COURSE READER

EDUC 145 (The Child and Adolescent Learners and Learning Principles)

THEORIES ON HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Introduction

Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth,

development, and learning. If you have ever wondered about what motivates human thought
and behavior, understanding these theories can provide useful insight into individuals and
society.
Developmental theories provide a set of guiding principles and concepts that describe
and explain human development. Some developmental theories focus on the formation of a
specific quality, such as Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Other developmental
theories focus on growth that happens throughout the lifespan, such as Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development.  Grand Theories Grand theories are those comprehensive ideas
often proposed by major thinkers such as Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson and Jean Piaget.
Grand theories of development include psychoanalytic theory, learning theory and
cognitive theory. These theories seek to explain much of human behavior, but are often
considered outdated and incomplete in the face of modern research. Psychologists and
researchers often use grand theories as a basis for exploration, but consider smaller theories
and recent research as well.  Mini-theories describe a small, very specific aspect of
development. A mini-theory might explain fairly narrow behaviors, such as how self-esteem
is formed or early childhood socialization. These theories are often rooted in the ideas
established by grand theories, but they do not seek to describe and explain the whole of
human behavior and growth.
Emergent theories are those that have been created fairly recently and are often
formed by systematically combining various mini-theories. These theories often draw on
research and ideas from many different disciplines, but are not yet as broad or far-reaching
as grand theories. The sociocultural theory proposed by theorist Lev Vygotsky is a good
example of an emergent theory of development.
The purpose of Psychology Theories is to provide a framework for understanding
human behaviour, thought, and development. By having a broad base of understanding about
the how's and why's of human behaviour, we can better understand ourselves and others. 
Theories create a basis for future research. Researchers use theories to form hypotheses that
can then be tested.  Theories are dynamic and always changing. As new discoveries are made,
theories are modified and adapted to account for new information.
In this learning material, you will understand more the different theories on cognitive
development. So, get your notebooks and take note of the important concepts!

Learning Outcome

At the end of the lesson, you, the students should have:

1. synthesized the various theories on human development.
A. DEVELOPMENTAL THEORIES

1. Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Freud believed that personality developed through a series of childhood stages in

which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous
areas. An erogenous zone is characterized as an area of the body that is particularly
sensitive to stimulation.
During the five psychosexual stages, which are the oral, anal, phallic, latent, and
genital stages, the erogenous zone associated with each stage serves as a source of
pleasure.
The psychosexual energy, or libido, was described as the driving force behind
behavior.
Psychoanalytic theory suggested that personality is mostly established by the age
of five. Early experiences play a large role in personality development and continue to
influence behavior later in life.
Each stage of development is marked by conflicts that can help build growth or
stifle development, depending upon how they are resolved. If these psychosexual stages
are completed successfully, a healthy personality is the result.
If certain issues are not resolved at the appropriate stage, fixations can occur. A
fixation is a persistent focus on an earlier psychosexual stage. Until this conflict is
resolved, the individual will remain "stuck" in this stage. A person who is fixated at the
oral stage, for example, may be over-dependent on others and may seek oral stimulation
through smoking, drinking, or eating.

Psychosexual Erogenous
Development Zone Description/Explanation
Stage
The ORAL Mouth During the oral stage, the infant's primary source of
Stage (Birth to interaction occurs through the mouth, so the rooting and
1 year) sucking reflex is especially important. The mouth is vital for
eating, and the infant derives pleasure from oral stimulation
through gratifying activities such as tasting and sucking.
 Because the infant is entirely dependent upon caretakers
(who are responsible for feeding the child), the child also
develops a sense of trust and comfort through this oral
stimulation.
The primary conflict at this stage is the weaning process--the
child must become less dependent upon caretakers. If
fixation occurs at this stage, Freud believed the individual
would have issues with dependency or aggression. Oral
fixation can result in problems with drinking, eating, smoking,
or nail-biting.

The ANAL Bowel and During the anal stage, Freud believed that the primary focus
Stage (1 to Bladder of the libido was on controlling bladder and bowel
years) Control) movements. The major conflict at this stage is toilet
training—the child has to learn to control their bodily needs.
Developing this control leads to a sense of accomplishment
and independence.
According to Freud, success at this stage is dependent upon
the way in which parents approach toilet training. Parents
who utilize praise and rewards for using the toilet at the
appropriate time encourage positive outcomes and help
children feel capable and productive.
Freud believed that positive experiences during the toilet
training stage serve as the basis for people to become
competent, productive, and creative adults.
However, not all parents provide the support and
encouragement that children need during this stage. Some
parents punish, ridicule, or shame a child for accidents.
According to Freud, inappropriate parental responses can
result in negative outcomes. If parents take an approach that
is too lenient, Freud suggested that an anal-expulsive
personality could develop in which the individual has a
messy, wasteful, or destructive personality.
If parents are too strict or begin toilet training too early,
Freud believed that an anal-retentive personality develops in
which the individual is stringent, orderly, rigid, and obsessive.

The PHALLIC Genitals Freud suggested that during the phallic stage, the primary
Stage (3 to 6 focus of the libido is on the genitals. At this age, children also
years) begin to discover the differences between males and
females.
Freud also believed that boys begin to view their fathers as a
rival for the mother’s affections. The Oedipus
complex describes these feelings of wanting to possess the
mother and the desire to replace the father. However, the
child also fears that he will be punished by the father for
these feelings, a fear Freud termed castration anxiety.
 The term Electra complex has been used to describe a similar
set of feelings experienced by young girls. Freud, however,
believed that girls instead experience penis envy.
Eventually, the child begins to identify with the same-sex
parent as a means of vicariously possessing the other parent.
For girls, however, Freud believed that penis envy was never
fully resolved and that all women remain somewhat fixated
on this stage.
Psychologists such as Karen Horney disputed this theory,
calling it both inaccurate and demeaning to women. Instead,
Horney proposed that men experience feelings of inferiority
because they cannot give birth to children, a concept she
referred to as womb envy.

The LATENT Sexual During this stage, the superego continues to develop while
Period (6 to Feelings the id's energies are suppressed. Children develop social
puberty) are skills, values and relationships with peers and adults outside
Inactive of the family.
The development of the ego and superego contribute to this
period of calm. The stage begins around the time that
children enter into school and become more concerned with
peer relationships, hobbies, and other interests.
The latent period is a time of exploration in which the sexual
energy repressed or dormant. This energy is still present, but
it is sublimated into other areas such as intellectual pursuits
and social interactions. This stage is important in the
development of social and communication skills and self-
confidence.
As with the other psychosexual stages, Freud believed that it
was possible for children to become fixated or "stuck" in this
phase. Fixation at this stage can result in immaturity and an
inability to form fulfilling relationships as an adult.

The GENITAL Maturing The onset of puberty causes the libido to become active once
Stage Sexual again. During the final stage of psychosexual development,
(Puberty to Interests the individual develops a strong sexual interest in the
death) opposite sex. This stage begins during puberty but last
throughout the rest of a person's life.
Where in earlier stages the focus was solely on individual
needs, interest in the welfare of others grows during this
stage. The goal of this stage is to establish a balance between
the various life areas.
If the other stages have been completed successfully, the
individual should now be well-balanced, warm, and caring.
Unlike the many of the earlier stages of development, Freud
believed that the ego and superego were fully formed and
functioning at this point. Younger children are ruled by the id,
 which demands immediate satisfaction of the most basic
needs and wants.
Teens in the genital stage of development are able to balance
their most basic urges against the need to conform to the
demands of reality and social norms.

