Ansys Fluent Heat Transfer Modeling

Lecture 01: Introduction

Release 2021 R2

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 Outline

• Modes of Heat Transfer

• Basic Heat Transfer Phenomena
‐ Conduction
‐ Convection
‐ Radiation
• The Energy Equation
• Boundary Conditions

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 Modes of Heat Transfer

• Conduction
‐ Occurs in a medium (fluid or solid) Qradiation
‐ Linked to atomic and molecular vibration or electronic motion.
‐ Diffusion of heat due to temperature gradient within the medium.
• Convection Qphase
‐ Heat is transported by moving fluid. change

• Radiation
‐ Emission of energy by electromagnetic waves
Qconvection

Qconduction

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 Outline

• Modes of Heat Transfer

• Basic Heat Transfer Phenomena
‐ Conduction
‐ Convection
‐ Radiation
‐ Phase Change
• The Energy Equation
• Boundary Conditions

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 Conduction Heat Transfer

• Conduction is the transfer of heat by molecular interaction.

‐ Gases – Molecular velocity depends on temperature. Hot, energetic molecules collide with neighbors
which increases their speed.
‐ Solids – Molecules and the lattice structure vibrate.
• Fourier’s Law states that heat flux is proportional to temperature gradient.
Mathematically,

Q  T

= q = − k T = − k  x+
ˆ
T
y+
ˆ
T 
ˆz  Q = W
A  x y
Thermal conductivity
z 
q = W / m 2

(not necessarily constant) k  = W / m / K

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 Integration of Fourier’s Law in 1D

For a simple 1D steady state conduction, the

temperature profile through a slab is linear if the
thermal conductivity is constant. T = Thot
Hot Wall x Temperature Profile

A dT
dx 1 T = Tcold
Cold Wall

This leads to the concept of thermal resistance: 1 t

Thermal Resistance (K/W)

Thot − Tcold = R Q R=
t
Heat Transfer Rate (W) kA
Thermal conductivity (W/m·K)
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 Convection

• Convection heat transfer results from fluid motion.

‐ Heat transfer rate can be closely coupled to the fluid flow solution.
‐ The rate of heat transfer is strongly dependent on fluid velocity and fluid properties.
‐ Fluid properties may vary significantly with temperature.
• Example – When cold air flows past a warm body, it draws away warm air near the
body and replaces it with cold air

Flow and heat transfer past a heated block

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 Newton’s Law of Cooling

Newton’s law of cooling states that

q = h (Tbody − T ) = h T T  = K
Average heat transfer q  = W / m 2
coefficient h = W / m 2 / K
Q

T Tbody

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 Heat Transfer Coefficient

In general, h is not constant but is usually a Typical

function of temperature gradient. values of h
(W/m2·K)

There are three types of convection. The Tcold

Thot 4 – 4,000
Richardson number can help to distinguish
between the regimes.
g TL
Ri = Tcold
v2
 ... Thermal expansion coefficient Thot 80 – 75,000

• Natural Convection – Fluid moves due to buoyancy

effects (Ri > 10)
• Forced Convection – Flow is induced by some
external means (Ri < 0.1)
Tcold
• Boiling Convection – Body is hot enough to cause 300 – 900,000
fluid phase change
h  T 2
Thot

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 Natural Convection
 = (T )
• In natural convection, fluid motion occurs due to Tw
buoyancy effects. T ( y)
‐ As the fluid is heated, its density decreases T
‐ This density gradient causes a buoyant force to be generated which
induces flow opposite to gravity u( y)
g
• The net body force (per unit volume) can be computed by:
f B = ( −  ) g
• Natural convection problems are characterized using the
Rayleigh number. T , 
Rax < 108 laminar flow
 g L T
3
Ra L = Rax ≈ 109 transition

Rax > 1010 turbulent flow

 ...Thermal diffusivity,  ...Kinematic viscosity,   Thermal Expansion Coefficient

g...acceleration due to gravity
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 Natural Convection

• In most industrial applications, free and forced convection occur simultaneously. To

determine whether the flow is driven by natural convection, forced convection or both,
we examine the Richardson number.
• The Richardson number (Ri) represents the relative magnitude of natural convection
effects to forced convection effects

Grashof number
Gr  g L T Ri << 1 Forced convection dominates
Ri = 2 = Ri ≈ 1 Natural and Forced convection are important
Re U2
Ri >> 1 Natural convection dominates
Reynolds number Bulk velocity

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 Boundary Layer Flow

• Analogous to the viscous boundary layer that develops, there is also a thermal
boundary layer.
Thermal
Boundary
Layer
Viscous y
Boundary
Layer
T , U 
T
T ( y) 
U ( y)

