Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Name: MUHAMMAD TARIQ

Reg No: 21BLI00089
Tutor: Dr FAZAL HAYAT
Course Code: 6466
Level: Bed (2.5 years)
Semester: Autumn 2022

ASSIGNMENT No. 1
Q. 1 Discuss the historical perspectives of comparative education in detail?
education, discipline that is concerned with methods
of teaching and learning in schools or school-like environments as opposed to
various nonformal and informal means of socialization (e.g., rural development
projects and education through parent-child relationships).

Education can be thought of as the transmission of the values and accumulated

knowledge of a society. In this sense, it is equivalent to what social scientists
term socialization or enculturation. Children—whether conceived among New
Guinea tribespeople, the Renaissance Florentines, or the middle classes of
Manhattan—are born without culture. Education is designed to guide them in
learning a culture, molding their behaviour in the ways of adulthood, and
directing them toward their eventual role in society. In the most
primitive cultures, there is often little formal learning—little of what one would
ordinarily call school or classes or teachers. Instead, the
entire environment and all activities are frequently viewed as school and
classes, and many or all adults act as teachers. As societies grow more
complex, however, the quantity of knowledge to be passed on from one
generation to the next becomes more than any one person can know, and,
hence, there must evolve more selective and efficient means of cultural
transmission. The outcome is formal education—the school and the specialist
called the teacher.

As society becomes ever more complex and schools become ever more
institutionalized, educational experience becomes less directly related to daily
life, less a matter of showing and learning in the context of the workaday
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world, and more abstracted from practice, more a matter of distilling, telling,
and learning things out of context. This concentration of learning in a formal
atmosphere allows children to learn far more of their culture than they are
able to do by merely observing and imitating. As society gradually attaches
more and more importance to education, it also tries to formulate the overall
objectives, content, organization, and strategies of education. Literature
becomes laden with advice on the rearing of the younger generation. In short,
there develop philosophies and theories of education.

This article discusses the history of education, tracing the evolution of the
formal teaching of knowledge and skills from prehistoric and ancient times to
the present, and considering the various philosophies that have inspired the
resulting systems. Other aspects of education are treated in a number of
articles. For a treatment of education as a discipline, including educational
organization, teaching methods, and the functions and training of
teachers, see teaching; pedagogy; and teacher education. For a description of
education in various specialized fields, see historiography; legal
education; medical education; science, history of. For an analysis of
educational philosophy, see education, philosophy of. For an examination of
some of the more important aids in education and the dissemination of
knowledge, see dictionary; encyclopaedia; library; museum; printing; publishin
g, history of. Some restrictions on educational freedom are discussed
in censorship. For an analysis of pupil attributes, see intelligence,
human; learning theory; psychological testing.
Education in primitive and early civilized cultures

Prehistoric and primitive cultures

The term education can be applied to primitive cultures only in the sense

of enculturation, which is the process of cultural transmission. A primitive
person, whose culture is the totality of his universe, has a relatively fixed sense
of cultural continuity and timelessness. The model of life is relatively static and
absolute, and it is transmitted from one generation to another with little
deviation. As for prehistoric education, it can only be inferred from educational
practices in surviving primitive cultures.

The purpose of primitive education is thus to guide children to becoming good

members of their tribe or band. There is a marked emphasis upon training
for citizenship, because primitive people are highly concerned with the growth
of individuals as tribal members and the thorough comprehension of their way
of life during passage from prepuberty to postpuberty.
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Because of the variety in the countless thousands of primitive cultures, it is

difficult to describe any standard and uniform characteristics of prepuberty
education. Nevertheless, certain things are practiced commonly within
cultures. Children actually participate in the social processes of adult activities,
and their participatory learning is based upon what the American
anthropologist Margaret Mead called empathy, identification, and imitation.
Primitive children, before reaching puberty, learn by doing and observing basic
technical practices. Their teachers are not strangers but rather their
immediate community.

In contrast to the spontaneous and rather unregulated imitations in

prepuberty education, postpuberty education in some cultures is strictly
standardized and regulated. The teaching personnel may consist of fully
initiated men, often unknown to the initiate though they are his relatives in
other clans. The initiation may begin with the initiate being abruptly separated
from his familial group and sent to a secluded camp where he joins other
initiates. The purpose of this separation is to deflect the initiate’s deep
attachment away from his family and to establish his emotional and social
anchorage in the wider web of his culture.

