1.

Descriptive Research Designs

The purpose of this design is to describe the status of an identified variable
such as events, people or subjects as they exist. Descriptive research usually
makes one type of comparison contrasts and correlation and sometimes, in
carefully planned and orchestrated descriptive researches, cause-effect
relationships may be established to some extent. Examples of descriptive
research designs are the following:

Descriptive Normative Surveys

The descriptive-normative survey approach attempts to establish norms
or standards based on a wide class of survey data. The survey data may be
demographic data or they may include also data on "average perceptions
of a set of respondents. Since normally in normative surveys the number of
respondents is so large, one can make generalizations or norms based on the
data.

Correlational Research Studies

If you intend to estimate the extent to which different variables are related
to one another in the population of interest, make use of correlational studies.
The elements of this design include identification of the variables of interest,
the group of subjects or respondents where the variables will be applied, and
the estimation procedure to determine the extent of relationships. In
correlational studies when you attempt to determine whether a relationship
exists between two or more quantifiable variables and to what degree.

It is important to remember that, if there is a significant relationship between

two variables, it does not follow that one variable causes the other.
“Correlation does not mean causation”. When two variables are correlated you
can use the relationship to predict the value on one variable for a participant
if you know that participant’s value on the other variable. Thus, correlation
implies prediction but not causation.

Descriptive Evaluative Studies

The purpose of the descriptive evaluative study is to judge the “goodness of
A criterion measure”.
Longitudinal studies establish the changes in that criterion measure
over a long period of time.

Ex: If one were to study the changes in the 1Q levels of children 9-10
years over a five-year period, the researcher must see to it that the
same group of children is tested for IQ over the five-year period.

Cross-sectional studies are designed to evaluate changes over time

by comparing at the same point in time, different people representing
different stages in the development.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Chapter 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
 Ex: To establish changes in IQ for children 9-10 years old, one may
simultaneously test, children 9-10, 11-12, 13-14, 15-16,17-18, years old
to see changes in criterion measure.

Assessment/Evaluation Studies
Assessment evaluation studies attempt to determine the effectiveness or
efficiency of certain practices or policies when applied to a group of
respondents.

Assessment studies imply measurement of certain key indicators without

attaching any judgment to them. However, evaluation implies putting judgment
and valuing to the measurements obtained and is therefore at a much deeper
level than assessment. Assessment and evaluation always go together for one
cannot make judgment without basis for such.

Ex: One can make a study on the Relative Effectiveness of the K to 12 program
say Six years from today on the basis of such factors as cost, efficiency, and
impact on quality.

Descriptive Comparative Studies

Descriptive-comparative studies endeavor to establish significant differences
between two or more groups of subjects on the basis of a criterion measure. No
attempts to control the effects of extraneous factors are made. This type of
research usually involves group comparisons.

Ex: It may be desired to compare the managerial effectiveness of three groups

of managers A, B, and C. A study may employ a descriptive design which combines
two or more designs mentioned above.

General Considerations in Descriptive Research

Most educational researchers utilize the descriptive method of research. This
is partly justified by the fact that the types of information generated by
descriptive researchers are valuable baseline data for policy-formulation and
decision-making. Educational processes are constantly changing with the times.
So, there is a need to keep abreast with such changes through constant updating
of information.
However, there are certain limitations of this design that a researcher must
be aware of:
a) The lack of control variables in descriptive designs make them less
reliable in terms of actual hypothesis testing. Statistical test may
yield different results when applied to different samples of the same
population.
b) Unless the design is a normative survey where the entire population
is considered, conclusions drawn from descriptive designs are at best
tentative.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Chapter 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
2. Experimental Research Designs
Experimental studies are also known as longitudinal or repeated-measures
studies, for obvious reasons. They are also referred to as interventions,
because you do more than just observe the subjects.

Experimental research design uses the scientific method to establish the cause-
effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study.

An enormous difference between the descriptive method of research and

experimental method of research is the presence of control in the latter design
and the absence of the same in the former. A factor called treatment is
introduced into the research investigation and the researcher attempts to
isolate the effects of such treatment by means of control.

The whole point of all experimental designs is to make sure that the effects
of the treatment is carefully isolated or measured. There are many designs that
would allow this kind of control and we will discuss a few of these designs as
follows:

Pre-test Post-test Control Group Design

The design requires two groups of equivalent standing in terms of a criterion
measure e.g. achievement or mental ability. The first group is designated as
the control group while the second group is the experimental group. Both groups
are given the same pretest. The control group is not subjected to a treatment
while the experimental group is given the treatment factor. After the
experimental period, both groups are again given the same posttest.

Single group Pre-test Post-test Design

In experimental conditions where a limited number of subjects are available
the single group pretest-posttest design may be used. The group is first given
a pretest followed by the usual treatment and then a posttest is administered.
A new pretest is then administered to the group followed by the experimental
treatment factor and a final posttest. This design is very delicate because
the researcher must see to it that situations are equivalent before and during
the experimental factor is introduced.

