MODULE 3: SOIL PROPERTIES

The following topic to be discuss in this module, to wit:

Introduction of soil properties; Properties of Soil; Geotechnical

Properties; Chemical Properties; Soil Classification and Soil Analysis;
Application of Soil to Civil Engineering Problem

Learning Outcomes
At the end of the module, you will be able to:
1. Define soil and soil mechanics.
2. Find out the properties and composition of soil
3. Determine the classifications and analysis of soil

3.1 Introduction

The civil engineering structures like building, bridge, highway, tunnel, dam,
tower, etc. are founded below or on the surface of the earth. For their stability,
suitable foundation soil is required. To check the suitability of soil to be used as
foundation or as construction materials, its properties are required to be assessed.
Assessment of geotechnical properties of subsoil at project site is necessary for
generating relevant input data for design and construction of foundations for the
proposed structures.

The proper design and construction of civil engineering structures prevent an

adverse environmental impact or structural failure or post construction problems.
Information about the surface and sub-surface features is essential for the design of
structures and for planning construction techniques. When buildings impose very
heavy loads and the zone of influence is very deep, it would be desirable to invest
some amount on sub-surface exploration than to overdesign the building and make it
costlier. For complex projects involving heavy structures, such as bridges, dams,
multi-storey buildings, it is essential to have detail exploration.

The purpose of detailed explorations is to determine the engineering

properties of the soils for different strata. When the foundations of any structure are
constructed on compressible soil, it leads to settlement. Knowledge of the rate at
which the compression of the soil takes place is essential from design consideration.

Soil Mechanics

The following are the definition of Soil mechanics:

 is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the
behavior of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics
in the sense that soils consist of a heterogeneous mixture of fluids
(usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand, and
gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter.
 Along with rock mechanics, it provides the theoretical basis for
analysis in geotechnical engineering, a sub-discipline of civil
engineering, and engineering geology, a sub-discipline of geology.
 Used to analyze the deformations of and flow of fluids within natural
and man-made structures that are supported on or made of soil, or
structures that are buried in.

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 What is soil?

Soil is a combination of minerals and organic elements that are in

solid, gaseous, and aqueous form. Soil consists of particle layers that are
different from the original materials in their physical, mineralogical, and
chemical properties because of the interactions between the atmosphere and
hydrosphere and other reasons. The particles of the soil are created from
broken rocks that have been changed due to the chemical and environmental
effects, including weather and erosion. Particles of soil are filled loosely,
creating a soil formation that consists of pore spaces.

ACTIVITY # 1

ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided

QUESTION: How soil mechanics affect in construction of the infrastructure?

3.2 PROPERTIES OF SOIL

1. Geotechnical Properties

Different geotechnical property of soils has different influence

on the civil engineering structures. They also depend upon each other.
The suitability of soil for a particular use should be determined based
on its engineering characteristics and not on visual inspection or
apparent similarity to other soils. The properties are discussed as
under:

1.1 Specific Gravity

Specific gravity is the ratio of the mass of soil solids to the
mass of an equal volume of water. It is an important index property of
soils that is closely linked with mineralogy or chemical composition
and also reflects the history of weathering. It is relatively important as
far as the qualitative behavior of the soil is concerned and useful in
soil mineral classification, for example iron minerals have a larger
value of specific gravity than silica. It gives an idea about suitability of
the soil as a construction material; higher value of specific gravity
gives more strength for roads and foundations. It is also used in
calculation of void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation and other soil
parameters. Typical values of specific gravity are shown in the table
below.

TYPICAL VALUES OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY (Bowles, 2012)

Type of Soil Specific Gravity

Organic Soil 1.00 – 2.60
Sand 2.65 – 2.67
Silty Sand 2.67 – 2.70
Inorganic Clay 2.70 – 2.80
Soil with Mica or Iron 2.70 – 3.00

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 1.2 Density Index

Density index is the ratio of the difference between the void

ratio of a cohesionless soil in the loosest state and any given void ratio
to the difference between its void ratios in the loosest and the densest
states It is a measure of the degree of compactness, and the stability
of a stratum.
Relative density is an arbitrary character of sandy deposit. In
real sense, it expresses the ratio of actual decrease in volume of voids
in a sandy soil to the maximum possible decrease in volume of voids
i.e. how far the sand under investigation can capable to the further
densification beyond its natural state. Its determination is helpful in
compaction of coarse grained soils and in evaluating safe bearing
capacity of sandy soils.