The initiation “curriculum” does not usually include practical subjects. Instead,
it consists of a whole set of cultural values, tribal religion, myths, philosophy,
history, rituals, and other knowledge. Primitive people in some cultures regard
the body of knowledge constituting the initiation curriculum as most essential
to their tribal membership. Within this essential curriculum, religious
instruction takes the most prominent place.
Education in the earliest civilizations

The Old World civilizations of Egypt, Mesopotamia, and North China

The history of civilization started in the Middle East about 3000 BCE, whereas

the North China civilization began about a millennium and a half later.
The Mesopotamian and Egyptian civilizations flourished almost simultaneously
during the first civilizational phase (3000–1500 BCE). Although these
civilizations differed, they shared monumental literary achievements. The need
for the perpetuation of these highly developed civilizations made writing and
formal education indispensable.
Egypt

Egyptian culture and education were preserved and controlled chiefly by

the priests, a powerful intellectual elite in the Egyptian theocracy who also
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served as the political bulwarks by preventing cultural diversity.

The humanities as well as such practical subjects
as science, medicine, mathematics, and geometry were in the hands of the
priests, who taught in formal schools. Vocational skills relating to such fields
as architecture, engineering, and sculpture were generally transmitted outside
the context of formal schooling.

Egyptians developed two types of formal schools for privileged youth under
the supervision of governmental officials and priests: one for scribes and the
other for priest trainees. At the age of 5, pupils entered the writing school and
continued their studies in reading and writing until the age of 16 or 17. At the
age of 13 or 14 the schoolboys were also given practical training in offices for
which they were being prepared. Priesthood training began at the
temple college, which boys entered at the age of 17; the length of training
depending upon the requirements for various priestly offices. It is not clear
whether or not the practical sciences constituted a part of the systematically
organized curriculum of the temple college.

Rigid method and severe discipline were applied to achieve uniformity in

cultural transmission, since deviation from the traditional pattern of thought
was strictly prohibited. Drill and memorization were the typical methods
employed. But, as noted, Egyptians also used a work-study method in the final
phase of the training for scribes.
Mesopotamia

As a civilization contemporary with Egyptian civilization, Mesopotamia

developed education quite similar to that of its counterpart with respect to its
purpose and training. Formal education was practical and aimed to
train scribes and priests. It was extended from basic reading, writing, and
religion to higher learning in law, medicine, and astrology. Generally, youth of
the upper classes were prepared to become scribes, who ranged from copyists
to librarians and teachers. The schools for priests were said to be as numerous
as temples. This indicates not only the thoroughness but also the supremacy of
priestly education. Very little is known about higher education, but the
advancement of the priestly work sheds light upon the extensive nature of
intellectual pursuit.

As in the case of Egypt, the priests in Mesopotamia dominated the intellectual

and educational domain as well as the applied. The centre of intellectual
activity and training was the library, which was usually housed in a temple
under the supervision of influential priests. Methods of teaching and learning
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were memorization, oral repetition, copying models, and individual instruction.

It is believed that the exact copying of scripts was the hardest and most
strenuous and served as the test of excellence in learning. The period of
education was long and rigorous, and discipline was harsh.
North China

In North China, the civilization of which began with the emergence of

the Shang era, complex educational practices were in effect at a very early
date. In fact, every important foundation of the formation of modern Chinese
character was already established, to a great extent, more than 3,000 years
ago.

Chinese ancient formal education was distinguished by its

markedly secular and moral character. Its paramount purpose was to develop
a sense of moral sensitivity and duty toward people and the state. Even in the
early civilizational stage, harmonious human relations, rituals,
and music formed the curriculum.

Formal colleges and schools probably antedate the Zhou dynasty of the 1st
millennium BCE, at least in the imperial capitals. Local states probably had less-
organized institutions, such as halls of study, village schools, and district
schools. With regard to actual methods of education, ancient Chinese learned
from bamboo books and obtained moral training and practice in rituals by
word of mouth and example. Rigid rote learning, which typified later Chinese
education, seems to have been rather condemned. Education was regarded as
the process of individual development from within.
The New World civilizations of the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas

