DESIGN 4

STRUCTURE & FORM

Introduction
The exterior character of a building is often determined by how structure relates to the
building envelope. Architects frequently explore spatial relationships between these two
elements in order to express their architectural ideas and generally enrich their designs.
Structure plays numerous roles in contributing to the visual appearance of a building façade,
through modulation, adding depth and texture, and acting as a visual screen or filter.
Modulation generates patterns that potentially introduce variety, rhythm and hierarchy, and
generally increases visual interest. Also, structure contributes to the architectural qualities
and characters of interior spaces. Andrew W. Charleson
Types of Building Systems

Building Systems

Non-Structural
Structural Systems
Systems

Foundation Systems Enclosure & Protection

Floor Systems Mechanical Systems

Wall - Column Systems Finishing Systems

Roof Systems Fixtures & Furniture

Foundation Systems
The foundation is the lowest division of a
building (its substructure) constructed partly or
wholly below the surface of the ground. Its
primary function is to support and anchor the
superstructure above and transmit its loads
safely into the earth. Because it serves as a
critical link in the distribution and resolution of
building loads, the foundation system must be
designed to both accommodate the form and
layout of the superstructure above and respond
to the varying conditions of soil, rock, and
water below.
Floor Systems
Floor systems are the horizontal planes that
must support both live loads (people,
furnishings, and movable equipment) and
dead loads (the weight of the floor
construction itself).
Floor systems must transfer their loads
horizontally across space to either beams and
columns or to loadbearing walls.
Rigid floor planes can also be designed to
serve as horizontal diaphragms that act as
thin, wide beams in transferring lateral forces
to shear walls.
Wall - Column Systems
Walls are the vertical constructions of a building that enclose, separate, and protect its interior
spaces. They may be loadbearing structures designed to support imposed loads from floors
and roofs or consist of a framework of columns and beams with nonstructural panels
attached to or filling in between them. The pattern of these load bearing walls and columns
should be coordinated with the layout of the interior spaces of a building.
Roof Systems
The roof system functions as the primary sheltering element for the interior spaces of a
building. The form and slope of a roof must be compatible with the type of used to shed
rainwater and melting snow to a system of drains, gutters, and downspouts. The construction
of a roof should also control the passage of moisture vapor, the infiltration of air, and the flow
of heat and solar radiation. And depending on the type of construction required by the
building code, the roof structure and assembly may have to resist the spread of fire.
LOADS, FORCES & STRUCTURAL EQUILIBRIUM
Types of Forces
Types of Loads
Structural Stiffness
Structural Equilibrium
Lateral Stability
Construction Materials

Masonry Concrete

Steel Timber
Structural Form
Examples of Structural Systems
Concrete Slab and Beam
Concrete Flat Slab / Flat Plate
Concrete Ribbed Slabs
Folded Structures
A folded structure is simply a structure that comprises one or more 'folded' forms. Folded
structures can achieve greater spans and rigidity and can have lower net weight than some
more conventional forms of structure. The strength and stiffness of folded construction
derives from the configuration, thickness and dimensions of the elements that form it.
Folded Structures

Yokohama International Passenger Terminal

Shell Structures
Shell Structures
Shell structure, in building construction, a thin, curved plate structure shaped to transmit
applied forces by compressive, tensile, and shear stresses that act in the plane of the surface.
They are usually constructed of RC.
Domes & Vaults
Domes are thin shells in the form of surfaces of revolution. Domes are lightweight and strong
roof systems to span large distances, and more importantly they can be constructed with little
or no formwork. The thickness of the dome may vary across its surface, e.g. it may be
increased, if possible, in some areas to prevent cracking.
Domes & Vaults
A barrel vault, also known as a tunnel vault or a wagon
vault, is an architectural element formed by the
extrusion of a single curve (or pair of curves, in the case
of a pointed barrel vault) along a given distance. The
curves are typically circular in shape, lending a semi-
cylindrical appearance to the total design. The barrel
vault is the simplest form of a vault: effectively a series
of arches placed side by side (i.e., one after another). It is
a form of barrel roof.
Frame Structures
A Frame structure is a structure having the
combination of beam, column and slab to resist
the lateral and gravity loads. These structures
are usually used to overcome the large
moments developing due to the applied loading.
Cantilevers
A cantilever is a rigid structural element that extends horizontally and is supported at only one
end. It extends from a flat vertical surface such as a wall, to which it must be firmly attached.
Like other structural elements, a cantilever can be formed as a beam, plate, truss, or slab.
Cantilevers
Cantilevers are mainly used for shade or
aesthetical purpose. cantilevers are always
supported from only one end and are generally
overhanging creating a semi-open space below.
They are used to create that extra space of
interest in any structure that creates a strong
connection with the external surroundings
giving the structure an aesthetic look along with
giving a panoramic ambience from the interior
parts of these spaces.
Suspended Structures
A structure whose load is carried by a number of cables which are under tension from
columns or posts that are in compression and that transmit the loads to the ground.
Suspended Structures
Membrane Structures
membrane structures represent another type of
surface structure. These structures, where
tensioned fabric initially resists self weight and
other loads, also rely upon their three-dimensional
curvatures for structural adequacy.
Pneumatic Structures
An air-inflated structure is
any permanent building
that derives its structural
integrity from the use of
internal pressurized air to
inflate a pliable material
envelope, so that air is the
main support of the
structure.
Trusses
A truss is made up of a web of triangles joined together to enable the even distribution of
weight and the handling of changing tension and compression without bending or shearing.
Space Frames
A Space Frame structure can be defined as a rigid,
lightweight, truss-like structure. It is constructed
from interlocking struts in a geometric pattern. The
Space frames can be used efficiently to cover huge
areas with minimum interior supports.
Types of Space Frames
According to curvature

1- Flat covers 2- Barrel vaults 3- Spherical domes

These structures are composed This type of vault has a cross These domes usually require the
of planar substructures. The section of a simple arch. Usually use of tetrahedral modules or
plane are channeled through the this type of space frame does pyramids and additional support
horizontal bars and the shear not need to use tetrahedral from a skin.
forces are supported by the modules or pyramids as a part of
diagonals. its backing.
Types of Space Frames
According to the number of grid layers

1- Single-Layer 2- Double-Layer 3- Triple-Layer

All elements are located on the The elements are organized in Elements are placed in three
surface to be approximated. two parallel layers with each parallel layers, linked by the
other at a certain distance apart. diagonals. They are almost
The diagonal bars connecting always flat. This solution is to
the nodes of both layers in decrease the diagonal members
different directions in space. length.
Design Considerations for Double-layer flat Space frames
Composite Structures
Composite Structures
Architectural and Structural Coordination
Architectural and Structural Coordination

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References

• Allen, EA. (2009) Fundamentals of building construction materials and methods, John Wiley & Sons.

• Ching, Francis (2008) Building Construction Illustrated, John Wiley & Sons.
• Chilton, John (2000) “Space Grid Structures”, Architectural Press.
• Garrison, Philip, (2005) “Basic Structures for Engineers and Architects”, Wiley-Blackwell.
• Kronenburg, Robert (2008) “Portable Architecture: Design and Technology”, Springer, Germany.
• Mehta, Madan et. al. (2013) “Building Construction”, Pearson, USA.