Tw

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 Nusselt Number

• The Nusselt number (Nu) represents the relative magnitude of total heat flux
(advection plus diffusion) to the conduction heat flux (diffusion) that would occur in a
motionless fluid
• Nusselt number derivation

‐ Equate the heat conducted from the wall to the

same heat transfer in convective terms: T
k = h (Tw − T )
y

‐ Define dimensionless quantities: ~ T −T ~y = y

T = w
Tw − T L

~ Nusselt number
‐ Rearrange: T h L
~ = = Nu L (dimensionless temperature
y k gradient at surface)

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 Heat Transfer Coefficient Correlations

• Correlations can be used in FLUENT to

set appropriate boundary conditions.
• Examples:
‐ Heat transfer resulting from flow around a
sphere

NuD = 2 + 0.6 Re1D/ 2 Pr1/ 3 Typical Prandtl Numbers

Liquid metals 0.01
‐ Heat transfer from a flat plate in laminar flow
(thermal boundary layer) Most gases 0.7
Water at ambient conditions 6

NuD = 0.332 Re1D/ 2 Pr1/ 3

• The above correlations depend on the

Prandtl number:
Momentum Diffusivit y   C p
Pr = = =
Thermal Diffusivit y  k
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 Radiation Heat Transfer

• Thermal radiation is an emission of energy via electromagnetic waves

• Intensity depends on body temperature and surface characteristics
• Important mode of heat transfer at high temperatures
‐ Real-world examples
‐ Toaster, grill, broiler
‐ Fireplace
‐ Sunshine

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 Radiation – Black Bodies

• A black body is a model of a perfect radiator and has specific characteristics.

‐ Absorbs 100% of incident radiation (α = 1).
‐ Reflects and transmits no incident radiation (ρ = τ = 0)
• The energy emitted by a black body obeys the Stefan-Boltzmann Law.

Q
q= = T4
A

Stefan-Boltzmann constant 5.67037x10-8 W/m2·K4

• This energy emission () represents the theoretical maximum at the temperature of
interest (T).

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 Radiation Heat Transfer – Real (Gray) Bodies

• In general, real bodies emit less radiation than a black body

Surface area

Qrad =  As  T 4
Surface emissivity (0 < ε < 1)
• Emissivity and absorptivity are equal for a gray body

• Consider radiation emitted by a small body which has

temperature Tw and surface area As to its surroundings Qw
which are at temperature T∞. Qnet Q
As
• Both the body and its container emit thermal radiation. Tw
• The net heat transfer is from the hotter body to the colder
body. T
Qnet =  As  (Tw − T )
4 4

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 When Is Radiation Important?

• Radiation heat transfer is significant in high temperature applications such as

combustion.
• Radiation properties can be strongly dependent on chemical composition, especially
CO2, H2O.
• Radiation heat transfer equations are difficult to solve explicitly (except for simple
configurations) – we must rely on computational methods.
• Radiation should always be considered when radiation heat transfer is large to
compared to the heat transfer due to conduction or convection

qrad =   T 4

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 Phase Change

• Phase change due to heat transfer can be present in many forms.

‐ Condensation
‐ Evaporation
‐ Boiling
‐ Solidification / Melting
• In order to model these phenomena, we often must rely on multiphase models and
user-defined functions (UDFs).

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 Outline

• Modes of Heat Transfer

• Basic Heat Transfer Phenomena
‐ Conduction
‐ Convection
‐ Radiation
‐ Phase Change
• The Energy Equation
• Boundary Conditions

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 The General Energy Transport Equation

• General energy transport equation:

 ( E )
t

+   V ( E + P ) =   keff T −  j h j J j + ( τ eff  V ) + S h 
Unsteady Advection Conduction Species Viscous Enthalpy
diffusion Dissipation source

‐ Energy sources resulting from endothermic/exothermic chemical reactions is included for reacting
flows
‐ Energy source due to species diffusion included for multiple species flows
‐ Energy source due to viscous heating:
• Describes thermal energy created by viscous shear in the flow
• Important when the shear stress in fluid is large (e.g., lubrication) and/or in high-velocity compressible flows
• Viscous heating is often negligible
• Criterion is based on the Brinkman number: U 2
Br = 1
k T

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 Outline

• Modes of Heat Transfer

• Basic Heat Transfer Phenomena
‐ Conduction
‐ Convection
‐ Radiation
‐ Phase Change
• The Energy Equation
• Boundary Conditions

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 Thermal Boundary Conditions