Solomon Four Group Design

The Solomon four group design makes use of four equivalent groups. The
First two groups follow the pretest-posttest control group design. The third
group is given no pretest with treatment and a posttest. The last group is
given no pretest, no treatment but with a posttest.
The design eliminates the Hawthorne Effect, effects of maturation and attrition
but has the main disadvantage of requiring a large number of respondents.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Chapter 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Factors Affecting the Experimental Plan

The following are factors that affect the results of experimental designs:

1. History. Specific events which occur between the first and second
measurement in addition to the experimental variable may affect the
result of the experiment.
Examples of these are:

a) The 2008 economic recession because of the budget crisis many schools
cut back resources. A treatment implemented around that period of time
may be affected by a lack of supporting infrastructure.
b) Attitude of students (subjects of the study) may change due to unexpected
events that happen between pretest and posttest.
c) Researcher collects gross sales data before and after a 5 day 50% off
sale. During the sale a super typhoon occurs and the results of the study
may be affected because of the calamity, not the sale.

2. Maturation. The process of maturing either biological or psychological

that takes place in the individuals (subjects) during the experiment
regardless or event can affect experimental outcomes. These are simply
growing older, more bored or anxious and may be mistaken as a result of
the treatment.
An example of this is when subjects are tired after completing the training
session and their responses on the post-test are affected.

3. Testing. Subjects may be more aware of the contents of the posttest given
to pretest. In other words, the pre-test becomes a form of post-test.
Example: Subjects take a pretest and think about some of the items. On the
post-test they change to answers they feel are more acceptable. So, the
experimental group learns from the pretest.

4. Mortality. Subject may drop out of the experimental plan either

voluntarily or involuntarily. The loss of subjects from comparison groups
could greatly affect the comparison of unique characteristics of those
subjects. Groups to be compared need to be the same before and after the
experiment.

Examples:
a) An experiment is aimed to change the accounting practices after a
period of one year. Twelve (12) accountants drop out of the
experimental group and none drop out of the control group. Not only
is there differential loss in the two groups, but the 12 dropouts may
be very different from those who remained in the experimental group.
b) A project using flipped classroom, started with 161 students
(subjects) and 98 of them completed the entire module. Those who

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Chapter 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
 stayed in the project all the way to the end may be more motivated to
learn and thus achieve higher performance. The hidden variable,
intention to treat, might skew the result.

5. Interaction effects. The interaction of the experimental variable and

extraneous factors such as setting, time and conditions of the
experimental set-up. Combination of these factors may interact especially
in multiple group comparisons to produce erroneous measurements and
interpretation that the treatment caused the effect.

6. Measuring instruments. Changes in instruments calibration of instruments,

observers, or scorers may cause changes in the measurements.
Example: Interviewers are very careful with their first two or three interviews’
but on the 4th, 5th and 6th interview it becomes tiresome and boring thus,
interviewers are less careful and make errors.

7. Statistical regression. Because of extreme scores of measurements, groups

are chosen. Those scores or measurements tend to move toward the mean
with repeated measurements even without an experimental variable.
Example: Managers who are performing poorly are selected for training. Their
average posttest scores will be higher than their pretest scores because of
statistical regression, even if no training was given.

8. Differential Selection. Different individuals or groups would have

different previous knowledge or ability which would affect the final
measurement if not taken into account.
Example: A group of subjects who has viewed a TV program is compared with a
group which has not. There is no way of knowing that the groups would have been
equivalent since they were not randomly assigned to view the TV program.

9. John Henry Effect. John Henry was a worker who outperformed a machine
under an experimental setting because he was aware that his performance
was compared with that of a machine. It is an experimental bias which
pertains to the tendency of the subjects in the control group to perceive
themselves at a disadvantage, thus working harder to outperform the
experimental group.

3. Historical Research Designs

The purpose of a historical research design is to collect, verify, and
synthesize evidence from the past to establish facts that defend or refute your
hypothesis. It uses secondary sources and a variety of primary documentary
evidence, such as logs, diaries, official records, reports, archives, and non-
textual information like Maps, pictures, audio and visual recordings. The
limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Chapter 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data
Classical historical research methodology relies upon textual records, archival
Research and the narrative as a form of historical writing. The historian
describes and explains particular phenomena and events.

Quantitative history has similar goals but takes as its subject the aggregate
historical patterns of multiple events or phenomena. It creates a different
set of issues for analysis.

Ex: A classic historical analysis may treat a presidential election as a single

event while a quantitative historian considers a particular presidential
election as one element in the universe of all presidential elections and are
interested in patterns which characterize the universe or several units within
it.

Major Processes of Historical Research

The historical method of research follows the three major processes:

1. Data collection
The historian collects data from the past through relics, fossils or documents
found in the activities or through personal interviews with key informants.
Old newspaper clippings, memoirs, diaries, and the like are rich source of
historical data.

2. Analysis of data
The historian brings together the data collected to the state of knowledge
About the past event and use simple to complex statistical tools for analysis.

3. Report of findings
The historian reports his/her findings by carefully explaining discrepancies
noted and the probable causes of such discrepancies.

PRACTICAL RESEARCH 2
Chapter 4: Understanding Data and Ways to Systematically Collect Data