. The largest holders of gilts are ability to reopen issues improves liquidity and
domestic entities, but foreign investors, includ- avoids the unfavorable pricing that may occur
ing U.S. banks, are also active participants in the when the market is flooded with one very large
market. issue. A tap issue allows the BOE to relieve a

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United Kingdom Government Bonds 4250.1

market shortage for a particular bond. An active governing foreign bond issuance, trading, trans-
repo market allows market makers (GEMMs) to actions, and authorized counterparties.
fund their short positions, and it improves turn-
over in the cash market and attracts international
players who are familiar with the instrument, ACCOUNTING TREATMENT
which further improves liquidity.
The Financial Accounting Standards Board’s
Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
No. 115 (FAS 115), ‘‘Accounting for Certain
Foreign-Exchange Risk Investments in Debt and Equity Securities,’’ as
amended by Statement of Financial Accounting
Currency movements have the potential to affect Standards No. 140 (FAS 140), ‘‘Accounting for
the returns of fixed-income investments whose Transfers and Servicing of Financial Assets and
interest and principal are paid in foreign curren- Extinguishments of Liabilities,’’ determines the
cies. The devaluation of a foreign currency accounting treatment for investments in foreign
relative to the U.S. dollar would not only affect debt. Accounting treatment for derivatives used
a bond’s yield, but would also affect bond as investments or for hedging purposes is deter-
payoffs in U.S. dollar terms. Some factors that mined by Statement of Financial Accounting
may affect the U.K. foreign-exchange rate Standards No. 133 (FAS 133), ‘‘Accounting for
include— Derivatives and Hedging Activities,’’ as amended
by Statement of Financial Accounting Standards
• wider exchange-rate mechanism bands, which Nos. 137 and 138 (FAS 137 and FAS 138). (See
increase the risk of holding high-yielding section 2120.1, ‘‘Accounting,’’ for further
currencies; discussion.)
• central bank intervention in the currency
markets;
• speculation about the European economic and
monetary union and its potential membership, RISK-BASED CAPITAL
which puts European currencies under pres- WEIGHTING
sure vis-à-vis the deutsche mark; and
• endemic inflation in the United Kingdom. United Kingdom government bonds are assigned
to the zero percent risk-weight category.

Political Risk LEGAL LIMITATIONS FOR BANK

INVESTMENT
A change in the political environment, withhold-
ing tax laws, or market regulation can have an United Kingdom government bonds are type III
adverse impact on the value and liquidity of an securities. As such, a bank’s investment in them
investment in foreign bonds. Investors should be is limited to 10 percent of its equity capital and
familiar with the local laws and regulations reserves.

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