Characteristics of Soils based on Relative Density

Angel of Shearing
Relative Density (%) Soil Compactness
Resistance (0)
0 – 15 Very Loose < 28
15 – 35 Loose 28 – 30
35 – 65 Medium 30 – 36
65 – 85 Dense 36 – 41
85 – 100 Very Dense > 41

1.3 Consistency Limits

Soil consistency is the strength with which soil materials are

held together or the resistance of soils to deformation and rupture. Soil
consistency is measured for wet, moist and dry soil samples. For wet
soils, it is expressed as both stickiness and plasticity, as defined
below. Soil consistency may be estimated in the field using simple
tests or may be measured more accurately in the laboratory.
Consistency is an important property and is a useful measure
for the processing of very fine clayey soils. Plasticity and cohesion
reflect the soil consistency and workability of the soils. However, these
properties of the soils play an essential role in many engineering
projects, such as the construction of the clay core in an earth fill dam,
the construction of a layer of low permeability covering a deposit of
polluted material, the design of foundations, retaining walls and slab
bridges, and determining the stability of the soil on a slope.

The Atterberg Limits

The consistency of a fine-grained soil is largely
influenced by the water content of the soil. A gradual decrease
in water content of a fine-grained soil slurry causes the soil to
pass from the liquid state to a plastic to the solid state. The
water contents at these changes of state are different for
different soils. The water contents that correspond to these
changes of state are called the Atterberg limits. The water
contents corresponding to transition from one state to the next
are known as the liquid limit, the plastic limit and the
shrinkage limit.

LIQUID LIMIT PLASTIC LIMIT SHRINKAGE LIMIT

 The liquid limit of a soil  The plastic limit of a soil is the water  The shrinkage limit is
is the water content, content, expressed as a percentage of the the maximum water

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 expressed as weight of oven dried soil, at the boundary content expressed as a
percentage of the between the plastic and semi-solid states percentage of oven-
weight of the oven of consistency of the soil. The plastic limit dried weight at which
dried soil, at the for different soils has a narrow range of any further reduction in
boundary between the numerical values. Sand has no plastic water content will not
liquid and plastic states stage, but very fine sand exhibits slight cause a decrease in
of consistency of the plasticity. volume of the soil
soil.  The plastic limit is an important soil mass, the soil mass
 The Liquid Limit, also property. Earth roads are easily usable at being prepared initially
known as the upper this water content. Excavation work and from remolded soil. The
plastic limit, is the agricultural cultivation can be carried out finer the particles of the
water content at which with the least effort with soils at the plastic soil, the greater are the
soil changes from the limit. Soil is said to be in the plastic range amount of shrinkage.
liquid state to a plastic when it possesses water content in  Soils that contain
state. It is the minimum between liquid limit and plastic limit. The montmorillonite clay
moisture content at range of the plastic state is given by the mineral shrink more.
which a soil flows upon difference between liquid limit and plastic Such soils shrink
application of very limit and is defined as the plasticity index. heterogeneously during
small shear force.  The plasticity index is used in soil summer, as a result of
 The moisture content classification and in various correlations which cracks develop
at which any increase with other soil properties as a basic soil on the surface. Further,
in the moisture content characteristic. Based on the plasticity these soils imbibe more
will cause a plastic soil index, the soils were classified by and more water during
to behave as a liquid. Atterberg, shows the correlations between the monsoon and swell.
The limit is defined as the plasticity index, soil type, degree of  Soils that shrink and
the moisture content, in plasticity and degree of cohesiveness. swell are categorized
percent, required to as expansive soils.
close a distance of 0.5 Indian black cotton
inches along the soils belong to this
bottom of a groove group.
after 25 blows in a  Value of shrinkage limit
liquid limit device. is used for
 Liquid Limit (LL or wL) understanding the
- the water content, in swelling and shrinkage
percent, of a soil at the properties of cohesive
arbitrarily defined soils. It is used for
boundary between the calculating the
semi-liquid and plastic shrinkage factors which
states. helps in the design
problems of the
structures made of the
soils or/and resting on
soil. It gives an idea
about the suitability of
the soil as a
construction material in
foundations, roads,
embankments and
dams. It helps in
knowing the state of
given soil.