• Inlets and outlets

‐ Temperature is specified when fluid enters the computational domain.
‐ Heat flux includes both convective and diffusive components.
‐ Diffusive component can be turned off using the TUI:
define/models/energy/include diffusion at inlets? No
• Walls
‐ Heat Flux
‐ Temperature
‐ Convection (prescribed heat transfer coefficient)
‐ Radiation
‐ Mixed (combination of Convection and Radiation)
‐ Coupled (only available for zero-thickness internal walls).
‐ via System Coupling
• Thermal resistance
‐ Solid at the boundaries
‐ Electrical resistance
‐ Tips and Tricks
• Periodic conditions
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 Boundary Conditions

• Thermal boundary conditions generally come in three types

‐ Specified heat flux (also known as Neumann)
‐ Specified temperature (also known as Dirichlet)
‐ Specified heat transfer coefficient (also known as Robin/Fourier)
• Boundary conditions generally represent heat transfer phenomena for the region
outside the computational domain
Specified Heat Flux
(Neumann Condition)
q = 20 W/m2

Specified HTC
T = 300 K
(Robin / Fourier Condition)
Specified Temperature q = f (Tw , T )
(Dirichlet Condition)

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 Wall Boundary Conditions

• Heat Flux (Neumann) boundary condition is specified when heat flux profile or value is
known
• Temperature profile or value can be specified (Dirichlet BC)
• Convection, Radiation and Mixed boundary conditions are used to represent
convection or radiation exchange with the exterior of the domain, q = f(Tw,external
environment)

qconv = h (Tfree − Tw )
qrad =   (T4 − Tw4 )
qmixed = qconv + qrad

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 Representing Wall Boundary Conditions

• Typically, the computational domain of

an industrial furnace ends at the Example of glass furnace
boundary between gas and refractories.

‐ Option #1: Refractory layers are meshed.

‐ Option #2: Thermal resistance approach is
used with a zero-thickness wall to represent
refractory layers.
Option #1 Option #2
Fluid Zone Fluid Zone

Wall Zone Wall Zone

Real thickness Virtual thickness

qcond qcond
Cells Meshed Cells Not Meshed
1-D Fourier’s Law Introduced Through Thermal
Fourier’s Law Solved in 3D Resistance (Assumed Normal Flux Only)
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 Wall Boundary Conditions

• Option #2 – Thermal resistance of the solid material can be applied in FLUENT

Te
Tem Inner
Domain

Outer Tim
Domain
Ti

t
Tem − Tim = R Q R=
k A Mesh
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 Example – Electrical Resistance in a Furnace

• Example: How to represent electrical coils at the top and bottom of the furnace?

Temperature contours of a continuous glass sheet in a

furnace with two heating zones.
(Courtesy PPG Industries Inc)

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 Periodic Heat Transfer

• Periodic boundary conditions are used when flow and heat transfer patterns are
repeated
• Types of periodic conditions
‐ Streamwise
• Geometry and boundary conditions repeat in the streamwise direction
• Constant temperature
• Uniform heat flux
‐ Zero pressure drop
• No special requirements; thermal conditions at two periods are identical

Periodic

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 Periodic Heat Transfer

• In streamwise periodic problems, temperature is not a periodic function

• If the temperature is scaled properly, then the scaled temperature does exhibit
periodic behavior
‐ For periodic (streamwise) axis oriented in the in the x-direction with periodic repeat length L
𝑇(0,𝑦,𝑧)−𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇(𝐿,𝑦,𝑧)−𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙
𝜃= =
𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 0 −𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝐿 −𝑇𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

Scaled temperature ‫ 𝑜𝑥 𝑇 𝐴׬‬, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝜌𝐕 ⋅ 𝑑𝐀

𝑇𝑏𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑥𝑜 =
‫𝐀𝑑 ⋅ 𝐕𝜌 𝐴׬‬

• Streamwise periodic
‐ Specified heat flux condition
• Boundary matching : T (r + L) − T (r ) T (r + 2 L) − T (r + L)
= =
L L
Tbulk − Tbulk
Q
= =
exit inlet

m C p L L

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 Periodic Heat Transfer Limitations

• Streamwise periodic heat transfer is subject to the following constraints:

‐ The pressure-based solver must be used.
‐ All fixed temperature walls must have the same value; however, varying heat flux on walls is
permissible.
‐ When constant temperature wall boundaries are used, you cannot include viscous heating effects or
any volumetric heat sources.
‐ In cases that involve solid regions, the regions cannot straddle the periodic plane (because this may
violate of one of the above rules).
‐ Only constant thermal properties
• You cannot model species or reacting flows; however they can vary spatially in a periodic manner.
• Thermodynamic and transport properties cannot be functions of temperature.