EVALUATING FREUD’S PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGE THEORY

The theory is focused almost entirely on male development with little mention
of female psychosexual development.  His theories are difficult to test scientifically.
Concepts such as the libido are impossible to measure, and therefore cannot be tested.
The research that has been conducted tends to discredit Freud's theory.  Future
predictions are too vague. How can we know that a current behavior was caused
specifically by a childhood experience? The length of time between the cause and the
effect is too long to assume that there is a relationship between the two variables. 
Freud's theory is based upon case studies and not empirical research. Also, Freud based
his theory on the recollections of his adult patients, not on actual observation and study
of children.

Criticism of Freud’s Theories

Freud’s psychosexual theory is controversial and has been thoroughly
criticized. First, even though Freud’s stages are related to children, he based most of
his theory on his work with troubled adults; he in fact never worked with children.
Second, many believed his work was too focused on human sexuality, especially his
focus on the Oedipus complex and children’s sexual desire for parents. Some critics of
Freud believe the memories and fantasies of childhood seduction Freud reported
were not real memories but constructs that Freud created and forced upon his
patients. Finally, supporters of feminist theory believe Freud’s theory to be sexist and
overly reliant upon a male perspective (for example, his belief that girls developed
sexual libido due to “penis envy”).

2. Erik Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

✓ Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development is very relevant, highly regarded and

meaningful theory. Life is a continuous process involving learning and trials which help
us grow. Erikson’s enlightening theory guides us and helps to tell us why.

✓ Erikson’s ‘psychosocial’ term is derived from two source words – namely psychological
(or root, ‘psycho’ relating to the mid, brain, personality, etc.) and ‘social’ (external
relationships and environment), both at the heart of Erikson’s theory. Occasionally,
you will see the term extended to biopsychosocial, in which “bio” refers to life, as in
biological.
✓ Erikson’s theory is highly influenced by Sigmund Freud but he extended the theory to
incorporate cultural and social aspects into Freud’s biological and sexually oriented
theories.

✓ Like other influential theories Erikson’s model is simple and well designed. It is a basis
for broad or complex discussion and analysis of personality and behavior, and also for
understanding and for facilitating personal development - of self and others. It can
help the teacher in becoming more knowledgeable and at the same time,
understanding of various environmental factors that affect his own and his students’
personality and behavior.

✓ Erik Erikson's theory of psychosocial development is one of the best-known theories

of personality in psychology. Much like Sigmund Freud, Erikson believed that
personality develops in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual
stages, Erikson's theory describes the impact of social experience across the whole
lifespan.  One of the main elements of Erikson's psychosocial stage theory is the
development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we
develop through social interaction. According to Erikson, our ego identity is constantly
changing due to new experiences and information we acquire in our daily interactions
with others.

✓ In addition to ego identity, Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates
behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's theory is concerned with becoming
competent in an area of life. If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense
of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage
is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy.  In each stage,
Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a
psychological quality or failing to develop that quality. During these times, the
potential for personal growth is high, but so is the potential for failure.

Erik Erikson’s Eight (8) Stages of Physchosocial Development

Photocredit: https://www.verywellmind.com/erik-eriksons-stages-of-
psychosocial-development-2795740
 Psychosocial Explanation/ Description
Stage
Stage 1. TRUST The most fundamental stage in life.
VS. MISTRUST
(birth to 1 Because an infant is utterly dependent, the development of trust is
year) based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers. 

If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and

secure in the world. Caregivers who are inconsistent, emotionally
unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the
children they care for.

Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world
is inconsistent and unpredictable.  Of course, no child is going to
develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt.

Erikson believed that successful development was all about striking a

balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as an openness to
experience tempered by some wariness that danger may be present.

Stage 2. It is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal

AUTONOMY control
VS. SHAME
AND DOUBT Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this
(Early process. However, Erikson's reasoning was quite different then that
childhood) of Freud's.

Erikson believes that learning to control one's bodily functions leads

to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other important
events include gaining more control over food choices, toy
preferences, and clothing selection. 

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and

confident, while those who do not are left with a sense of inadequacy
and self-doubt.

Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and

shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children
can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Stage 3. During the preschool years, children begin to assert their power and
INITIATIVE VS. control over the world through directing play and other social
GUILT interactions.
 Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to
lead others. Those who fail to acquire these skills are left with a
sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to

work with others is achieved, the ego quality known as purpose
emerges.

Stage 4. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of

INDUSTRY VS. pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
INFERIORITY (5
to 11 years) Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and
teachers develop a feeling of competence and belief in their skills.
Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial
development leads to the strength known as competence or a belief
our own abilities to handle the tasks set before us.

Stage 5. During adolescence, children explore their independence and

IDENTITY VS. develop a sense of self.
CONFUSION
(Adolescence) Those who receive proper encouragement and reinforcement
through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a
strong sense of self and a feeling of independence and control.

Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel
insecure and confused about themselves and the future.

Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson

described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

Stage 6. This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are
Intimacy vs. exploring personal relationships.
Isolation (Early
Adulthood) Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed
relationships with other people. Those who are successful at this step
will form relationships that are committed and secure.

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps.

Erikson believed that a strong sense of personal identity was
important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have
demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less
committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
 Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love.
It is marked by the ability to form lasting, meaningful relationships
with other people.

Stage 7. During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our

GENERATIVITY career and family.
vs.
STAGNATION Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are
(Adulthood) contributing to the world by being active in their home and
community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive
and uninvolved in the world.

Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully.

Being proud of your accomplishments, watching your children grow
into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are
important accomplishments of this stage.
Stage 8. This phase occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on
INTEGRITY vs. life.
DESPAIR (Old
age) Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life
has been wasted and will experience many regrets. The individual will
be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of

integrity. Successfully completing this phase means looking back with
few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals
will attain wisdom, even when confronting death.

The Strengths of Erikson's Theory

✓ It provides a broad framework from which to view development throughout the

entire lifespan.

✓ It also allows us to emphasize the social nature of human beings and the important
influence that social relationships have on development.

Researchers have found evidence supporting Erikson's ideas about identity and have
further identified different sub-stages of identity formation. Some research also suggests
that people who form strong personal identities during adolescence are better capable of
forming intimate relationships during early adulthood.

Limitations of Psychosocial Theory

✓ One major weakness of psychosocial theory is that the exact mechanisms for
resolving conflicts and moving from one stage to the next are not well described or
developed.
 ✓ The theory fails to detail exactly what type of experiences are necessary at each
stage in order to successfully resolve the conflicts and move to the next stage.

