Fundamentals of

Surveying

Week 3
 Contouring
The value of plan or map is highly enhanced if the relative position of the
points is represented both horizontally as well as vertically. Such maps are
known as topographic maps. Thus, in a topographic survey, both horizontal as
well as vertical control are required. On a plan, the relative altitudes of the
points can be represented by shading, hachures. form lines or contour lines. Out of
these, contour lines are most widely used because they indicate the elevations
directly.

Contour
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining the points of equal
elevation. It is a line in which the surface of ground is intersected by a level
surface. A contour line is a line on the map representing a contour. Fig. 1 shows a
pond with water at an elevation of 101.00 m as shown in the plan by the water
mark. If the water level is now lowered by 1 m, another water mark representing
Fundamentals of Surveying

100.00 m elevation will be obtained. These water marks may be surveyed and
represented on the map in the form of contours.
A topographic map presents a clear picture of the surface of the ground. If
a map is to a big scale, it shows where the ground is nearly level, where it is
sloping, where the slopes are steep and where they are gradual. If a map is to a
small scale, it shows the flat country, the hills and valleys, the lakes and water
courses and other topographic features.

Figure 1:

Contour

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Contour Interval
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called
contour interval. The contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan,
otherwise the general appearance of the map will be misleading. The horizontal
distance between two points on two consecutive contours is known as the
horizontal equivalent and depends upon the steepness of the ground. The choice
of proper contour interval depends upon the following considerations:

(i) The nature of the ground: The contour interval depends upon
whether the country is flat or highly undulated. A contour interval
chosen for a flat ground will be highly unsuitable for undulated
ground. For every flat ground, a small interval is necessary. If the
ground is more broken, greater contour interval should be
adopted, otherwise the contours will come too close to each other.

(ii) The scale of the map: The contour interval should be inversely
proportional to the scale. If the scale is small, the contour interval should
be large. If the scale is large, the contour interval should be small.

Fundamentals of Surveying
(iii) The purpose and extent of the survey: The contour interval largely
depends upon the purpose and the extent of the survey. For example. if
the survey is intended for detailed design work or for accurate earth work
calculations, small contour interval is to be used. The extent of survey in
such cases will generally be small. In the case of location surveys. for lines
of communications and for reservoir and drainage areas. where the
extent of survey is large, a large contour interval is to be used.

(iv) Time and expense of field and office work: If the time available is less,
greater contour interval should be used. If the contour interval is small,
greater time will be taken in the field survey, in reduction and in plotting
the map.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTOURS
The following characteristic features may be used while plotting or
reading a contour plan.

1. Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other. If

they did, the point intersection would have two different elevations which is
absurd However, contour lines of different elevations can intersect only
in the case of an overhanging cliff or a cave.
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2. Contour lines of different elevations can unite to form one line only in
the case of a vertical cliff.
 3. Contour lines close together indicate steep slope. They indicate a gentle
slope if they are far apart. If they are equally spaced, uniform slope is
indicated. A series of straight, parallel and equally spaced contours
represent a plane surface.

4. A contour passing through any point is perpendicular to the line of

steepest slope at that point.

5. A closed contour line with one or more higher ones inside it represents
a hill, similarly, a closed contour line with one or more lower ones inside
it indicates a depression without n outlet.

Figure 2:

a. Hill
b. depression
Fundamentals of Surveying

6. To contour lines having the same elevation cannot unite and continue
as one line. Similarly, a single contour cannot split into two lines. This is
evident because the single line would, otherwise, indicate a knife-edge
ridge or depression which does not occur in nature. However, two
different contours of the same elevation may approach very near to each
other.

7. A contour line must close upon itself, though not necessarily within the
limits of the map.

8. Contour lines cross a watershed or ridge line at right angles. They form
curves of U-shape round it with the concave side of the curve towards the
higher ground. See Figure 3

Figure 3:

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 9. Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. They form sharp curves
of V-Shape across it with convex side of the curve towards the higher
ground. See Figure 4. If there is a stream, the contour on either side,
turning upstream, may disappear in coincidence with the edge of the
stream and cross underneath the water surface.