The outstanding cultural achievements of the pre-Columbian civilizations are

often compared with those of Old World civilizations. The ancient Mayan
calendar, which surpassed Europe’s Julian calendar in accuracy, was, for
example, a great accomplishment demonstrating the extraordinary degree of
knowledge of astronomy and mathematics possessed by the Maya. Equally
impressive are the sophistication of the Incas’ calendar and their highway
construction, the development of the Mayan complex writing system, and the
magnificent temples of the Aztecs. It is unfortunate that archaeological
findings and written documents hardly shed sufficient light upon education
among the Maya, Aztecs, and Incas. But from available documents it is evident
that these pre-Columbian civilizations developed formal education for training
the nobility and priests. The major purposes of education were cultural
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conservation, vocational training, moral and character training, and control of

cultural deviation.
The Maya

Being a highly religious culture, the Maya regarded the priesthood as one of

the most influential factors in the development of their society. The priest
enjoyed high prestige by virtue of his extensive knowledge, literate skills, and
religious and moral leadership, and high priests served as major advisers of the
rulers and the nobility. To obtain a priesthood, which was usually inherited
from his father or another close relative, the trainee had to receive rigorous
education in the school where priests taught history, writing, methods of
divining, medicine, and the calendar system.

Character training was one of the salient features of Mayan education. The

inculcation of self-restraint, cooperative work, and moderation was highly
emphasized in various stages of socialization as well as on various occasions of
religious festivals. In order to develop self-discipline, the future priest endured
a long period of continence and abstinence and, to develop a sense of loyalty
to community, he engaged in group labour.

Q. 2 Explain any two approaches of comparative education. How can we use

theses approaches in the context of Pakistan for improvement of
education at elementary level?

In the various methods of the study of comparative education the following

are noteworthy Quantitative, Descriptive, Sociological, Historical, Analytical
and Synthetic.
The Quantitative of Statistical Method:
The study of comparative education we analyse the similarities and factors
inherent in the education systems of various countries. Hence, it is necessary
to use the statistical method for finding out the progress or decline of
education in a country.

In this method various type of educational data are collected about a country.
For example, the data about the number of students at a certain stage of
education, expenditure on them, the percentages of passes and failures at
various stages of education, expenses on teachers’ salaries, school buildings
and other items are collected, and the same are compared with the identical
data of another country. Thus the progress or decline of education in any
country is statistically analysed.
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Bat the greatest difficulty of the statistical method is to procure reliable data.
Generally, due care is not taken in the collection of data. Consequently, many
of them are false. Another difficulty in this connection is that the various
educational terms used in different countries do not connote the same sense.
Therefore, their statistical analysis is falsified.

Moreover, through the statistical method we cannot understand the

educational characteristics that are the result of social, cultural, economic,
political and religious situations of a country. Evidently the use of the statistical
method is very limited.

It is mandated in the Constitution of Pakistan to provide free and compulsory

education to all children between the ages of 5-16 years and enhance adult
literacy. With the 18th constitutional amendment the concurrent list which
comprised of 47 subjects was abolished and these subjects, including
education, were transferred to federating units as a move towards provincial
autonomy.

The year 2015 is important in the context that it marks the deadline for the
participants of Dakar declaration (Education For All [EFA] commitment)
including Pakistan. Education related statistics coupled with Pakistan’s
progress regarding education targets set in Vision 2030 and Pakistan’s lagging
behind in achieving EFA targets and its Millennium Development Goals(MDGs)
for education call for an analysis of the education system of Pakistan and to
look into the issues and problems it is facing so that workable solutions could
be recommended.

What is Education System?

The system of education includes all institutions that are involved in delivering
formal education (public and private, for-profit and nonprofit, onsite or virtual
instruction) and their faculties, students, physical infrastructure, resources and
rules. In a broader definition the system also includes the institutions that are
directly involved in financing, managing, operating or regulating such
institutions (like government ministries and regulatory bodies, central testing
organizations, textbook boards and accreditation boards). The rules and
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regulations that guide the individual and institutional interactions within the
set up are also part of the education system.

Education system of Pakistan:

The education system of Pakistan is comprised of 260,903 institutions and is
facilitating 41,018,384 students with the help of 1,535,461 teachers. The
system includes 180,846 public institutions and 80,057 private institutions.
Hence 31% educational institutes are run by private sector while 69% are
public institutes.

Analysis of education system in Pakistan

Pakistan has expressed its commitment to promote education and literacy in
the country by education policies at domestic level and getting involved into
international commitments on education. In this regard national education
policies are the visions which suggest strategies to increase literacy rate,
capacity building, and enhance facilities in the schools and educational
institutes. MDGs and EFA programmes are global commitments of Pakistan for
the promotion of literacy.

A review of the education system of Pakistan suggests that there has been
little change in Pakistan’s schools since 2010, when the 18th Amendment
enshrined education as a fundamental human right in the constitution.
Problems of access, quality, infrastructure and inequality of opportunity,
remain endemic.