3. Arnold Gesell’s Maturation Theory

Arnold Gesell

Arnold Gesell’s maturation theory tries to explain the order in which the main
learnings and skills development occur during childhood, in addition to giving an
explanation, from the physiological point of view, of why this specific order is given. The
American psychologist and pediatrician Arnold Gesell proposed at the beginning of the
last century a theory about how children developed behaviorally, which has been of
great importance in the field of educational psychology and pediatrics. This theory, like
many others in developmental psychology, has not been without criticism, although it is
possible to say that practically one hundred years after being formulated it still has a lot
of weight in this branch.
The maturation theory was introduced in 1925 by the American psychologist
Arnold Lucius Gesell, who was also a pediatrician and educator. The studies carried out
by Gesell focused on finding out how development occurred during childhood and
adolescence, both in children without any psychopathology or those who showed a
different pattern of learning and development than expected. During the more than
fifty years in which Gesell carried out his observational research, mostly conducted at
the Yale Clinic of Child Development, this American psychologist and his collaborators
described a series of more or less predictable behaviors in childhood. According to their
theory of maturation, all children go through the same stages of development in the
same order but not necessarily presenting them at the same time. That is, each child
goes at their own pace, but the expected thing is that they do the learning in the same
sequence. This theory, although quite classic considering that it was exposed almost a
hundred years ago, has penetrated deeply into many aspects of the psychology of
education especially as far as parenting methods are concerned.

Definition And Direction Of Maturation

Arnold Gesell considered that genetics and the environment play a very important
role in the development of the person, however his research focused especially on the
physiological part of development. Using his language, the term ‘maturation’ for Gesell
refers to a more biological process that is not so much social, in which the influence of
genes is given more weight than environmental factors to which the person be exposed.
In the research carried out by this psychologist, he was able to observe that the
development occurred following a fixed sequence in terms of the formation of the organs
and physical development that occurred both as an embryo and during childhood.
Physiological development always occurred from head to toe (cephalocaudal direction),
both before and after delivery.
When it is still an embryo, the first organ to develop is the heart, followed by the
central nervous system and then the most peripheral organs, such as lungs, liver, intestines
and others. When the world has already arrived, the first thing babies do is learn to control
their mouth, lips and tongue. Later they begin to acquire a better control of their saccadic
movements, movements of the neck, shoulders, arms, hands, fingers, legs and feet.
As for the more complex behavior, babies first learn to sit, then to stand up without
the need of adult support, walking and finally running. All babies learn these abilities in the
same order according to the theory, and the reason for this is that it is because the nervous
system develops in the same way in all people, although at different rates.
There are multiple environmental factors to which the child is exposed throughout
his development, such as the socioeconomic status of his family, relations with his parents,
types of food, among others.
However, the theory holds that each baby has its own maturation rate, which will be
optimized if the social environment is aware of how the child is developing and gives the
necessary social stimuli given in due course. From the theory, it is extracted that once the
child has acquired the full development of his nervous system, he can master multiple
individual and social capacities.

Highlights Of The Theory

Arnold Gesell’s maturation theory can highlight a number of aspects that, although
they have already been introduced in previous sections of the article, will be described in
greater detail below.

1. Study Of Behavioral Patterns. Throughout his professional career, Gesell studied the
motor behaviors of babies. Based on what he observed, he concluded that the behavior
was better to be studied not quantitatively but based on behavioral patterns.
A behavioral pattern means any behavior that is defined as long as it has a shape or
size. That is, basically what the baby does, from a simple close and open eye to throw a
ball with a baseball bat.
Thus, Gesell observed a series of behaviors that all babies manifest sooner or later,
following the same pattern and sequence.
This is quite remarkable in comparison with development models such as those of
Jean Piaget and Erikson, which although they conducted part of their research in an
observational manner, most of the stages they proposed were more theoretical.

2. Reciprocal Interlacing. This term proposed by Gesell, in English ‘reciprocal interweaving’,

refers, both at the motor and personality level, to how the baby behaves in a way that
seems to follow two antagonistic tendencies, with the intention of finally finding balance.
That is, if young children are observed, they are still in a state of formation of their
personality, which makes their relationship with others ambivalent in many contexts,
being their most outgoing treatment with some people while with others become more
closed.
Thus, progressively, throughout the development, the child’s personality is
reaching a balance between both extremes and finally his personality traits settle.
This can also be seen at the motor level, with many children who in the first
months of life make fairly balanced use of both hands, without being completely
ambidextrous. Subsequently, greater lateralization is achieved in terms of their actions,
becoming definitely right-handed or left-handed.
 3. Self-Regulation. This is possibly the most striking aspect of Arnold Gesell’s theory since
he came to ensure that newborns are able to regulate their own behavior, and are even
able to determine their own sleep and food schedules.
His research suggests that he can also control his personality and behavioral and
motor balance.

4. Generalization And Individuality. The theory of maturation maintains, as has already

been said, that all children develop in the same sequence in terms of their behavioral and
physiological development, however, it also points to each one doing so at his own pace.
Thus there is a generalization as to how the main behavioral milestones are acquired
during childhood, but it is taken into account that each individual, due to individual
differences, does so by following their own maturation.

Criticisms Of The Theory

Although today Arnold Gesell’s maturation theory is quite widespread and applied in
the field of educational psychology, with the outlined Gesell’s theory, there are few critical
voices who have pointed out some limitations of the model.
The main one is that Arnold Gesell focused too much on what he himself understood
by physiological maturation, leaving aside aspects more related to the environment and the
multiple social stimuli that the infant will receive throughout its development.
A very remarkable environmental aspect that Gesell ignores in his theory is the
teaching, both in the school and in the family environment, a very powerful stimulus in
terms of the formation of the child’s personality and intelligence.
Another aspect also quite criticized is that it generalizes too much as to the order in
which this maturation occurs. Nor does it specify what variability is expected for each
behavior and learning, nor if there is the possibility that some of them may change their
order of acquisition.
It should be said that Arnold Gesell’s research has a very striking limitation, which is
the fact that he has investigated only children from middle-class American and white
families. This means that their observations cannot be generalized to other socioeconomic
status or to other cultures.
The Gesell model can be misinterpreted that all children, sooner or later, will end up
developing in the same way, so it is not necessary to give them educational support if they
are not developing in the same way as the rest of the children. This is very harmful if the
child has a real disorder, in which early intervention is necessary to ensure that it develops
as completely as possible.

Bibliographic References:

Crain, W. (2011). Theories of development concepts and applications. Boston, MA: Pearson.

Daly, W. (2004). Gesell’s Infant Growth Orientation: A Composite. Journal of Instructional

Psychology, 31, 321-324.

Read more: Arnold Gesell’s Maturation Theory: All You Need to Know
https://richupdates.com/?p=158
B. COGNITIVE THEORIES

1. Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs

a mental model of the world. He disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed
trait, and regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological
maturation and interaction with the environment.
According to psychologist Jean Piaget, children progress through a series of four
key stages of cognitive development marked by shifts in how they understand the
world. Piaget believed that children are like "little scientists" and that they actively try
to explore and make sense of the world around them.
Through his observations of his own children, Piaget developed a stage theory of
intellectual development that included four distinct stages: the sensorimotor stage,
from birth to age 2; the preoperational stage, from age 2 to about age 7; the concrete
operational stage, from age 7 to 11; and the formal operational stage, which begins in
adolescence and spans into adulthood. Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive
development of children.
Cognitive development involves changes in cognitive process and abilities. In
Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes based upon actions and
later progresses into changes in mental operations.
To Piaget, cognitive development was a progressive reorganization of mental
processes as a result of biological maturation and environmental experience.
Children construct an understanding of the world around them, then experience
discrepancies between what they already know and what they discover in their
environment.

