Photosynthesis

Structure of Chloroplast
 Site of photosynthesis
 Mainly in mesophyll
cell
 Consist of DNA
 Two layers of
membrane
 Stroma – a dense
fluid
 Chlorophyll – in
the membrane of
thylakoid
 In most plants, photosynthesis occurs
primarily in the leaves (chloroplasts).
 Chlorophyll green pigment that
captures light for photosynthesis.
 Violet-blue and red light work best for
photosynthesis.
Photosystem

• Photosynthetic pigments are organised into

photosystems
• A photosystem acts like a light-gathering
‘antenna complex’

• Two types of photosystem:

(1) Photosystem I (PSI)
(2) Photosystem II (PSII)
4
Photosystem
Composed of a protein
complex called
reaction center
surrounded by several
light-harvesting
complexes consist of
various pigment
molecules
 Photosystem
PS I
PS II

• Has P700 center

as reaction center • Has P680 center as
• absorption peak reaction center
at 700 nm • absorption peak at
680 nm

Work together to use light Energy

to generate ATP and NADPH
Biochemistry of Photosynthesis

light
CO2 + H2O C6H12O6 + O2
chlorophyll
 Light reaction Dark reaction

Light
Photosynthesis is Chloroplast
the process by
NADP
which autotrophic ADP
organisms use +P
Calvin
Light
light energy to reactions
cycle

make sugar and

oxygen gas from
carbon dioxide
and water.
 Photosynthesis can be divided into 2
stages:
Light reaction Dark reaction
- Occurs in membrane of - Occurs in stroma of
thylakoid chloroplast
- Presents of sunlight - Does not need light
- Input: H2O - Input: CO2
- Output: O2 - Output: Sucrose
- Metabolic product: ATP - Metabolic product: ADP
& NADPH & NADP+
 Light Reaction
 Lightdependent reactions.
 Begins with trapping of light energy by
chlorophyll molecules of the antenna
complex in the photosystem.
 The photosystem are founded in thylakoid
membrane.

Photosystem
 Closely packed pigments serve as an
‘antenna’ for gathering solar energy.
 During photosynthesis, light gathering
‘antenna’ pigments absorb solar energy
and direct it to reaction center chlorophyll.
 Energy level in P680 rises cause high
energy electrons released.
 Water photolysis occur to replace the
electrons released.
2e
+
H2O 1/2O2 + 2H
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation
 The photoactivated electrons from P680 are
accepted by a nearby electron acceptor.
 From the electron acceptor, electrons are
transferred down the energy levels through
a series of electron carriers.
 Energy (ATP) will be released through
phosphorylation of ADP.
 Electrons from P680 are transferred by the
last electrons carriers to P700 of PS I.
 As chlorophyll molecules in PS II absorbs
energy, molecules in PS I also absorbs
light energy.
 Electrons in P700 become excited and
escape from P700.
 The loss of electron from P700 will be
replaced by electron received from PS II.
 Electron acceptor of PS I accepts electron
leaving P700.
  From electron acceptor, these electrons
are transferred through a series of electron
+
carriers to final electron carrier, NADP .
 NADPH (reduced NADP) forms.

+
+ + NADP
NADP + 2e + H reductase
NADPH

The pathway descried above is known as:

Non-cyclic photophosphorylation pathway
photophosphorylation of ADP to ATP, using the energy released
when the electron from P680 (PS II) is transported to NADP+.
 Cyclic Photophosphorylation
 Experiments shown that electron released
from P700 can be recycled to P700 with the
production of ATP.
 This electron recycling involves electron
carriers.
 Occurs in some photosynthetic bacteria
 No production of NADPH.

Cyclic photophosphorylation pathway photophosphorylation

of ADP to ATP during recycling of electron released from P700
(PS I) through electron carries back to P700.
Cyclic photophosphorylation pathway
 Comparison of cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation

Non-cyclic Cyclic
photophosphorylation photophosphorylation
PS I and PS II are Only PS I (P700) is
involved involved
Electron flow is non- Electron flow is cyclic
cyclic
Water is used No involvement of water

Last electron acceptor: Last electron acceptor:

+
NAPD PS I
Products: ATP, NADPH, Product: ATP
O2
Thylakoid
space Light Light
(high H+)

Thylakoid
membrane

Antenna
molecules

Stroma
(low H+)
ELECTRON TRANSPORT
CHAIN

PHOTOSYSTEM II PHOTOSYSTEM I ATP SYNTHASE

The production of ATP by chemiosmosis in photosynthesis

 Dark Reaction
 Lightindependent reactions/calvin cycle.
 Carbon molecules from CO2 are fixed into
glucose (C6H12O2).
 Three stages:
1. Carbon dioxide fixation
2. Reduction phase
3. Regeneration of RuBP
 Enter via stomata