 
Issues
A)    MDGs and Pakistan
Due to the problems in education system of Pakistan, the country is lagging
behind in achieving its MDGs of education. The MDGs have laid down two
goals for education sector:
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Goal 2: The goal 2 of MDGs is to achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE)

and by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, will be able to complete
a full course of primary schooling. By the year 2014 the enrolment statistics
show an increase in the enrolment of students of the age of 3-16 year while
dropout rate decreased. But the need for increasing enrolment of students
remains high to achieve MDGs target. Punjab is leading province wise in net
primary enrolment rate with 62% enrolment. The enrolment rate in Sindh
province is 52%, in Khyber Pakhtunkhawa (KPK) 54% and primary enrolment
rate in Balochistan is 45%.
 

Goal 3: The goal 3 of MDGs is Promoting Gender Equality and Women

Empowerment. It is aimed at eliminating gender disparity in primary and
secondary education by 2005 and in all levels of education not later than 2015.
There is a stark disparity between male and female literacy rates. The national
literacy rate of male was 71% while that of female was 48% in 2012-13.
Provinces reported the same gender disparity. Punjab literacy rate in male was
71% and for females it was 54%. In Sindh literacy rate in male was 72% and
female 47%, in KPK male 70% and females 35%, while in Balochistan male 62%
and female 23%.
 

B)    Education for All (EFA) Commitment

The EFA goals focus on early childhood care and education including pre-
schooling, universal primary education and secondary education to youth,
adult literacy with gender parity and quality of education as crosscutting
thematic and programme priorities.

EFA Review Report October 2014 outlines that despite repeated policy
commitments, primary education in Pakistan is lagging behind in achieving its
target of universal primary education. Currently the primary gross enrolment
rate stands at 85.9% while Pakistan requires increasing it up to 100% by 2015-
16 to fulfil EFA goals.  Of the estimated total primary school going 21.4 million
children of ages 5-9 years, 68.5% are enrolled in schools, of which 8.2 million
or 56% are boys and 6.5 million or 44% are girls. Economic Survey of Pakistan
confirms that during the year 2013-14 literacy remained much higher in urban
areas than in rural areas and higher among males.
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C)    Vision 2030
Vision 2030 of Planning Commission of Pakistan looks for an academic
environment which promotes the thinking mind. The goal under Vision 2030 is
one curriculum and one national examination system under state
responsibility. The strategies charted out to achieve the goal included:

(i)                  Increasing public expenditure on education and skills generation

from 2.7% of GDP to 5% by 2010 and 7% by 2015.

(ii)                Re-introduce the technical and vocational stream in the last two
years of secondary schools.

(iii)             Gradually increase vocational and technical education numbers to

25-30% of all secondary enrolment by 2015 and 50 per cent by 2030.

(iv)              Enhance the scale and quality of education in general and the scale
and quality of scientific/technical education in Pakistan in particular.

Problems: The issues lead to the comprehension of the problems which are

faced in the development of education system and promotion of literacy. The
study outlines seven major problems such as:
 

1)      Lack of Proper Planning: Pakistan is a signatory to MDGs and EFA goals.

However it seems that it will not be able to achieve these international
commitments because of financial management issues and constraints to
achieve the MDGs and EFA goals.
 

2)      Social constraints: It is important to realize that the problems which

hinder the provision of education are not just due to issues of management by
government but some of them are deeply rooted in the social and cultural
orientation of the people. Overcoming the latter is difficult and would require a
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

change in attitude of the people, until then universal primary education is

difficult to achieve.
 

3)      Gender gap: Major factors that hinder enrolment rates of girls include

poverty, cultural constraints, illiteracy of parents and parental concerns about
safety and mobility of their daughters. Society’s emphasis on girl’s modesty,
protection and early marriages may limit family’s willingness to send them to
school. Enrolment of rural girls is 45% lower than that of urban girls; while for
boys the difference is 10% only, showing that gender gap is an important
factor.
 

4)      Cost of education: The economic cost is higher in private schools, but

these are located in richer settlements only. The paradox is that private schools
are better but not everywhere and government schools ensure equitable
access but do not provide quality education.
 

5)      War on Terror: Pakistan’s engagement in war against terrorism also

affected the promotion of literacy campaign. The militants targeted schools
and students; several educational institutions were blown up, teachers and
students were killed in Balochistan, KPK and FATA. This may have to contribute
not as much as other factors, but this remains an important factor.
 