1.4 Particle Size Analysis

Soils consist of a mixture of particles of different size,

shape and mineralogy. The size of the particles obviously has
a significant effect on the soil behavior, the grain size and grain
size distributions are used to classify soils. The grain size
distribution describes the relative proportions of particles of
various sizes. The percentage of different sizes of soil particles
coarser than 75 µ is determined by sieve analysis whereas
less than 75 µ are determined by hydrometer analysis. Based
on the particle size analysis, particle size distribution curves
are plotted. The particle size distribution curve (gradation
curve) represents the distribution of particles of different sizes
in the soil mass. It gives an idea regarding the gradation of the
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soil i.e. it is possible to identify whether a soil is well graded or
poorly graded. In mechanical soil stabilization, the main
principle is to mix a few selected soils in such a proportion that
a desired grain size distribution is obtained for the design mix.

The grain size analysis is widely used in classification

of soils. The data obtained from grain size distribution curves is
used in the design of filters for earth dams and to determine
suitability of soil for road construction, air fields, etc. The
particle size of sands and silts has some practical value in
design of filters and in the assessment of permeability,
capillarity, and frost susceptibility. Very relevant and useful
information may be obtained from grain size curve such as (i)
the total percentage of larger or finer particles than a given
size and (ii) the uniformity or the range in grain-size
distribution.

The particle-size is one of the suitability criteria of soils

for roads, airfield, levee, dam, and other embankment
construction. Information obtained from particle-size analysis
can be used to predict soil-water movement, although
permeability tests are more generally used. The susceptibility
to frost action in soil, an extremely important consideration in
colder climates, can be predicted from the particle-size
analysis. Very fine soil particles are easily carried in
suspension by percolating soil water, and under drainage
systems are rapidly filled with sediments unless they are
properly surrounded by a filter made of appropriately graded
granular materials. The proper gradation of this filter material
can be predicted from the particle size analysis. Particle-size of
the filter materials must be larger than the soil being protected
so that the filter pores could permit passage of water but
collect the smaller soil particles from suspension.

1.5 Compaction
Soil compaction is one of the ground improvement
techniques. It is a process in which by expending compacted
energy on soil, the soil grains are more closely rearranged.
Compaction increases the shear strength of soil and reduces
its compressibility and permeability. Compaction of soils
increases the density, shear strength, bearing capacity but
reduces their void ratio, porosity, permeability and settlements.
The results are useful in the stability of field problems like
earthen dams, embankments, roads and airfields. The
moisture content at which the soils are compacted in the field
is controlled by the value of optimum moisture content
determined by the laboratory proctor compaction test. The
compaction energy applied in the field is also controlled by the
maximum dry density determined in the laboratory.

1.6 Compressibility

Compressibility is the degree to which a soil mass

decreases in volume when supporting a load. Compressibility
is lowest in coarse-grained soils where particles are in
contact with each other. It increases as the proportion of small

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 particles increases and becomes highest in fine-grained soils
which contain organic matter.

The following are some examples of compressibility for various soils:

• Gravels and sands are practically incompressible. If a moist mass of
these materials is subjected to compression, there is no significant
change in their volume;
• Clays are compressible. If a moist mass of clay is subjected to
compression, moisture and air may be expelled, resulting in volume
reduction which is not immediately recovered when the load is
removed.

When a soil layer is subjected to compressive stress due to

construction activities, it undergoes compression. The compression is caused
by rearrangement of particles, seepage of water, crushing of particles, and
elastic distortions. Settlement of a structure is analyzed for three reasons:
appearance of structure, utility of the structure, and damage to the structure.
The aesthetic view of a structure can be spoiled due to the presence of
cracks or tilt of the structure caused by settlement. Settlement caused to a
structure can damage some of the utilities like cranes, drains, pumps,
electrical lines etc. Further settlement can cause a structure to fail structurally
and collapse. Settlement is the combination of time-independent (e.g.
immediate compression) and time-dependent compression (called
consolidation).