Three Basic Concepts of Piaget’s Cognitive Theory

1. Schemata are the building blocks of knowledge.
2. Adaptation processes that enable the transition from one stage to another
(equilibrium, assimilation, and accommodation).
3. Stages of Cognitive Development: sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, formal operational.

Schemata
✓ Schemata are the basic building blocks of such cognitive models, and enable us to form
a mental representation of the world. Piaget defined a schema as: "a cohesive,
repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly
interconnected and governed by a core meaning."
✓ In more simple terms Piaget called the schema the basic building block of intelligent
behavior – a way of organizing knowledge. Indeed, it is useful to think of schemas as
“units” of knowledge, each relating to one aspect of the world, including objects, actions,
and abstract (i.e., theoretical) concepts.
✓ When Piaget talked about the development of a person's mental processes, he was
referring to increases in the number and complexity of the schemata that a person had
learned. When a child's existing schemas are capable of explaining what it can perceive
 around it, it is said to be in a state of equilibrium, i.e., a state of cognitive (i.e., mental)
balance.
✓ Piaget emphasized the importance of schemas in cognitive development and described
how they were developed or acquired. A schema can be defined as a set of linked mental
representations of the world, which we use both to understand and to respond to
situations. The assumption is that we store these mental representations and apply them
when needed.
✓ For example, babies have a sucking reflex, which is triggered by something touching the
baby's lips. A baby will suck a nipple, a comforter (dummy), or a person's finger. Piaget,
therefore, assumed that the baby has a 'sucking schema.'
✓ Similarly, the grasping reflex which is elicited when something touches the palm of a
baby's hand, or the rooting reflex, in which a baby will turn its head towards something
which touches its cheek, are innate schemas. Shaking a rattle would be the combination
of two schemas, grasping and shaking.

Assimilation and Accommodation

Jean Piaget (1952; see also Wadsworth, 2004) viewed intellectual growth as a process
of adaptation (adjustment) to the world. This happens through:
Assimilation - Which is using an existing schema to deal with a new object or situation.
✓ EXAMPLE: A 2-year-old child sees a man who is bald on top of his head and has long
frizzy hair on the sides. To his father’s horror, the toddler shouts “Clown, clown”
(Siegler et al., 2003).
Accommodation - This happens when the existing schema (knowledge) does not work, and
needs to be changed to deal with a new object or situation.
✓ EXAMPLE: In the “clown” incident, the boy’s father explained to his son that the man
was not a clown and that even though his hair was like a clown’s, he wasn’t wearing a
funny costume and wasn’t doing silly things to make people laugh. With this new
knowledge, the boy was able to change his schema of “clown” and make this idea fit
better to a standard concept of “clown”.
Equilibration - This is the force which moves development along. Piaget believed that
cognitive development did not progress at a steady rate, but rather in leaps and bounds.
✓ Equilibrium occurs when a child's schemas can deal with most new information
through assimilation. However, an unpleasant state of disequilibrium occurs when
new information cannot be fitted into existing schemas (assimilation).
✓ Equilibration is the force which drives the learning process as we do not like to be
frustrated and will seek to restore balance by mastering the new challenge
(accommodation). Once the new information is acquired the process of assimilation
with the new schema will continue until the next time we need to make an adjustment
to it.

Piaget's 4 Stages of Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move through four
different stages of intellectual development which reflect the increasing sophistication of
children's thought
 Each child goes through the stages in the same order, and child development is
determined by biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
Although no stage can be missed out, there are individual differences in the rate at which
children progress through stages, and some individuals may never attain the later stages.
Piaget did not claim that a particular stage was reached at a certain age - although
descriptions of the stages often include an indication of the age at which the average child
would reach each stage.

Cognitive
Development Description/Explanations
Stage
Stage 1. During this stage, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through
Sensorimotor sensory experiences and manipulating objects
(Birth to ages 18 The main achievement during this stage is object permanence -
– 24) knowing that an object still exists, even if it is hidden.
It requires the ability to form a mental representation (i.e., a
schema) of the object.
Stage 2. At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with
Preoperational: logic and taking the point of view of other people.
Toddlerhood (18- During this stage, young children can think about things
24 months) symbolically. This is the ability to make one thing - a word or an
through early object - stand for something other than itself.
childhood (age 7). Thinking is still egocentric, and the infant has difficulty taking the
viewpoint of others.
Stage 3. Concrete The Concrete Operational Stage: Kids at this point of development
operational: Ages begin to think more logically, but their thinking can also be very
7 to 11 years. rigid. They tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts
Piaget considered the concrete stage a major turning point in the
child's cognitive development because it marks the beginning of
logical or operational thought.
This means the child can work things out internally in their head
(rather than physically try things out in the real world).
Children can conserve number (age 6), mass (age 7), and weight
(age 9). Conservation is the understanding that something stays the
same in quantity even though its appearance changes.
Stage 4. Formal The Formal Operational Stage: The final stage of Piaget's theory
operational: involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning,
Adolescence to and an understanding of abstract ideas.
adulthood. The formal operational stage begins at approximately age eleven
and lasts into adulthood. During this time, people develop the
ability to think about abstract concepts, and logically test
hypotheses
2. Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Development

Sociocultural theory
✓ is an emerging theory in psychology that looks at the important contributions that
society makes to individual development.
✓ stresses the interaction between developing people and the culture in which they live.
Sociocultural theory also suggests that human learning is largely a social process.
✓ grew from the work of seminal psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents,
caregivers, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher-
order functions. According to Vygotsky, learning has its basis in interacting with other
people. Once this has occurred, the information is then integrated on the individual
level.
✓ focuses not only how adults and peers influence individual learning, but also on how
cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.

According to Vygotsky, children are born with basic biological constraints on their
minds. Each culture, however, provides "tools of intellectual adaptation." These tools allow
children to use their abilities in a way that is adaptive to the culture in which they live. For
example, while one culture might emphasize memory strategies such as note-taking, another
might use tools like reminders or rote memorization.