Figure 4:

Fundamentals of Surveying
10. The contour appears on either side of a ridge or valley, for the highest
horizontal plane chat intersects the ridge must cut it on both sides. The
same is true of the lower horizontal plane that cuts a valley.

METHODS OF LOCATING CONTOURS

The location of a point in topographic survey involves both horizontal as
well as vertical control. The methods of locating contours, therefore, depend
upon the instruments used. In general, however, the field method may be
divided into two classes :
(a) The direct method (b) The indirect method

In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the

ground. Only those points are surveyed which happen to be plotted. After having
surveyed those points, they are plotted and contours are drawn through them.
The method is slow and tedious and is used for small areas and where great
accuracy is required.
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In the indirect method, some suitable guide points are selected and
surveyed; the guide points need not necessarily be on the contours. These guide
 points having been plotted; serve as basis for the interpolation of contours. This
is the method most commonly used in engineering surveys.
Direct Method
As stated earlier, in the direct method, each contour is located by determining
the
positions of a series of points through which the contour passes. The operation is
also sometimes called tracing out contours. The field work is two-fold:
(i) Vertical control: Location of points on the contour, and
(ii) Horizontal control: Survey of those points.

Vertical Control: The points on the contours are traced either with the help of a
level and staff or with the help of a hand level. In the former case, the level is set
at a point to command as much area as is possible and is levelled. The staff is
kept on the B.M. and the height of the instrument is determined. If the B.M. is not
nearby, fly-levelling may be performed to establish a temporary benchmark
(T.B.M.) in that area. Having known the height of the instrument, the staff
reading is calculated so chat the bottom of the staff is at an elevation equal to the
value of the contour. For example, if the height of the instrument is 101.80
Fundamentals of Surveying

meters, the staff reading to get a point on the contour of 100.00 meters will be
1.80 meters. Taking one contour at a time (say 100.0 m contour), the staff man is
directed to keep the staff on the points on contour so that reading of 1.80 m is
obtained every time.
Thus, in Fig. 5, the dots represent the points determined by this method
explained above.

Figure 5:

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Horizontal Control: After having located the points on various contours, they
are to be surveyed with a suitable control system. The system to be adopted
depends mainly on the type and extent of areas. For small area, chain surveying
may be used and the points may be located by offsets from the survey lines. In a
work of larger nature, a traverse may be used. The traverse may be a theodolite
or a compass or a plane table traverse.

In the direct method. two "survey parties generally work simultaneously -one
locating the points on the contours and the other surveying those points.
However, if the work is of a small nature, the points may be located first and
then surveyed by the same party. In Fig. 5, the points shown by dots have been
surveyed with respect to points A and B which may be tied by a traverse shown
by chain dotted lines.

Indirect Methods
In this method, some guide points are selected along a system of straight
lines and their elevations are found. The points are then plotted and contours

Fundamentals of Surveying
are then drawn by interpolation. These guide points are not, except by
coincidence, points on the contours to be located. While interpolating, it is
assumed that the slope between any two adjacent guide points is uniform. One of
the indirect methods of locating the ground points is

By Squares (Figure 6)
The method is used when the area to be surveyed is small and the
ground is not very much undulating. The area to be surveyed is divided
into a number of squares. The size of the square may vary from 5 to 20 m
depending upon the nature of the contour and contour interval. The
elevations of the corners of the square are then determined by means of a
level and a staff. The contour lines may then be drawn by interpolation. It
is not necessary that the squares may be of the same size. Sometimes
rectangles are also used in place of squares. When there are appreciable
breaks in the surface between corners, guide points in addition to those
at corners may also be used. The squares should be as long as practicable,
yet small enough to conform to the inequalities of the ground and to the
accuracy required. This method is also known as spot leveling.