The main aim of a consolidation test is to obtain soil data which are
used in predicting the rate and amount of settlement of structure founded on
clay primarily due to volume change of the clay.

The information obtained for foundations resting on clay are:

(i) total settlement of foundation under any given load,
(ii) time required for total settlement due to primary consolidation,
(iii) settlement for any given time and load,
(iv) time required for any percentage of total settlement or
consolidation,
(v) pressure due to which soil already has been
consolidated/compressed.

1.7 Permeability

 Permeability of a soil is the rate at which water flows

through it under action of hydraulic gradient. The passage
of moisture through the inter-spaces or pores of the soil is
called ‘percolation’.
Soils having porous enough for percolation to occur
are termed ‘pervious’ or ‘permeable’, while those which do
not permit the passage of water are termed ‘impervious’ or
‘impermeable’. The rate of flow is directly proportional to
the head of water.

 Permeability is a property of soil mass and not of individual

particles. The permeability of cohesive soil is, in general,
very small. Knowledge of permeability is required not only
for seepage, drainage and ground water problems but also
for the rate of settlement of structures on saturated soils.

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 The amount, distribution, and movement of water in
soil have an important role on the properties and behavior
of soil. The engineer should know the principles of fluid
flow, as groundwater conditions are frequently encountered
on construction projects. Water pressure is always
measured relative to atmospheric pressure, and water
table is the level at which the pressure is atmospheric.

Soil mass is divided into two zones with respect to

the water table:
(i) below the water table (a saturated zone
with 100% degree of saturation) and
(ii) just above the water table (called the
capillary zone with degree of saturation ≤
100%).
The quantity of stored water escaping through and
beneath an earthen dam depends on the permeability of the
embankment and the foundation respectively. The rate of
drainage of water through wells and excavated foundation pits
depends on the coefficient of permeability of the soils.

Soils are classified according to U. S. Bureau of

Reclamation as:
(i) Impervious: k (coefficient of permeability)
less than 10-6 cm/sec,
(ii) Semi pervious: k between 10-6 to 10-4
cm/sec
(iii) Pervious: k greater than 10-4 cm/sec

1.8 Shear Strength

The shear strength of a soil means the relative

resistance of that soil to sliding when supporting a load. The
highest resistance to sliding occurs in soils that are composed
of clean gravel with less than 5 percent silt + clay. Shear
strength of soils decreases as the proportion of fine particles
increases. It is lowest in fine-grained organic soils.
The shear resistance of soil is the result of friction and
the interlocking of particles and possibly cementation or
bonding at the particle contacts. The shear strength
parameters of soils are defined as cohesion and the friction
angle. The shear strength of soil depends on the effective
stress, drainage conditions, density of the particles, rate of
strain, and direction of the strain.
The shearing strength is affected by the consistency of
the materials, mineralogy, grain size distribution, shape of the
particles, initial void ratio and features such as layers, joints,
fissures and cementation. The shear strength parameters of a
granular soil are directly correlated to the maximum particle
size, the coefficient of uniformity, the density, the applied
normal stress, and the gravel and fines content of the sample.
It can be said that the shear strength parameters are a result
of the frictional forces of the particles, as they slide and
interlock during shearing. Soil containing particles with high
angularity tend to resist displacement and hence possess

28
 higher shearing strength compared to those with less angular
particles.
Triaxial test is the only test to simulate these confining
pressures. For short term stability of foundations, dams and
slopes, shear strength parameters for unconsolidated
undrained or consolidated undrained conditions are used;
while for long term stability shear parameters corresponding to
consolidated drained conditions give more reliable results.

2. Chemical Properties
You may not know it, but some type of soils contain chemicals and
harmful substance that may cause materials to erode faster.

2.1 Acidity of soil (pH)

For construction works, highly acidic soil will affect the
bitumen stability of roads and have adverse effects on
concrete strength. (Salinity of soils will also increase
maintenance costs.)

2.2 Silicate Clay Presence

The presence of silicate clay materials affects the
chemical properties of soil mass. Clay particles have a large
surface area and are the finest materials present in a soil
mass. Clay particle increase the reactivity of a soil mass and
affect the stability of the soil mass by forming compounds with
external materials. Determination of silicate clay presence is
important to find out the reactivity of the soil mass and its
compatibility with admixtures and construction materials used
with concrete.