6)      Funds for Education: Pakistan spends 2.4% GDP on education. At national

level, 89% education expenditure comprises of current expenses such as
teachers’ salaries, while only 11% comprises of development expenditure
which is not sufficient to raise quality of education.
 

7)      Technical Education: Sufficient attention has not been paid to the

technical and vocational education in Pakistan. The number of technical and
vocational training institutes is not sufficient and many are deprived of
infrastructure, teachers and tools for training. The population of a state is one
of the main elements of its national power. It can become an asset once it is
skilled. Unskilled population means more jobless people in the country, which
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affects the national development negatively. Therefore, technical education

needs priority handling by the government.
Poverty, law and order situation, natural disasters, budgetary constraints, lack
of access, poor quality, equity, and governance have also contributed in less
enrolments.

An analysis of the issues and problems suggest that:

The official data shows the allocation of funds for educational projects but
there is no mechanism which ensures the proper expenditure of those funds
on education.

 The existing infrastructure is not being properly utilized in several

parts of the country.
 There are various challenges that include expertise, institutional
and capacity issues, forging national cohesion, uniform standards
for textbook development, and quality assurance.
 The faculty hiring process is historically known to be politicized. It
is because of this that the quality of teaching suffers and even
more so when low investments are made in teachers’ training. As
a result teachers are not regular and their time at school is not as
productive as it would be with a well-trained teacher.
 Inside schools there are challenges which include shortage of
teachers, teacher absenteeism, missing basic facilities and lack of
friendly environment.
 Out of school challenges include shortage of schools, distance –
especially for females, insecurity, poverty, cultural norms, parents
are reluctant or parents lack awareness.

Q. 3 What is the importance of primary education for any country? How the
primary education of Pakistan is different from primary education of UK?
Give your arguments.
IMPORTANCE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION:
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School gives children the opportunity to learn and live with others. There they
acquire basic knowledge to understand the world in which they live and
develop study and communication skills.

A period of time in which children from 5 to 12 years old learn correct literacy.
The six courses that this teaching comprises is a vital part. In that teachers play
a fundamental role.

The primary level aims to develop a sense of getting knowledge about the
important education as well as abilities, skills, and attitudes. That helps them
communicate better. Studying and perfecting the language and skills do not
only serve to express ideas and feelings in oral or written form. But also it
benefits from the knowledge that countless generations have left in books.

Mathematics, Urdu, and English in primary school give students the basis for
knowing basics.  Their learning includes; how to count, measure, compare and
calculate. They become able to apply these skills in various aspects of their
lives. They also develop attitudes of observation and investigation.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF PRIMARY EDUCATION?

The purpose of Primary Education is to facilitate the learning of oral

expression. It emphasizes comprehension, reading, writing, and calculation.
Also the acquisition of basic notions of culture and the habit of coexistence.
Moreover, those of study and work, the artistic sense, creativity, and affection,
to guarantee a comprehensive training. That contributes to the full
development of the personality.

Coexistence within the classroom encourages the development of attitudes

and values, capacities for observation, comparison, and abstraction. When in
class the teacher explains and breaks down a topic. Also compares different
points of view, prepares and exercises the students in everything necessary to
develop their thinking, their sensitivity, and their ability to understand each
other.

Through teaching and learning activities, the school provides the foundation
for people to continue learning and developing throughout their lives.

The school is a small community, where each child has the opportunity to learn
to relate to others. At school, you can practice and acquire attitudes and values
that are essential in life. Such as responsibility, solidarity, the spirit of
cooperation, respect, caring for oneself and others. Tolerance, optimism,
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knowing how to share what you have and what you know, discipline,
perseverance, order, and punctuality. This is valuable lifelong learning for all
people.

These attitudes and values are formed when parents and teachers guide
children to practice them in daily life. When the school and the family fulfill
their role. Children can feel proud of themselves, their community, and their
country. They are also committed to their improvement. This gives more
meaning to the effort they make while studying.

DEVELOPMENT IN PRIMARY EDUCATION:

It is seen positively in the sense that it allows young people to interact with
more people of their age. Also with those, they will surely find much more in
common. In many cases, the friends or acquaintances that surround the child
at this stage of life will continue over time since it is a moment of vital
importance for the human being.

Education gives you an idea of the diversity of the world. It provides them with
the ability to value and appreciate the possibilities of the environment. That is
where they live and allows them to learn about the physical characteristics,
climate, and culture of other regions and countries. They are knowledge that
makes you travel with your imagination and find out about realities and ways
of life different from yours.