Piaget vs. Vygotsky: Key Differences

✓
Vygotsky placed a greater emphasis on how social factors influence development.
While Piaget's theory stressed how a child's interactions and explorations influenced
development, Vygotsky stressed the essential role that social interactions play in
cognitive development.
✓
Another important difference between the two theories is that while Piaget's theory
suggests that development is largely universal, Vygotsky asserts that cognitive
development can differ between different cultures. The course of development in
Western culture, for example, might be different than it is in Eastern culture.
✓
Piaget believed that cognitive development was fairly universal, Vygotsky believed
that each culture presents unique differences. Because cultures can vary so
dramatically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory suggests that both the course and
content of intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

➢ According to Vygotsky, ZPD this "is the distance between the actual development level
as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential
development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in
collaboration with more capable peers."
➢ it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or
perform on their own, but is capable of learning with guidance. As children are allowed
to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is slightly more
advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone of proximal
development.
3. Miller’s Information Processing Theory

George Miller

• an American psychologist who was one of the founders of cognitive psychology

• found behaviorism limiting and argued that the mind could be studied scientifically
through empirical and objective means.
• his famous paper, “The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two,” published in
1956, is still sited today; in the article, he suggested that the span and quantity of
information a human brain can store at a given time influenced the limitation of an
individual’s short term memory and according to him, the short term memory could
only hold 5-9 meaningful units or chunks of information

The Information Processing Learning Theory

George Miller developed the information processing theory by comparing it to a

computer model. According to him, learning is changing the knowledge stored by an
individual’s memory. Information processing is an analysis of a fixed pattern of how the
human mind learns something new.

Human Mind and Computers

According to Miller, computers and the human mind are similar in how information
processing and analysis occur. The four steps in information processing in a computer are
attending, encoding, storing, and retrieving, and the human mind operates in these four
stages too.
• Attending is listening and paying close attention to receiving the information.
• Encoding is taking in the information the induvial deemed essential and paid
attention to.
• Storing is where the information enters the memory bank to be retrieved at a later
stage.
• Retrieving the information happens when an individual brings the data to their
conscious awareness to use it.

By knowing the pattern, educators can improve the learning environment for
students. They can also assist adults and children with learning disabilities to learn faster.
Teachers may encourage students to process the content more deeply by providing
participative and active forms of learning.

Examples of using Information Processing Theory in the Classroom

• Gain students’ attention with cues signaling the start of the lesson.
• Break up the information in smaller parts and move at a pace that gives the students
time to process the new information.
• Review the previous lesson and discuss previous lessons.
• Teach new concepts in an organized manner using logical sequence starting from the
simple basic to more complex.
 • Make it meaningful by giving real-life examples and personal experiences to help
students retain the information.
• Teach students chunking by categorizing related information.
• Connect new information with already known information and what will follow in
the next lesson.
• Motivate students to participate actively in discussions and activities.
• Use daily drills to embed fundamentals by providing opportunities for overlearning.
• Repeat information in various formats for better retrieval. Use verbal, written, visual,
and demonstrative methods.
• Limit distractions that may induce selective attention, drawing the student’s
attention away from the lesson.

Three Stages of Information Processing Theory

The information processing theory model consists of three stages: sensory memory,
working memory, and long-term memory.
1. Sensory Memory. Input devices, like a keyboard or touch screen. Are used to input
data into a computer. The input devices in a human are their sensory organs.
Humans receive information about their surroundings through sight, taste, smell,
hearing, and touch.
Data is continuously entering the sensory memory of the human brain. The
brain cannot store everything the senses observe. Hence information is active for 3-5
seconds in the sensory memory.
2. Short Term Memory. The computer processes the data in the central processing
unit; in a human mind, information is processed in the short-term memory or
working memory. Here the data is either used, discarded, or transferred to the long-
term memory for retrieval.
Miller’s s 7-plus or minus-2 cognitive chunks applies to information
processing in short-term memory. According to Miller, most individuals have seven
cognitive slots available to be filled with information at a given time. It varies among
two among different individuals.
With such a small capacity, the working memory cannot store all the data
from the sensory memory. The information may be discarded as irrelevant within 5-
30 seconds if not processed. Processing happens in two ways in the short-term
memory. Maintenance rehearsal is repeating the information to remember it for
now, like a phone number or instructions. A few hours later, you will have forgotten
the phone number.
When you connect the information with previously learned information, the
two integrate improves the memory. The longer the elaborative rehearsal occurs,
like when practicing hitting a ball, the more automatic it becomes. A tennis player
that has been practicing for months hits a ball automatically compared to someone
who has never hit a ball. Automatic responses need less working memory space
because it requires less working memory resources.
3. Long-term Memory. When you save the data, it is stored on the computer hard disk
(or in the cloud in the modern-day). In the human brain, the information is stored in
the long-term memory for an indefinite period. The data output is displayed on the
 computer screen or as a printout. Behavior and actions reveal the output of
information in a human.
When sufficiently processed in the working memory or short term memory,
the information is stored in long term memory. Long term memory has no limitation
in its storing capacity of data.

Conclusion

Comparing how the human mind is processing information to how a computer is

processing data was first described by George A. Miller. It was an excellent metaphor to
describe the learning processing theory. Cognitive psychologist George Miller developed the
theory, and it was later expanded on by various psychologists.
The theory is a practical tool for teachers to help students through the processes of
learning new information and the ability to retrieve necessary knowledge from their long-
term memories.

Reference: Groenewald, R (2021). Information Processing Theory. Retrieved from

https://www.fractuslearning.com/information-processing-theory/

4. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory

• Howard Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences proposes that people are not born
with all of the intelligence they will ever have.
• This theory challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of
intelligence, sometimes known as “g” for general intelligence, that only focuses on
cognitive abilities.
 • To broaden this notion of intelligence, Gardner introduced eight different types of
intelligences consisting of: Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Spatial, Bodily-
Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, and Naturalist.
• Gardner notes that the linguistic and logical-mathematical modalities are most typed
valued in school and society.
• Gardner also suggests that there may other “candidate” intelligences—such as
spiritual intelligence, existential intelligence, and moral intelligence—but does not
believe these meet his original inclusion criteria. (Gardner, 2011).

` The theory of multiple intelligences was first proposed by Howard Gardner in his
1983 book “Frames of Mind”, where he broadens the definition of intelligence and outlines
several distinct types of intellectual competencies.
Gardner developed a series of eight inclusion criteria while evaluating each "candidate”
intelligence that was based on a variety of scientific disciplines.
• Howard Gardner writes that we may all have these intelligences, but our profile of
these intelligence may differ individually based on genetics or experience.
• Gardner defines intelligence as a “biopsychological potential to process
information that can be activated in a cultural setting to solve problems or create
products that are of value in a culture” (Gardner, 2000, p.28).

1. Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart). Linguistic Intelligence is a part of Howard

Gardner's multiple intelligence theory that deals with sensitivity to the spoken and
written language, ability to learn languages, and capacity to use language to
accomplish certain goals. People with linguistic intelligence, such as William
Shakespeare and Oprah Winfrey, have an ability to analyze information and create
products involving oral and written language such as speeches, books, and memos.

2. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Number/Reasoning smart). Logical-

mathematical intelligence refers to the capacity to analyze problems logically, carry
out mathematical operations, and investigate issues scientifically. People with
logical-mathematical intelligence, such as Albert Einstein and Bill Gates, have an
ability to develop equations and proofs, make calculations, and solve abstract
problems.

3. Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart). Spatial intelligence features the potential to

recognize and manipulate the patterns of wide space (those used, for instance, by
navigators and pilots) as well as the patterns of more confined areas, such as those
of importance to sculptors, surgeons, chess players, graphic artists, or architects.
People with spatial intelligence, such as Frank Lloyd Wright and Amelia Earhart, have
an ability to recognize and manipulate large-scale and fine-grained spatial images.

4. Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence (Body Smart). Bodily kinesthetic intelligence is the

potential of using one’s whole body or parts of the body (like the hand or the mouth)
to solve problems or to fashion products. People with bodily-kinesthetic intelligence,
such as Michael Jordan and Simone Biles, have an ability to use one’s own body to
create products, perform skills, or solve problems through mind–body union.
 5. Musical Intelligence (Music Smart). Musical intelligence refers to the skill in the
performance, composition, and appreciation of musical patterns. People with
musical intelligence, such as Beethoven and Ed Sheeran, have an ability to recognize
and create musical pitch, rhythm, timbre, and tone.

6. Interpersonal Intelligence (People Smart). Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity

to understand the intentions, motivations, and desires of other people and
consequently to work effectively with others. People with interpersonal intelligence,
such as Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa, have an ability to recognize and
understand other people’s moods, desires, motivations, and intentions.

7. Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smart). Intrapersonal intelligence is the capacity to

understand oneself, to have an effective working model of oneself-including own’s
desires, fears, and capacities—and to use such information effectively in regulating
one’s own life. People with intrapersonal intelligence, such as Aristotle and Maya
Angelou, have an ability to recognize and understand his or her own moods, desires,
motivations, and intentions. This type of intelligence can help a person to
understand which life goals are important and how to achieve them.

8. Naturalist intelligence (Nature Smart). Naturalistic intelligence involves expertise in

the recognition and classification of the numerous species—the flora and fauna—of
his or her environment. People with naturalistic intelligence, such as Charles Darwin
and Jane Goddall, have an ability to identify and distinguish among different types of
plants, animals, and weather formations that are found in the natural world.

9. Existential intelligence. It is an individual’s capacity or ability to understand and

contemplate philosophical topics relating to mankind’s existence. According to
the theory of existential intelligence, some individuals have an easier time
conceptualizing deep philosophical questions, such as the origin of mankind, what
constitutes consciousness, and man’s purpose on earth. Those individuals with a
strong tendency toward existential intelligence are, according to some experts, more
inclined to ask questions regarding these ultimate realities, including the meaning of
life.

Critical Evaluation

Most of the resistance to multiple intelligences theory has come from cognitive
psychologists and psychometricians. Cognitive psychologists such as Waterhouse (2006)
claimed that there is no empirical evidence to the validity of the theory of multiple
intelligences.

Psychometricians, or psychologists involved in testing, argue that intelligence tests

support the concept for a single general intelligence, “g”, rather than the eight distinct
competencies (Gottfredson, 2004). Other researches argue these Gardner’s intelligences
come second or third to the “g” factor (Visser, Ashton, & Vernon, 2006).
 Some responses to this criticism include that the Multiple Intelligences theory
doesn’t dispute the existence of the “g” factor; it proposes that it is equal along with the
other intelligences. Many critics overlook the inclusion criteria set forth by Gardner.
These criteria are strongly supported by empirical evidence in psychology, biology,
neuroscience, among others. Gardner admits that traditional psychologists were valid is
criticizing the lack of operational definitions for the intelligences, that is, to figure out how
to measure and test the various competencies (Davis et al., 2011).
Gardner was surprised to find that Multiple Intelligences theory has been used most
widely in educational contexts. He developed this theory to challenge academic
psychologists, and therefore did not present many educational suggestions. For this reason,
teachers and educators were able to take the theory and apply it as they saw fit.
As it gained popularity in this field, Gardner has maintained that practitioners should
determine the theory’s best use in classrooms. He has often declined opportunities to aid in
curriculum development that uses multiple intelligences theory, opting to only provide
feedback at most (Gardner, 2011).
Most of the criticism has come from those removed from the classroom, such as
journalists and academics. Educators are not typically tied to the same standard of evidence
and are less concerned with abstract inconsistencies, which has given them the freedom to
apply it with their students and let the results speak for itself (Armstrong, 2019).

Implications for Learning

The most important educational implications from the theory of multiple
intelligences can be summed up through individuation and pluralization. Individuation posits
that because each person differs from other another there is no logical reason to teach and
assess students identically.
Individualized education has typically been reserved for the wealthy and others who
could afford to hire tutors to address individual students’ needs.
Technology has now made it possible for more people to access a variety of
teachings and assessments depending on their needs. Pluralization, the idea that topics and
skills should be taught in more than one way, activates individual’s multiple intelligences.
Presenting a variety of activities and approaches to learning helps reach all students and
encourages them to be able to think about the subjects from various perspectives,
deepening their knowledge of that topic (Gardner, 2011b).
A common misconception about the theory of multiple intelligences is that it is
synonymous with learning styles. Gardner states that learning styles refer to the way an
individual is most comfortable approaching a range of tasks and materials.
Multiple intelligences theory states that everyone has all eight intelligences at
varying degrees of proficiency and an individual’s learning style is unrelated to the areas in
which they are the most intelligent. For example, someone with linguistic intelligence may
not necessarily learn best through writing and reading. Classifying students by their learning
styles or intelligences alone may limit their potential for learning.
Research shows that students are more engaged and learn best when they are given
various ways to demonstrate their knowledge and skills, which also helps teachers more
accurately assess student learning (Darling-Hammond, 2010).

Reference: Marenus, M. (2020). Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. Retrieved from

https://www.simplypsychology.org/multiple-intelligences.html
C. Language and Literacy Development Theories

There’s no right place to start from when discussing the theories of language
development. Many schools of thought have developed and influenced the history of
language acquisition as an academic discipline.
Let’s get into five main theories and approaches that give us insights into the
language phenomenon.

1. Daniel Everett’s Theory: Language Scratches the Communicative Itch

Picking up and using a language is something, inventing it from scratch is a whole

another thing. Here come the homo Erectus!
The language phenomenon may not have started with us, homo sapiens.
According to linguist Daniel Everett, nearly two million years have passed since
“homo Erectus” first started uttering meaningful sounds.
Homo erectus is considered as the first human species, which also includes homo sapiens
and Neanderthals.
These early hominins had big brains, walked upright, and were the first gatherer-
hunters. They traveled in groups across the islands, and the ocean couldn’t get in their way.
The Erectus needed language because they had to communicate more complex
ideas than just pointing to a mammoth to alert the hunting party.
“You need communication with symbols, not just grunts,” says Everett. “They accomplished
too much for this to simply be the sort of communication that we see in other species
without symbols.”
Settlement evidence found on the island of Flores, in Indonesia, suggests that the
Erectus came together in groups — on rafts.
They crossed strong currents surrounding the island. For that, they had
to paddle together and know when to stop. Homo erectus needed “words” to give
commands and instructions.
Homo erectus had a vocal apparatus similar to gorillas, so they couldn’t make all the
sounds we can make. Their linguistic capabilities were just enough to make them one of the
most successful species to ever walked the Earth.
They roamed the face of the planet for over 2 million years. For as many as 350,000
years, we haven’t lived but about a sixth of the time.