6 C intermediate (splits into two 3C)

(RuBP carboxylase)
Carbon dioxide fixation
 A five-carbon sugar molecule called
ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) is the
acceptor that binds CO2 dissolved in the
stroma.
 Catalyzed by the enzyme RuBP
carboxylase (Rubisco).
 Forming an unstable six-carbon molecule.
 This
molecule quickly breaks down into
two molecules of the three-carbon 3-
phosphoglycerate (3PG), also called
phosphoglyceric acid (PGA).
Reduction phase
 The two 3PG molecules receive an
additional phosphate group from ATP to
become 1,3-diphosphoglycerate.
 1,3-diphosphoglycerate combine with
+
hydrogen atoms from NADPH + H and is
converted into glyceraldehyde 3-
phosphate (G3P), also called
phosphoglyceraldehyde (PGAL).
Regeneration of RuBP
 Three turns of the cycle, using three
molecules of CO2, produces six molecules
of G3P.
 Only one of the six molecules exits the
cycle as an output.
 Remaining five enter a complex process
that regenerates more RuBP to continue
the cycle.
 Two molecules of G3P, produced by a total
of six turns of the cycle, combine to form
one molecule of glucose.
Alternation mechanism of CO2 fixation

1. Hatch-Slack Pathway in C4 plants (in dry & hot

climate)
eg. Sugar cane, corn

2. Crassulacean Acid Metabolisme (CAM) in CAM

plants.
* Same pathway with C4 but at the same place
at different time.
eg. Cactus, Pineapple
Hatch-Slack Pathway in C4 plants (in dry & hot
climate)

* C4 : 1st product is 4C.

C fixation (mesophyll) & Calvin Cycle (Bundle-
sheath) at different place (cell).
Stomata opens at day (narrow opening), less CO2.
eg. Sugar cane, corn
Crassulacean Acid Metabolisme (CAM) in CAM
plants.
* Same pathway with C4 at the same place but
at different time.
In arid condition or succulents plants.
Crassulaceae family.
Stomata opens at night (to avoid loss of water at
daytime.)
eg. Cactus, Pineapple.
Hatch-Slack Pathway for C4 plants
(adaptation to minimize Photorespiration)

PEP (3C) + CO2 = OAA (4C)

P
Pyruvate (3C) Malate (4C)

CO2
Fixed by RuBP in Calvin Cycle
1. In the mesophyll cell :
Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) (3C) fix CO2, to form
Oxaloacetate [OAA],
catalysed by PEP carboxylase. : PEP (3C) + CO2 = OAA
(4C)

2. OAA is reduced to Malate (4C).

3. Malate (4C) exported to the Bundle sheath cells, and release

the CO2.
* Mesophyll cells pump CO2 into the Bundle Sheath cells.
Bundle sheath cell has high CO2 concentration compare to
O2 . Thus no photorespiration occur.

- Compare to Rubisco, PEP carboxylase is :

a. more active at higher temperatures.
b. high affinity for CO2.
- C4 plants common in grasslands &
warm environments.
 C3 Pathway C4 Pathway
CO2 fixation Occurs once Occurs twice, first in mesophyll
cells, then in bundle sheath cells
CO2 acceptor Mesophyll cell Mesophyll Bundle sheath cells
RuBP (5C) cells RuBP (5C)
PEP (3C)
CO2 fixing RuBP carboxylase PEP RuBP carboxylase
enzyme (Rubisco) carboxylase (Rubisco)

First product of 3- Oxaloacetate [OAA] (4C)

photosynthesis phosphoglycerate(3C)
Photorespiration Occurs ; therefore O2 Not occurs : inhibited by high CO2
is an inhibitor of concentration. O2 not an inhibitor
photosynthesis of photosynthesis
Efficiency Less efficient More efficient photosynthesis than
photosynthesis than C3 plants. Yields usually much
C4 plants. Yields higher
usually much lower.
Crassulacean Acid Metabolisme (CAM) in CAM
plants.
In mesophyll cells : C fixation (same with C4) (night)
: Calvin Cycle (Day)
 NIGHT DAY
Stomata open Stomata close
PEP (3C) fix CO2 Malate go to chloroplst.
stored in Malate Malate release CO2
Malate stored in For Calvin Cycle
Vacuole.

Same pathway of carbon fixation with C4 but at different time at the same
place (mesophyll cells) .

1. Night, stomata open, CO2 is fixed using PEPase and stored in malate (malic acid).

2. Day time, stomata closed, minimized, malate is decarboxylated and Rubisco fixes the
carbon via the Calvin Cycle.

• Although O2 may present during the day but photorespiration doesn’t

occur because of the high concentration of CO2.
 Hatch-Slack (C4) Pathway Crassulacean Acid Metabolisme (CAM)
for C4 plants for CAM plants
eg. Sugar cane, corn, grass family eg. Cactus, Pineapple
 Factor Limiting the Rate of
Photosynthesis
 Lightintensity
 CO2 concentration
 Temperature
Light Intensity
 Light intensity: no photosynthesis
 As light intensity : rate of photosynthesis
increase. (until it limited by some other
factors.)
 Most effective wave length
for photosynthesis:
450-500 nm (violet-blue)
and 650-700 nm (red).
Compensation point – the light intensity at which the rate
of photosynthesis is the same with rate of respiration of
the plant.
The effect of changing light
intensity on the rate of
photosynthesis under
different temperature and
CO2 concentration. Once
light intensity is no longer
limiting, both temperature
and CO2 concentration can
become the limiting factor.
An increase of temperature
or CO2 concentration will
cause an increase in the
rate of photosynthesis in
non limiting light condition.
Carbon Dioxide Concentration
 Average CO2 in atmosphere ≈ 0.04 %.
Concentration above 0.1 % can damage
the leaves.
CO2:
photosynthesis
 Temperature
 No influence on light reaction.
 Influence on enzyme in dark reaction.

Rubisco inactive,
rate of CO2 fixing
is low
Enzyme
denature