Periodic Periodic

Solid

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Appendix: Tips and Tricks
 Tips & Tricks – Thermal Resistance

• Thermal resistance formula in FLUENT is e

valid for very thin walls or planar R= , e = wall thickness (m)
kA
surface.
• To model thin walls, typically the
effective thickness is specified. Rtotal = R1 + R2 + R3
1 2 3
• For composite walls, typically the etotal = e1 + e2 + e3
combined (total) thermal conductivity R1 R2 R3 e1 + e2 + e3
(ktotal) and total thickness (etotal) are k total =
e1 e2 e3
specified. + +
k1 k 2 k3
Series Thermal Circuit

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 Tips & Tricks – Thermal Resistance

• For feeding into Fluent, use the formulas in this slide

in conjunction with slides 7 and 28.
k wall
• Thermal resistance for convection can be defined as
1
Rconv = Rconv Rwall
hA
• Thermal resistance can be contained in the heat
transfer coefficient t
tequivalent 1 t
= +
kequivalent h k
• Contact thermal resistance
• NOTE: For transient problems, thermal resistance
treatment may not be appropriate. Shell conduction Order of magnitude for 2 pieces of
or meshed solid may be required. aluminum (10 µm surface roughness, 105
N/m2) in air
R = 2.75 10-4 m2·K / W

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 Tips & Tricks – Free Convection Heat Losses

• Modeling external heat loss for natural convection in ambient air

‐ McAdams proposes the following formula (valid for air with Pr = 0.7)
• Horizontal top wall: C = 2.25–2.5
• Horizontal bottom wall: C = 1.26–1.36
• Horizontal or vertical wall (> 30 cm): C = 1.78–1.94

h = C (Twall − Tfree )
1/ 4
h ~ 5–10 W/m2·K
#include "udf.h"

DEFINE_PROFILE(h_vertical,tf,nv)
{
face_t f;
real Tfree, Twall;

begin_f_loop(f,tf)
{
Tfree = F_VAR(f,tf,THREAD_VAR(tf).wall.Tinf);
Twall = fabs(WALL_TEMP_INNER(f,tf));
F_PROFILE(f,tf,nv) = 1.94*pow((Twall - Tfree),0.25);
}
end_f_loop(f,tf)
}

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 Tips & Tricks – Radiation Heat Losses

• Basic relationship in FLUENT is valid for small

convex gray wall in an infinite surrounding. qrad =   (T4 − Tw4 )
• Radiation heat losses between a black wall and a
finite black surrounding surface q = Fw,surr  (Tsurr
4
− Tw4 )
‐ External emissivity can be substituted by view factor.
Fw,surr is the view factor.
• Radiation heat losses between an infinite plane
 (Tsurr
4
− Tw4 )
and an infinite planar surrounding q=
1 1
+ −1
εw surr
• Heat transfer coefficient for radiation exchange
(
hrad =   (T + Tw ) T2 + Tw2 )

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Appendix: Heat Transfer
Phase Change Examples
 Phase Change Heat Transfer – Condensation

• Condensation is the transformation of a substance from vapor to liquid resulting from

energy removal from the vapor phase.
• In condensation processes, the vapor temperature is at or below the saturation
temperature.
• Condensation occurs in various modes.
‐ Droplet formation in vapor
• Droplets may form on particulate matter either in vapor or
homogeneously
‐ Liquid droplet formation on a cooled surface
• Droplets appear on the surface.
• Droplets grow until they either run off of the surface under gravity
OR the liquid temperature reaches the saturation temperature
‐ Liquid film condensation on a cooled surface
• Latent heat of condensation transferred from liquid-vapor interface
to the wall by convection and conduction
• Vapor phase can consist of one or more chemical species.

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 Condensation Example

• CFD simulation of humid air condensation on a cooled surface

‐ Multiple species
‐ Turbulence
‐ UDF to compute saturation pressure and mass flux
• Computational domain
Insulated Wall, No Shear
Inlet
T = 368.83 K, Flow
V∞ = 1 m/s
wH2O = 0.768
Cooled Surface, T = 330 K

• Mass transfer rate at cooled surface controlled by diffusion

 D H 2O
m H 2O =
H2O − 1 n

• This mass flux applied as a source term in cell adjacent to the wall
• No film motion calculated

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 Condensation Example

Comparison of FLUENT results with

analytical solution of Sparrow et al. (1967).