2.3 Organic Matter in Soil

The presence of organic matter in soil affects the
effectiveness of preloading soft ground to accelerate primary
consolidation and mitigate creep settlements prior to
foundation construction. The increase in organic matter
content has a significant impact on primary and secondary
consolidation, inducing an increase in void ratio,
compressibility indices and creep deformation.

29
 ACTIVITY # 2

INSTRUCTION: Read comprehensively and write your answer in the space provided.

I. Match the concept. Match the concept found in Column A with the concepts in Column B.
Write your answers on your in the space provided.
COLUMN A COLUMN B
1. Compressibility a. Ratio of the mass of soil solids to the
mass of an equal volume of water.
2. Shear Strength b. Affects the effectiveness of preloading
soft ground to accelerate primary
consolidation and mitigate creep
settlements prior to foundation
construction
3. Density Index c. Impervious: k (coefficient of permeability)
less than 10-6 cm/sec
4. Silty Sand d. The passage of moisture through the
5. Atterberg Limits inter-spaces or pores of the soil.

e. A process in which by expending

compacted energy on soil, the soil grains
are more closely rearranged.
6. Compaction f. The water contents that correspond to
these changes of state
7. Percolation g. Specific gravity 2.67 – 2.70 based on
Bowles.
8. Soil h.A measure of the degree of compactness,
and the stability of a stratum
9. Organic Matter of i. means the relative resistance of that soil
Soil to sliding when supporting a load
10. Specific Gravity j. Affects the chemical properties of soil
mass
k. The degree to which a soil mass
decreases in volume when supporting a
load.

3.3 Soil Classification and Soil Analysis

Soil classification is like a language between engineers. The known soil

classification communicates their probable engineering behavior, and allows
engineers access to the accumulated experience of other engineers.
Soil classification does not remove the need for detailed soil investigations or
testing of the soil, but it gives the engineer the general behavior of the soil.
The Unified Soil Classification System (USCS) and the American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) (ASTM D3282-09) system
are the common classification system we use in civil engineering practice.
Engineers use soil classification surveys to determine the potential behavior
and limitations of soil. Pipelines, bridges, buildings, recreation areas and landfills
must be built on soil suitable to the engineering needs of each project. Community
planners use soil classification knowledge to plan community gardens, green belts,
recreation areas, septic absorption fields and the best use of local natural resources.

30
 TYPES OF SOIL
Chalk Providing the chalk is not too soft, widths of 450mm
for low-rise buildings are generally acceptable. The
depth of the foundation must be below any frost
action (700mm). If the chalk is soft it will need to be
excavated until firm chalk is reached.
Chalk soils can be prone to erosion so be wary of
hollows or caves.
Gravel and Sand Dry compact gravel, or gravel and sand subsoils
are usually adequate for strip foundations. Generally
a depth of 700mm is acceptable, as long as the
ground has adequate bearing capacity.
If the water table is high (i.e. the gravel is
submerged), the bearing capacity is halved, so it’s
important to keep the foundations as high as
possible. A shallow, reinforced, wide strip foundation
may be suitable.
Sand holds together reasonably well when
damp, compacted and uniform, but trenches may
collapse and so sheet piling is often used to retain
the ground in trenches until the concrete is poured.
Clay The first 900-1,200mm layer of clay is subject to
movement due to expansion and shrinkage
depending on moisture content, so it is generally
necessary to excavate foundations to a depth where
the moisture content of the clay remains stable.
Firm Clay over Soft A traditional strip foundation is sometimes acceptable
Clay but it is important not to overriding as this may
increase the stress on the softer clay beneath. A
common solution is to dig wide strip foundations with
steel reinforcement — however an engineered
foundation may be necessary.
Peat Peat and loose waterlogged sand are very poor
subsoils. If the peat can be stripped back to find
suitable load-bearing ground of at least 1.5m depth,
strip foundations may be suitable. A reinforced raft
foundation will likely be required.
Filled Ground Where ground has previously been excavated and
filled, it is generally necessary to dig down to a level
beneath the area of the fill.