2. Chomsky’s Nativist Linguistic Theory: Universal Grammar

Evertt’s work suggests that language is a social tool that humans developed to
communicate and share knowledge to solve problems. Linguist Noam Chomsky,
however, thinks language is innate.
What is grammar? It is “The whole system and structure of a language or of
languages in general, usually taken as consisting of syntax and morphology (including
inflections) and sometimes also phonology and semantics.”
For Chomsky, who formulated the concept of universal grammar, language has a
genetic component to it.
The nativist linguistic theory postulates that every human being is born with innate
language ability. Pioneered by Chomsky, this theory suggests that a human baby’s brain
comes to the world pre-equipped with language-learning systems.
Chomsky thinks there could be a single master language that served as the origin of all other
languages.
A child comes to the world with the prerequisites for language learning. Namely, a
built-in tool Chomsky calls the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
This brain device allows the child to acquire linguistic abilities rapidly. Worth noting,
Chomsky’s LAD is a hypothetical concept. There’s no brain region recognized as such by
neuroscientists.

3. B.F. Skinner Behaviorist Theory

The innatist, or nativist theory, attributes the emergence of language as a neural
mutation that occurred way back in a single individual. Everett thinks it was born from a
more social necessity, slowly shaped by many individuals.
This means there’s no universal grammar shared between all languages and from
which they take their linguistic cues. The notion of universal grammar and the innateness of
the language faculty is also opposed to the behaviorist concept of language.
It’s American behaviorist and psychologist B.F. Skinner who developed the behaviorist
theory of language acquisition.
This theory suggests that learning a language is much like learning any new skill
through observation, imitation, repetition, errors, rewards, and punishments. Or what
Skinner calls Operant Conditioning.
Behavior theorists posit that language development is a learned behavior. When
babies first speak, they are trying to imitate the behavior of their parents and adults around
them.
Language would develop as responses to stimuli from the environment. Hugging the
baby for his or her first word is a reward that pushes them further on the learning curve.
Kids in school could get either rewarded or punished for their language learning acquisition
process.
However, Chomsky isn’t a fan of the behaviorist theory because he claims it doesn’t
address syntactic acquisition.

4. Vygotsky’s Social Interactionist Theory

The social interactionist theory is based on the work of Soviet psychologist Lev
Vygotski.
The basic notion of this theory is that language has a social origin. In that regard, it
has some similarities with Everett’s model.
This concept suggests that the child, from birth, is continually engaging in social
interactions, which allows him to develop higher cognitive functions, namely language, and
thought.
According to Vygotsky’s social development model, socio-cultural interactions come
first, then cognition and language development.

5. Piaget’s Constructivist Theory

For Jean Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, language is not only due to genetic
predisposition or imitation
Piaget’s constructivist theory argues that language is constructed by following
cognitive development. In other words, people develop their language skills and construct
overall knowledge based on their own experience.
 Beyond just language development, Piaget’s theory focuses on understanding the
nature of intelligence itself. He defines four stages that cognitive development goes
through:
• Sensorimotor stage: birth to 2 years
• Preoperational stage: 2 to 7 years
• Concrete operational stage: 7 to 11 years
• Formal operational stage: 12 and up

D. Socio-Emotional and Moral Development Theories

1. Attachment Theory
Attachment theory, developed by John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth, describes the
dynamics of long-term relationships between humans.

Key Points
• Attachment in infants is primarily a process of proximity-seeking to an identified
attachment figure in situations of perceived distress or alarm for the purpose of
survival.
• John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth were two prominent researchers who advanced
the theory of attachment as related to human development.
• John Bowlby conceived of four stages of attachment that begin during infancy:
preattachment, attachment-in-the-making, clear-cut attachment, and formation of
reciprocal relationships.
• Ainsworth identified three types of attachment that a child could possibly
demonstrate: secure, avoidant, and resistant/ambivalent. Her colleague Mary Main
later identified a fourth type, called disorganized attachment.
• In his experiments related to attachment, Harry Harlow raised baby monkeys away
from their mothers; he gave them surrogate mothers made of wire and wood, to
which they developed attachment bonds.

Key Terms
• separation anxiety: A psychological condition in children characterized by
apprehension when separated from a parent.
• attachment: A strong bonding toward or with.

Attachment theory describes the dynamics of long-term social relationships between

humans. Attachment in infants is primarily a process of proximity-seeking to an identified
attachment figure in situations of perceived distress or alarm for the purpose of survival. In
other words, infants develop attachment to their caregivers—upon whom they are
dependent—as a means of survival. John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth were two prominent
researchers who advanced the theory of attachment as related to human development.

1.a. Bowlby’s Attachment Theory

John Bowlby’s contributions to the theory of attachment formation are heavily
influenced by ethology (the scientific study of human and animal behavior), including an
emphasis on the evolutionary origins and biological purposes of behavior. According to
Bowlby, children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments to caregivers as the
result of genetics. In 1969 Bowlby studied mother-infant interactions and concluded that
infant smiling, babbling, crying, and cooing are built-in mechanisms to encourage parents to
attach to, and thereby care for, the infant. Keeping the parent in close proximity ensures the
infant will avoid danger. Bowlby introduced the idea of the caregiver as a “secure base” for
the child, and that this secure base was either successfully created during childhood or was
not.
The development of parent-infant attachment is a complex process that leads to
deeper and deeper attachment as the child ages. This attachment (or lack thereof) has
lifelong implications for the child as he or she reaches adulthood. Bowlby conceived of four
stages of attachment that begin during infancy: preattachment, attachment-in-the-making,
clear-cut attachment, and formation of reciprocal relationships.
• Preattachment (birth to 6 weeks): Built-in signals, such as crying and cooing,
bring a newborn baby into close proximity with their caregiver. Babies
recognize a caretaker’s smell and voice and are comforted by these things.
When the caretaker picks up the baby or smiles at her, the beginnings of
attachment are forming. However, complete attachment has not yet occurred,
so the baby is still comfortable being left with an unfamiliar person.
• Attachment-in-the-making (6 weeks to 8 months): Attachment is getting
stronger during this stage, and infants respond differently to familiar people
than they do to strangers. For example, a 5-month-old baby will be more
“talkative” with his mother rather than with an uncle he sees only once a
month. He will also be calmed more quickly by the mother’s presence than by
the uncle’s. Separation anxiety (becoming upset when a trusted caregiver
leaves) has not set in yet but will be seen in the next stage. Parents continue
to build attachment by meeting the baby’s basic needs for food, shelter, and
comfort.
• Clear-cut attachment (8 months to 18 months): Attachment to trusted
caregivers continues to strengthen in this stage, and separation anxiety is
likely in a caregiver’s absence. Toddlers generally want to be with their
preferred caregiver at all times, and they will follow the caretaker, climb on
them, or otherwise do things to keep the caregiver’s attention. Parents and
other important adults in the child’s life continue to strengthen attachment by
being receptive to the child’s needs for attention, meeting basic needs, and
playing with the child.
• Formation of reciprocal attachment (18 months to 2 years): Rapid language
growth facilitates the understanding of new concepts, and children begin to
understand a parent’s coming and going. For example, children can now
understand that a parent returns home from work at a certain time each day,
so separation anxiety lessens—although the child may do things to gain extra
time with the parent prior to departure or to keep the parent from leaving.
Parents can help a child form secure attachment by explaining things to them,
by being present as much as possible, and by continuing to meet basic needs.