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 Figure 6:
Spot Leveling
Fundamentals of Surveying

INTERPOLATION OF CONTOURS
Interpolation of the contours is the process of spacing the contours
proportionately between the plotted ground points established by indirect
methods. The methods of interpolation are based on the assumption that the
slope of ground between the two points is uniform.

One of the methods of interpolation is by arithmetic calculations. The

method, though accurate, is time consuming. The positions of contour points
between the guide points are located by arithmetic calculation. For example, let
A, B, D and C be the guide points plotted on the map, having elevations of 607.4,
617.3,
612.5 and 604.3 feet respectively (Fig. 7). Let AB = BD = CD = CA = 1 inch on the
plan and let it be required to locate the position of 605, 610 and 615 feet
contours on these lines. The vertical difference in elevation between A and B is
(617.3- 607.4) = 9.9 ft. Hence. the distances of the contour points from A will be:

Distance of 610 ft contour = (1/9.9) x 2.6 = 0.26” (approx..)

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Distance of 615 ft contour = (1/9.9) x 7.6 = 0.76” (approx..)
These two contour points may be located on AB. Similarly, the position of the
contour points on the lines AC, CD, BD and also on AD and BC may be located.
Contour lines may then be drawn through appropriate contour points.

Figure 7:

Fundamentals of Surveying
Contour Drawing
After having interpolated the contour points between a network of guide
points, smooth curves of the contour lines may be drawn through their
corresponding contour points. While drawing the contour lines, the fundamental
properties of contour lines must be borne in mind. The contour lines should be
inked in either black or brown. If the contour plan also shows the features like
roads, etc., it is preferable to use brown ink for the contour so as to distinguish it
clearly from rest of the features. The value of the contours should be written in a
systematic and uniform manner.

USES OF CONTOUR MAPS

The following are some of the important uses of contour maps.
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1. Drawing of Sections:
 From a given contour plan, the section along any given direction can be
drawn to know the general shape of the ground or to use it for earth work
calculations for a given communication line in the direction of the
section. Thus, in Fig. 8(b), let it be required to draw the section along the
line AB.

Figure 8:
Fundamentals of Surveying

The points in which the line AB intersect with various contours are
projected on the axis OX and their corresponding heights are plotted along the
axis OY to some scale to get the corresponding contour points which may be
joined to get the configuration of ground surface. Fig. 8(a)

2. Determination of Intervisibility between two points:

The distances between the triangulation stations are generally
several kilometers and before selecting their position it is necessary to
determine their intervisibility. A contour map may be used to determine the
intervisibility of the triangulation stations.

3. Tracing of Contour Gradients and Location of Route

A contour plan is very much useful in locating the route of a
highway, railway, canal or any other communication line.

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4. Measurement of Drainage Areas
A drainage area for a given point in a stream or river can be
defined as the area that forms the source of all water that passes that
point. A contour plan may be used to trace that line separating the basin
from the rest of the area. The line that marks the limits of drainage area has
the following characteristics :
(1) It passes through every ridge or saddle that divides the drainage area
from other areas.
(2) It often follows the ridges.
(3) It is always perpendicular to the contour lines.
5. Calculation of Reservoir Capacity
6. Intersection of Surfaces and Measurement of Earthwork