Primary education brings them closer to the knowledge of the past. History
talks about how human beings have been forming civilizations and nations, and
what are the distinctive features of our national identity. It narrates the
relevant events that explain to a great extent what we are today and
encourages us to build an always better destiny.

Comparison between Pakistan and uk education system

Classes and teacher planning. The results showed that against this group of six
estimates,

There are comparable qualities and differences in four regions of Pakistan, but
these are a little more prominent when looking at the four countries of the
United Kingdom: England,Coasts, Scotland and Northern Ireland. In England,
public curriculum exams are held in various School levels are allowed;
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Recognition and evaluation of trainers in England and Wales schools are more
coordinated than in Ireland and Scotland. 

The length of the first degree

Programs in Scotland typically last a year longer than in the other three UK
countries. in the

Pakistan, the preparation system in the four areas is a little more comparable
there

unified public education projects and specification system at government level.

The inexorable

The assessment structure for years 1-12 is much better coordinated in Punjab.
who usually

The results of primary school students are generally high in Sindh, Punjab and
NWFP

To concentrate; and Balochistan and various regions declined the most. Poor
performance in

English and math are a normal part of Pakistan and UK.

AXES AND AIMS OF EDUCATION IN PAKISTAN

 To advance the joys and traits of academic bonus, creative mind, and
learning. Cultivate the highest possible level of skill trained and taught in
English. 

 Create, maintain and support data and appreciation of Anglophone culture on

various occasions. With English-language lighting systems, pay attention to the
proximity of the preparation equipped with the expected securing of the liner. 
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 Work with the new social and acceptable development of ships of the line
and the normal plan and opposition in a multicultural construct

UK EDUCATION GOALS AND OBJECTIVES 

 Acquire basic data, skills and perspectives for own development and the
development of the country. Promote love and commitment to the country. 

 simultaneity of journalistic district between the social classes of Kenya. to

develop spiritually, socially, morally, sincerely and in a meaningful way. update
awareness and respect for oneself and for the social order of others and their
place in today's society. 

 Reshaping the perception and the energy of the relationships between

nations. Promote positive organic and prosperity practices.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN EDUCATION SYSTEMS IN PAKISTAN AND UK

  In Pakistan preparation is similar administration to normal border. 

 In Pakistan, the preparatory structure is at three levels: simple (grades 1-8),

discretionary (grades 9-12) and tertiary or highly qualified training after 12
years of supervision. 

 Preparing for secondary school in Pakistan seems to take forever (Grades 9-

12). It is cooked in public auxiliary schools and upper secondary schools; most
of these schools also have common workers. 

 In the UK, advice is the responsibility of each country. 

 There are five phases of counseling in the UK: early childhood, basic
education, optional training, continuing education (FE) and higher education
(HE). 

 In the UK, elective schools everywhere offer sufficiently ripe food preparation,
12-16 or part of 12-17 or 18, when pupils attend A-level. Pakistan ENGLAND
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 In Pakistan, school guidance is generally supervised and directed by district

governments. 

 In Pakistan, INSET is the border between normal EECs (or DSD in Punjab) and
GCETs which operate under their legitimate control. INSET is undoubtedly a
compulsory part of the curriculum, but ordinary and local governments have
made efforts to provide assistance to every teacher at every opportunity after
3-5 years of preparation, especially in England and Wales . 

 In England, however, INSET is legitimate for five days in the academic year;
INSET is not legal in the other three countries anyway, but educators are
encouraged to take in-house courses and courses offered by schools and
neighborhood experts.

there is no compulsory preparation in all of Pakistan. 

 In Pakistan, mentorship by educators in public and private areas is generally

low, with fewer exclusions. Pakistani information clubs need trained teachers
and little advice and real resources.

  In the UK less discretionary tutoring is definitely required.  Teacher

mentoring is generally coordinated across the UK. 

 Information boards in the UK are full of accredited trainers, modest training

modules and real resources

End: 

 The investigation shows that between the usual small differentiations and the
comparable qualities that are verified in Pakistan, at least under Great Britain,
the contrasts between the four sites are clearly more indisputable than the
similarities.

  In Pakistan there appears to be a similarity in terms of awareness and

planning engagement, informative development and school education projects
as the methodology and plan are based on the boundary of the focal
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

government and therefore any ordinary government must obey public action
plans, plans and designs for level 1 -12 will be created or re-evaluated from
time to time. In the UK, the contrasts between the four countries are more
noticeable.