Predicted Temperature Distribution (331 K < T < 370 K)

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 Phase Change Heat Transfer – Evaporation

• Evaporation is the transformation of a substance from liquid to vapor resulting from

energy addition.
‐ Liquid interfacial temperature must be equal to or greater than the vapor saturation temperature at
the interface.
‐ Mass transfer rate is proportional to the difference in partial pressure between the interface and the
bulk vapor (depends on the pressure gradient)
• Mass transfer due to evaporation can be modeled using FLUENT's inbuilt models
‐ Lee Model (Mixture & VOF multiphase models)
‐ Lee Model and Thermal Phase Change (Eulerian multiphase model)
‐ DPM Vaporization Law (Discrete Phase Model)
• Mass transfer due to evaporation can also be modeled through UDFs

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 Evaporation Example

• The evaporation of water droplets injected into hot air stream is modeled using the
DPM vaporization law

Wall, T = 1200K
Inlet:
T = 650 K, V = 1 m/s
Water Droplets:
T = 300 K, d = 250 μm.
Total mass flow 0.04 kg/s Wall, T = 1200K

C p = Droplet heat capacity

= h Ap (T − Tp ) +
dTp dm p
mp c p h fg T p = Droplet temperature
dt dt h = Convection heat transfer coefficient
T = Continuous phase temperature
h fg = Latent heat
dm p
= Evaporation rate due the DPM vaporization law
dt
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 Evaporation Example
Temperature Droplet size

Air Temperature Without Droplets Particles Not Completely Evaporated

Droplet Evaporation Causes Significant Water Vapor Evaporated from Droplets Mixes
Temperature Reduction in Air with Air in Vapor Phase
Temperature Vapor mass fraction
The evaporation rate can be computed by Diffusion Control or Diffusion/Convection Control models (Theory Guide, pp 390-392 )

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 Phase Change Heat Transfer – Boiling

• Boiling is a fluid phase change that is classified as a convection mode of heat transfer
(involves fluid motion).
‐ This process occurs at solid-liquid interfaces.
‐ Characterized by the formation of vapor bubbles at the solid surface
• Bubbles grow and detach from the surface.
• Because of the phase change, large heat flux can be achieved with relatively small
temperature differential.
• Heat transfer is given by qs = h Te

Te = Tsurf − Tsat Te ...Excess temperature

h = h(T , g (l − v ), hfg , C p , k , , L, )

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 Phase Change Heat Transfer – Pool Boiling
In pool boiling the bulk of the flow is quiescent
Heat exchange is through direct transfer from
the surface to liquid motion (not through the
rising vapor bubbles)

Densely populated bubbles induces liquid

motion near the surface
Free Convection Nucleate Transition Film

107
Isolated Jets and
Bubbles Columns


qmax
106
Surface completely covered by vapor film.
Heat transfer from surface to liquid and
conduction through vapor phase.
105
qs
(W/m 2 ) q
min
104

Te, A Te, B Te,C Te, D

103
1 5 10 30 120 1000

Te = Ts − Tsat (oC)

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 Nucleate Boiling

qw = qE + ( hsp sp + hQ Q ) (T

• Modeling Strategy
w −T )
• Euler-Euler or mixture model
Evaporation Convection Quenching

Evaporation Heat Flux d bw


qE = d bw f n v hlv
6

Quenching Heat Flux

(Boiling wall fraction)
 Q =  d bw
2
n
The quenching heat flux models the cyclic averaged transient energy Tsat
transfer related to liquid filling the wall vicinity after bubble detachment
Tbulk
Single-Phase Heat Flux
(convection)
• Population Balance Model has been used extensively in boiling models

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 Boiling Example – Nuclear Reactor

• Flow in nuclear fuel assembly

‐ Pressure = 50 atm
Liquid/Vapor
‐ Reliq = 300,000 Mixture Exits
‐ Heat flux = 0.522 MW/m2
‐ Inlet sub cooling = 4.5 K
‐ Mesh adapted to y+ = 100

Liquid enters

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 Solidification and Melting

• Solidification is the transformation of a substance from liquid to solid

‐ Temperature decrease (more frequently encountered) and change of state occurs at the freezing point
‐ Pressure increase (in this case temperature remains constant)
‐ The solidification process starts with small solid nucleation in the liquid that increases in number with
time (until liquid is completely solidified)
‐ Application – Casting Process
• Melting is the transformation of a substance from solid to liquid
‐ Temperature increases, the change of state occurs at the melting point
‐ In general, the melting point is relatively insensitive to pressure
‐ Application – Deicing
• Freezing & melting point are often equal (certain materials can have different values)

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 Solidification and Melting

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 Solidification and Melting Examples
Solidification Example Melting Example
Continuous Casting Process Deicing on an Automobile Windshield

Defrost pattern
after 5 minutes (from experiment)

Mold

Solidified Defrost pattern

after 10 minutes (from experiment)
shell in blue

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End of presentation