Horizontal Control Survey

Control surveys establish precise horizontal and vertical positions of

Fundamentals of Surveying
reference monuments. These serve as the basis for originating or checking
subordinate surveys for projects such as topographic and hydrographic
mapping; property boundary delineation; and route and construction planning,
design, and layout. They are also essential as a reference framework for giving
locations of data entered into Land Information Systems (LISs) and Geographic
Information Systems (GISs).
Traditionally there have been two general types of control surveys:
horizontal and vertical (we will only discuss the horizontal control). Horizontal
surveys generally establish geodetic latitudes and geodetic longitudes of stations
over large areas. From these values, plane rectangular coordinates can be
computed. On control surveys in smaller areas, plane rectangular coordinates
may be determined directly without obtaining geodetic latitudes and longitudes.
Field procedures used in horizontal control surveys have traditionally
been the ground methods of triangulation, precise traversing, trilateration, and
combinations of these basic approaches. In addition, astronomical observations
were made to determine azimuths, latitudes, and longitudes. Rigorous
photogrammetric techniques have also been used to densify the control in areas.
Traditional methods in horizontal control surveys require observations of
horizontal distances, angles, and observations of astronomic azimuths. Basic
theory, equipment, and procedures for making these observations have been
covered in previous lectures. The following sections concentrate on procedures
specific to control surveys, and on matters related to obtaining the higher orders
of accuracy generally required for these types of surveys.
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Triangulation
 Prior to the emergence of electronic distance-measuring equipment,
triangulation was the preferred and principal method for horizontal control
surveys, especially if extensive areas were to be covered. Angles could be more
easily observed compared with distances, particularly where long lines over
rugged and forested terrain were involved, by erecting towers to elevate the
operators and their instruments. Triangulation possesses a large number of
inherent checks and closure conditions that help detect blunders and errors in
field data, and increase the possibility of meeting a high standard of accuracy.
As implied by its name, triangulation utilizes geometric figures composed
of triangles. Horizontal angles and a limited number of sides called baselines are
observed for length. By using the angles and baseline lengths, triangles are
solved
trigonometrically and positions of stations (vertices) calculated.
Different geometric figures are employed for control extension by
triangulation, but chains of quadrilaterals called arcs (Figure 9) have been most
common. They are the simplest geometric figures that permit rigorous closure
checks and adjustments of field observational errors, and they enable point
positions to be calculated by two independent routes for computational checks.
More complicated figures like that illustrated in Figure 10 have frequently been
Fundamentals of Surveying

used to establish horizontal control by triangulation in metropolitan areas.

Figure 9:

Chain of
Quadrilaterals

Figure 10:
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Triangulation
network for a
metropolitan
control survey.
 In executing triangulation surveys, intersection stations can be located as
part of the project. In this process, angles are observed from as many occupied
points as possible to tall prominent objects in the area such as church spires,
smokestacks, or water towers. The intersection stations are not occupied, but
their positions are calculated; thus, they become available as local reference
points. An example is station B in Figure 10. To compensate for the errors that
occur in the observations, triangulation networks must be adjusted. Adjustment
of a triangulation station is stated in Laboratory Exercise #19: Triangulation.

Fundamentals of Surveying
Hydrographic Survey
Hydrographic surveys determine depths and terrain configurations of the
bottoms of water bodies. Usually the survey data are used to prepare
hydrographic maps. In navigation and dredging, they may be recorded in
electrical formats for real-time analysis. Bodies of water surveyed include rivers,
reservoirs, harbors, lakes, and oceans.
Hydrographic surveys and maps are used in a variety of ways. As
examples, engineers employ them for planning and monitoring harbor and river
dredging operations, and to ascertain reservoir capacities for flood control and
water supply systems; petroleum engineers use them to position offshore
drilling facilities and locate underwater pipelines; navigators need them to chart
safe passageways and avoid reefs, bars, and other underwater hazards;
biologists and conservationists find them helpful in their study and management
of aquatic life; and anglers use them to locate structures where fish is likely to be
located.
Field procedures for hydrographic surveys are similar to those for
topographic work. There are some basic differences in procedures used by
surveyors since the land area being mapped cannot be seen, and the depth
measurements must be made in water.
Two basic tasks involved in hydrographic surveys are (1) making
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soundings (measuring depths) from the water surface to bottom, and (2) locating
the positions where soundings were made. Techniques used to perform these
 tasks vary depending on the water body’s size, accuracy required, type of
equipment to be used, and number of personnel available.