Q. 4 Explain the primary education system of Sari Lanka. How can Pakistan
get benefit from Sri Lanka primary education to improve its quality?

primary education is voluntary and entirely private. Most of the schools are in
urban areas. Primary education includes grades one to five. It is free but, by
tradition, was not compulsory until 1999, when the Sri Lankan government
established new regulations making primary education compulsory as part of a
reform program. An estimated 14 percent of children ages 5 to 10 years were
not attending school. Village committees are now empowered with the
authority to raise and monitor school attendance. Public awareness programs
are being carried out to encourage educational attendance. The most recent
statistics indicate that 90 percent of Sri Lankan children are enrolled in primary
education.

The curriculum for the first three years of primary education includes religion,
the mother tongue, English, and numbers. In grade four the same subjects are
continued and physical education, constructive activities, and environmental
studies added. The goal of primary education is to promote a useful role in the
local community

Galewala, Matale Sri Lanka – Kulatunga Adhikari, Principal of Divulgaskotuwa

Primary School in Galewala recalls the time when school principals had to
await for clearance from the Ministry of Education to take any action towards
school improvements. Now he conducts his own school based teacher
development programs with the support of the zonal director and facilitates
improving school facilities and equipment with the support of a School
Development Committee comprised of parents, teachers, past students and
well-wishers. “We are now empowered to take decisions to improve education
outcomes of our school” says Adhikari explaining the new opportunities and
challenges he and his staff face together to become a recognized school in the
area that prepares students for good quality secondary education.
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Improving Access, Quality and Governance in the Education sector are the key
pillars of Transforming the School Education System as the Foundation of a
Knowledge Hub Project (TSEP) supported by the World Bank. These are aligned
with the themes of the Government of Sri Lanka’s Education Sector
Development Framework and Program for 2012-2016. This US$100-millon
project is helping the government to strengthen the country’s education
system at multiple levels, including national and provincial educational
agencies, especially schools. Several innovative reforms are being supported,
including the establishment of a system for conducting national assessments of
learning outcomes which can feed into education policy, school-based
management, and school-based teacher development.

" It's my job to facilitate and ensure that the children are not over stressed
and they get a well-balanced education. "

The Program for School Improvement (PSI)

PSI is a balanced control model of school based management introduced under

the objective of improving Governance under TSEP. This program is aimed at
empowering schools to take charge of school based management. It is
changing the dynamics of school administration and community participation
from a tightly centrally managed model to a more decentralized mechanism.
The empowerment of schools has two major components: school-based
management and the involvement of parents and communities in the work of
schools.

School-based  management  has  been  introduced  in  40  percent  of

education  zones in Sri Lanka during  2012-2013.  About 2,400,000 students (55
percent of all students) are enrolled in schools in these zones. School-based
teacher development programs have been conducted in 40 percent of
education zones during 2012-2013. About 140,000 teachers (63 percent of all
teachers) have benefited from these programs. The plan is to expand the
program to cover all schools in the country by 2016.

The Galewala Education Zone

In Galewala Education zone there are around 31,000 students and 1600

teachers. “We have a shortfall of 400 teachers” said Mr. Zarudeen, Zonal
Education Director of Galewala describing the challenge of recruiting teachers
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

to remote areas. He is in charge of supervising 109 schools in the Galewala

zone. Community contributions and community participation have helped
some schools in remote areas to overcome challenges by improving access and
quality of education as well as strengthening governance and delivery of
education services.

Improving Access

Recently, the Galewala Model Primary School was re-opened with community

participation to meet the schooling demands of the zone. This school was
closed down Five years ago due to lack of teachers and limited number of
students. Communities, including parents who could not get admission to
other leading schools contributed in cash and labor to re-open the school. “It is
encouraging to witness more ownership of the school with the school
community” said Mr. Zarudeen, Zonal Director.

Improving Quality

“Compared to the past, we now live in a competitive society and parents will
do anything to support their children achieve the best results in
education” said Ramyalatha Agalawatte, Grade I teacher with over 10 years of
teaching experience. “It is my job to facilitate and ensure that the children are
not over stressed and they get a well-balanced education” she said
demonstrating that education is not just about reading and writing but also
stimulating the child’s cognitive skills through dance, song, art and play.

“School communities are engaged in improving learning outcomes of children,

and their contributions have also supported the development of physical
facilities and equipment ” said the Zonal Director of Galewala.

K. Saliya Kumara, 33 years old is a past student and a present parent of two
girls attending Divulgaskotuwa Primary School in Galewala. He is a contractor
by profession. Using his own labour and resources collected by the School
Development Committee, he is in the process of building a community hall for
the school.