Mechanical Sieves used

for soil classification

The highly organic soils and peat can be identified

visually. The Course grained soils are those having more than
50% of soil being retained on the No. 200 sieve. Fine grained
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 soils are those that allow more than 50% to pass through the
No. 200 sieve.

ACTIVITY # 3

ESSAY. Write your answer in the space provided

QUESTION: Why is Soil Analysis and Testing important in the application of Civil
Engineering?

SUMMARY

 Soil is a combination of minerals and organic elements that are in solid, gaseous,
and aqueous form. Soil consists of particle layers that are different from the original
materials in their physical, mineralogical, and chemical properties

 Soil Mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the
behavior of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that
soils consist of a heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles
(usually clay, silt, sand, and gravel) but soil may also contain organic solids and other
matter.

 Properties of Soil in geotechnical and chemical properties:

Geotechnical Properties: Specific gravity, density index, consistency limit, particle
size analysis, compaction, compressibility, permeability, and shear strength.
Chemical Properties: Acidity of soil, silicate clay presence, organic matter in soil

 Types of Soil: chalk, gravel and sand, clay, firm clay over soft, peat, and filled
ground.

 The highly organic soils and peat can be identified visually. The Course grained soils
are those having more than 50% of soil being retained on the No. 200 sieve. Fine
grained soils are those that allow more than 50% to pass through the No. 200 sieve.

32
 How Much Have you Learned?

SELF- ASSESSMENT EXAMINATION # 1:

INSTRUCTION: Read comprehensively and following the instruction carefully.

MULTIPLE CHOICE. Indicate the correct letter by which of the following word/phrases/statement in soil and
soil mechanics listed below belongs in:

a. Geotechnical Properties b. Chemical Properties c. Plasticity Index

d. Type of soil e. Soil Classification

1. Soils decreases as the proportion of fine particles increases.

2. Used in calculation of void ratio, porosity, degree of saturation and other soil
parameters
3. Highly acidic soil will affect the bitumen stability of roads and have adverse effects
on concrete strength
4. It affects the effectiveness of preloading soft ground to accelerate primary
consolidation and mitigate creep settlements prior to foundation construction
5. Used in soil classification and in various correlations with other soil properties as a
basic soil characteristic.
6. The degree of cohesiveness for silty clay is 7 – 17.
7. Holds together reasonably well when damp, compacted and uniform, but trenches
may collapse and so sheet piling is often used to retain the ground in trenches until
the concrete is poured
8. Peat
9. Fine grained soils are those that allow more than 50% to pass through the No. 200
sieve.
10. Determine the potential behavior and limitations of soil

ASSIGNED READINGS AND/OR ENRICHMENT SUGGESTED READINGS

https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/what-are-soils

https://www.slideshare.net/amanpreettangri/basics-of-soil-mechanics

https://www.academia.edu/4717716/SOIL_MECHANICS_CH1_Introduction

REFERENCES

Oliveira, P. J. et al. Effect of organic matter in soft soils on the effectiveness of preloading for
foundations. 2017.

Brady, N. C. & Weil, R. R. The Nature and Properties of Soils, 14th ed. Upper Saddle River,
NJ: Prentice Hall, 2008

Schroeder, W.L., Dickenson, S.E, Warrington, Don, C. Soils in Construction. Fifth

Edition. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey; Prentice Hall, 2004.
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Surendra Roy, Sanjeev Kumar Bhalla. Role of Geotechnical Properties of Soil on
Civil Engineering Structures. (PDF)

Holtz, Robert, D., Kovacs, Williams, D. An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering.

Englewoods Cliffs, New Jersey; Prentice-Hall, 1981.

Feedback

Analyzing any cases or situation is a way to measure your critical capability

and analytical way to solve issues and conditions of the problem depending on
the approach…but if you be able to think the possible remedy and solution in
optimistic way for solving problem you can easily solve the required in the
problem. So… don’t give up if you gets go wrong...but rather thick
positively…try and try until you get the correct answer…because if you do
so…an EXEMPLARY RATING you will get. Always remember the formula to
succeed.
Succeed = Think Positively + Patience + Hardwork.
Don’t turn to the next page until you can’t analytically solve the questions of the
problems given. You may review your answer… Good luck to the next Lesson!

ANSWERS KEY

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