Equipment for Making Soundings

The size of a water body and its depth control the type of equipment used
to measure depths. For shallow areas of limited size, a sounding pole can be used.
This is usually a wooden or fiberglass staff resembling a level rod. It is perhaps
15 ft long, graduated in feet or tenths of feet, with a metal shoe on the bottom.
Direct depth measurements are made by lowering the pole vertically into the
water until it hits the bottom, and then reading the graduation at the surface.
Lead lines can be used where depths are greater than can be reached with
a sounding pole. These consist of a suitable length of stretch-resistant cord or
other material, to which a heavy lead weight (perhaps 5–15 lb.) is attached. The
cord is marked with foot graduations, and these should be checked frequently
against a steel tape for their accuracy. In use, the weight is lowered into the
water, being careful to keep the cord vertical. The graduation at the surface is
read when the weight hits the bottom.
In deep water, or for hydrographic surveys of appreciable extent,
Fundamentals of Surveying

electronically operated sonic depth recorders called echo sounders are used to
measure depths. These devices, an example of which is shown in Figure 11,
transmit an acoustic pulse vertically downward and measure the elapsed time
for the signal to travel to the bottom, be reflected, and return. The travel time is
converted to depth, and displayed in either digital or graphic form. A graphic
profile of the depths, such as that shown in Figure 12 can be displayed on a
computer screen. This graphic plot can be referred to repeatedly for plotting and
checking.
Sounding poles and lead lines yield spot depths and are restricted for use
in relatively shallow water. However, electronic depth sounders provide
continuous profiles of the surface beneath the boat’s path and can be used in
water of virtually any depth. For example, in the profile of Figure 12, the chart’s
vertical range was set to 40 ft and profile depths shown vary from 10 to 24 ft.

Figure 11:

Depth sounder
used in small lake
hydrographic
survey

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 Figure 12:

Bottom profile
produced by
electronic depth
sounder.

Fundamentals of Surveying
Locating Soundings
Any of the traditional ground-surveying procedures can be used to locate
positions where soundings are taken. In addition to these techniques, other
methods have also been applied in hydrographic surveys, for example, GNSS
receivers. If ground-surveying techniques are used, some horizontal control
must first be established on shore. Ideal locations for control stations are on
peninsulas or in open areas that afford a wide unobstructed view of the water
body for tracking a sounding boat. The coordinate positions of the control points
can be established by traverse, but triangulation and trilateration are also well
suited for this work.
Among the various boat-positioning methods, radiation and angle
intersection are usually selected if total station instruments are used. Radiation
is particularly efficient, especially if a total station instrument is used, because
only one person on shore is needed to track the boat. After setting up on one
control station and back sighting another, angles and distances are measured to
locate each boat position. Special total station instruments and reflectors are
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manufactured for this work to facilitate sighting and observing distances
electronically to a moving target. From angles and distances, which are
automatically read, the total station’s computer determines the boat’s
 coordinates. These can either be stored in an automatic data collector for later
office use in mapping, or transmitted by radio to the boat if real-time positioning
is required, as in controlling ongoing dredging.
Figure 13 illustrates the use of angle intersections in the hydrographic
survey of a lake. Here the boat travels back and forth along range lines while the
depth sounder continuously records bottom profiles. At regular intervals, fixes
are taken by observing angles to the boat from shore stations. Two angles
establish the boat’s position, but three or more provide redundancy and a check.
For example, in Figure 13, angle observations e, g, and h, for fix number 50
(indicated
by dashed lines) have been made from shore stations E, G, and H, respectively.
Prior to observing angles, the total stations or theodolites were oriented by
backsighting on another visible control station, as at station G from E.
Flag or radio signals are given from the boat to coordinate fixes and
ensure
that angles from all shore stations are observed simultaneously. At the precise
moment of any fix, the profile is also marked and the fix number noted. For
example, in Figure 13, fixes 48 through 52 are identified and marked on the
profile of Figure 12. This correlates bottom depths with specific locations in the
Fundamentals of Surveying

water body—a necessity for mapping.