1.b. Ainsworth’s Types of Attachment

In 1970, Mary Ainsworth built on and expanded Bowlby’s ideas, coming up with a
more nuanced view of multiple types of insecure attachment. Ainsworth’s primary
contribution to attachment theory comes in the form of a study known as the Strange
Situation. In this study, Ainsworth placed children between the ages of 1 and 2 in unfamiliar
situations to assess the type and level of their attachment to their caregivers. Her research
showed that children generally use the parent as a secure base from which to explore an
unfamiliar room, and they become upset or uncomfortable when the parent leaves and a
new individual (not known to the child) enters the room.
Ainsworth identified four primary types of attachment: securer, avoidant,
and resistant/ambivalent. Depending upon how the children attached to their parents, they
would act in predictable ways in the Strange Situation experiment.
• Secure: Children with this form of attachment use the caregiver as a secure
base from which to explore the room. They are comforted by the parent and
show a clear preference for the caregiver (for example, by protesting or
avoiding the unfamiliar person).
• Avoidant: These children avoid contact with the caregiver and show little
interest in play. They do not seem to mind when the caregiver leaves, and they
treat the stranger in a similar fashion to the caregiver. The child may act in a
rebellious manner and have lower self-esteem as they get older. The children
of parents who do not meet their basic needs or are inattentive may form
avoidant attachment.
• Resistant/Ambivalent: Children with this form of attachment are unable to use
the caregiver as a secure base, and they seek out the caregiver prior to
separation. They are both distressed by the caregiver’s departure and angry
when the caregiver returns. They are not easily calmed by the caregiver or the
stranger, and they feel anxiety with the caregiver due to inconsistent
attachment patterns.

In 1990, a fourth category, known as disorganized attachment, was added by

Ainsworth’s colleague Mary Main. Children with these attachment patterns engage in
stereotypical behavior such as freezing or rocking. They act strangely with the caregiver and
do not appear to know how to attach, doing such things as approaching with their back
turned or hugging the stranger upon their entry to the room. Disorganized attachment
generally results from the child being maltreated or neglected in some way.

2. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kolhberg’s theory of moral development states that we progress through three
levels of moral thinking that build on our cognitive development.

Key Points
• Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to
explain the moral development of children, which he believed follows a series of
stages.
• Kohlberg defined three levels of moral development: preconventional, conventional,
and postconventional. Each level has two distinct stages.
• During the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.
Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers, and they judge an action based on its consequences.
• During the conventional level, an individual’s sense of morality is tied to personal
and societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority
 figures, but this is now because they believe that this is necessary to ensure
positive relationships and societal order.
• During the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms of
more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated.
• Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for its cultural and gendered bias toward white,
upper-class men and boys. It also fails to account for inconsistencies within moral
judgments.

Key Terms
• morality: Recognition of the distinction between good and evil or between
right and wrong; respect for and obedience to the rules of right conduct; the
mental disposition or characteristic of behaving in a manner intended to
produce good results.

Lawrence Kohlberg expanded on the earlier work of cognitive theorist Jean Piaget to
explain the moral development of children. Kohlberg believed that moral development, like
cognitive development, follows a series of stages. He used the idea of moral dilemmas—
stories that present conflicting ideas about two moral values—to teach 10 to 16 year-old
boys about morality and values. The best known moral dilemma created by Kohlberg is the
“Heinz” dilemma, which discusses the idea of obeying the law versus saving a life. Kohlberg
emphasized that it is the way an individual reasons about a dilemma that determines
positive moral development.
After presenting people with various moral dilemmas, Kohlberg reviewed people’s
responses and placed them in different stages of moral reasoning. According to Kohlberg, an
individual progresses from the capacity for pre-conventional morality (before age 9) to the
capacity for conventional morality (early adolescence), and toward attaining post-
conventional morality (once Piaget’s idea of formal operational thought is attained), which
only a few fully achieve. Each level of morality contains two stages, which provide the basis
for moral development in various contexts.
Level 1: Preconventional
Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled. Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience -and- Punishment Orientation

Stage 1 focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

Stage 2 expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior
is defined by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it
might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for others is not
based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my back, and I’ll
scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is asked by his parents
to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and the parents offer the child an
incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional
Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is
now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal
order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a
rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

In stage 3, children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid
disapproval. Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

In stage 4, the child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their
importance in maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same
for everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law, perhaps
everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Postconventional
Throughout the postconventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in
terms of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust
and should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their own ethical
principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life, liberty, and
justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than absolute dictates
that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional individuals elevate their
own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their behavior, especially at
stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the pre-conventional level. Some
theorists have speculated that many people may never reach this level of abstract moral
reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or community. Laws
are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts. Those that do not promote the
general welfare should be changed when necessary to meet the greatest good for the
greatest number of people. This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable
compromise. Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on
ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded
in justice, and a commitment to justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those principles,
they feel guilty. In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not
because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected, it is
legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he
found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated at that level.

Critiques of Kohlberg’s Theory

Kohlberg has been criticized for his assertion that women seem to be deficient in
their moral reasoning abilities when compared to men. Carol Gilligan (1982), a research
assistant of Kohlberg, criticized her former mentor’s theory because it was based so
narrowly on research using white, upper-class men and boys. She argued that women are
not deficient in their moral reasoning and instead proposed that males and females reason
differently: girls and women focus more on staying connected and maintaining
interpersonal relationships.
Kohlberg’s theory has been criticized for emphasizing justice to the exclusion of
other values, with the result that it may not adequately address the arguments of those
who value other moral aspects of actions. Similarly, critics argue that Kohlberg’s stages are
culturally biased—that the highest stages in particular reflect a westernized ideal of justice
based on individualistic thought. This is biased against those that live in non-Western
societies that place less emphasis on individualism.
Another criticism of Kohlberg’s theory is that people frequently demonstrate
significant inconsistency in their moral judgements. This often occurs in moral dilemmas
involving drinking and driving or business situations where participants have been shown to
reason at a lower developmental stage, typically using more self-interest driven reasoning
(i.e., stage two) than authority and social order obedience driven reasoning (i.e., stage four).
Critics argue that Kohlberg’s theory cannot account for such inconsistencies.

WRAP-UP ACTIVITY

Individual Activity
1. Choose one (1) theory on human development. Research on further details about the
chosen theory and discuss about it including its implications to human development
and applications to the teaching-learning process. Do a video presentation of it. Save it
as mp4 and send it to my email address: [email protected].

By Two’s (Dyads)
2. Choose a partner. Select five (5) theories (whether be developmental, cognitive,
literacy/language, or socio-emotional and moral) on human development Fill out the
theoretical matrix with the correct information. You may refer to your course reader or
to other online resources. Be sure not to copy word-by-word the information. You may
paraphrase or write in your own words. DON’T FORGET to properly cite the
authors/writers.

Name of the Theory Theorist and Brief Brief Description of the Application of the
Background Theory Theory