If the boat is driven back and forth along parallel range lines to cover the
area of interest, and then the area traversed again with perpendicular courses, a
grid of profiles results from which contours can be drawn. In larger bodies of
water, a compass is valuable to assist in keeping the range lines parallel.
Required
accuracy dictates the spacing between range lines, with closer spacing yielding
more accurate results. Various other boat-positioning systems can be used,
depending on circumstances. One that works well for hydrographic surveys of
rivers or other relatively narrow water bodies consist in laying out uniformly
spaced reference lines, which cross the water. Placing tall painted stakes on the
bank on either side marks the lines. Then, fixes can be taken as the sounding
boat navigates along the reference lines. However, to position each fix along the
lines, either a distance must be observed from one reference point, or an
azimuth to the boat from an independent control point. When the boat is moving
perpendicular to the marked
lines, its passage across
projections between stakes
locates fixes, but again a
distance or angle is needed to
complete the fix position.

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Figure 13:

Angle intersection
procedure for
locating boat fixes
along range lines.
Hydrographic Mapping
Procedures for preparing hydrographic maps do not differ appreciably
from those used in topographic mapping. Basically, depths are plotted in their

Fundamentals of Surveying
surveyed positions and contours drawn. If an echo sounder is used, depths are
interpolated from the profiles and plotted between fix locations. In addition to
depth contours, the shoreline and other prominent features are also located on
hydrographic maps. This is especially important for navigation and fishing maps,
as the features are the means by which users line in and locate themselves on the
water body. Planimetric features are most often located photogrammetrically,
but the techniques for topographic mapping can also be used.
Modern hydrographic surveying systems utilize sophisticated electronic
positioning and depth-recording devices. These, coupled with computers
interfaced with plotters, enable rapid automated production of hydrographic
maps in near real time. But the basic principles discussed previously still apply.

SOURCES OF ERROR IN MAPPING SURVEYS

Some sources of error in planimetric and topographic surveys are:
1. Instrumental errors, especially an index error that affects vertical and
zenith angles.
2. Errors in reading instruments.
3. Control not established, checked, and adjusted before beginning to
collect details.
4. Control points too far apart and poorly selected for proper coverage of
an area.
5. Sights taken on detail points which are too far away.
6. Poor selection of points for contour delineation.
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MISTAKES IN MAPPING SURVEYS

 Some typical mistakes in planimetric and topographic surveys are:
1. Unsatisfactory equipment or field method for particular survey and
terrain conditions.
2. Mistakes in instrument reading and data recording.
3. Failure to periodically check azimuth orientation when many detail
points are located from one instrument station.
4. Too few (or too many) contour points taken.
5. Failure to collect some mapping details.
6. Mistakes in entering point identifiers, drawing designators, and
symbols
when using field-to-finish surveying and mapping systems.

Laboratory Exercises:
Fundamentals of Surveying

Laboratory Exercise #18: Analytical Method of Plotting Contours

 This is a group activity
 Use the data indicated in the laboratory procedure
 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 197)
 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Laboratory Exercise #19: Triangulation

 This is a group activity
 Use the figure in the laboratory manual(figure 5-17: Chain of
single triangles)

Use the following data:

Line AB = 34.27 meters (length)
Line DE = 28.87 meters (length)
Angle 1 = 227° 05’
Angle 2 = 43° 00’
Angle 3 = 89° 27’
Angle 4 = 304° 09’
Angle 5 = 55° 55’
Angle 6 = 198° 03’
Angle 7 = 34° 52’
Angle 8 = 93° 40’
Angle 9 = 33° 33’
Angle 10 = 234° 00’
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Angle 11 = 81° 15’
Angle 12 = 44° 04’
Angle 13 = 294° 45’
 Angle 14 = 65° 32’

 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 213)
 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Laboratory Exercise #20: Determining Water Volume of a Lake or Reservoir

 This is a group activity
 For this activity, you are the one who must assign the shape of the
reservoir and the depth of its bottom.
 Use the procedure and tables in your lab manual (page 245)
 Submit the laboratory report on pdf format

Fundamentals of Surveying

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