Strengthening Governance at the School level

Akuraboda Kanishta Vidyalaya, has set an example to the community and

students in good governance practices by adopting a transparent process in
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

school admission and selection of committee members to the School

Development Committee. The school also follows a merit based democratic
process of identifying, voting and selecting student body leaders.

Promoting Community Participation

“Children are their world” said Lalith Ratnasiri the Principal of Akuraboda
Kanishta Vidyalaya in Galewala expressing his commitment to provide a well-
balanced education for the children admitted under his leadership. “Parents
engaged in the School Development activities have been extremely supportive
in many ways and we have completed many projects together” he further
added explaining the challenge schools experienced in managing and
implementing educational activities and resource development within the
limited government budget allocation. With the introduction of the Program
for School Improvement (PSI), schools are now empowered to facilitate,
develop and manage education services with support from parents, teachers,
past-students and well-wishers from the community. 

Strong and equitable community participation in education in Sri Lanka is a

catalytic agent to promoting shared prosperity and moving people out of
poverty.

Q. 5 Describe the scope of secondary education. Compare and contrast the

secondary education of Malaysia and India.

1. acquire necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes for the development of

the self and the nation
2. promote love for and loyalty to the nation
3. promoter harmonious co-existence among the peoples of Kenya
4. develop mentally, socially, morally, physically and spiritually
5. enhance understanding and respect for own and other people's cultures
and their place in contemporary society
6. enhance understanding and appreciation of interrelationships among
nations
7. promote positive environmental and health practices
8. build a firm foundation for further education and training
9. develop ability for enquiry, critical thinking and rational judgment
10.develop into a responsible and socially well adjusted person
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

11.promote acceptance and respect for all persons

12.enhance enjoyment in learning
13.identify individual talents and develop them
14.build a foundation for technological and industrial development
15.develop into a self-disciplined individual who appreciates work and
manages time properly

India and Malaysia are emerging study abroad destinations for students from
many Asian and African countries. UNESCO has categorized Malaysia as the
12th most preferred education destination in the world while India earned the
name of “Vishwa Guru” when Takshashila and Nalanda kind of Indian
universities used to attract pupils from all over the world.

In the modern era, affordable fee structures, a variety of courses and a low
cost of living are major factors which attract students from different
countries. Both the countries have shown steady growth in the economy and
infrastructural development in the past two decades which had made these
countries very popular study abroad destinations. Five universities of
Malaysia have appeared in prestigious QS ranking of 2017 while 12
institutions from India showed their names in the list.

Despite many similarities, the education systems of both India and Malaysia
are quite different in many forms. Having experience in both the education
systems i.e. India (initially as a student and then as a professor) and Malaysia
(as a professor working with a top Malaysian University), I am writing this
article for making a comparative assessment of both.

Educational Board – India & Malaysia

The first and foremost difference I find in India and Malaysia Education
Systems is the inclusion of foreign universities culture. Several American and
British Universities have already come up with their campuses in Malaysia for
not only Malaysian but also international students while at the other hand, the
Indian education system is still dominated by the major government giants like
IITs, NITs, Central/State Universities and after that many prominent private
institutions i.e. BITS, Jaypee etc. According to All India Council of Technical
Education (AICTE), India has more than 10,000 engineering institutions in
2016 which offer a wide variety of study options to students. In fact, these
institutions are not only catering Indian students but also thousands of
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

students from Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan and many African countries also opt
Indian universities and colleges for higher education degrees.

The second difference is the opportunity of intake. In Malaysia, students get

the opportunity of three or intakes in a year. Moreover few institutions of
Malaysia takes admission for four times in a year which is double than India
where maximum two intakes are allowed in a year. Here Malaysian institutions
have a competitive advantage.

Another difference in the higher education systems of Malaysia and India

which I could personally seem is the difference between assessment
methodologies. In India, AICTE and other regulatory bodies are still struggling
with finding the deciding line in many areas like plagiarism, documentation
methods and assessments of student evaluation. Moreover, there are
variations and discrepancies in policies related to higher education in India. At
the other side, Malaysia has adopted the Malaysian Qualification Framework
(MQF) which is a unified system of post-secondary education implementation
and regulations. It clarifies all qualifications and academic achievements in
higher education and these qualifications are directly linked with attainment
goals of educational delivery. The Malaysian Universities mandates their
students to write at least 4-5 individual assignments at even undergraduate
level and these assignments are perfectly mapped with MQF guidelines
which boost the creative writing skills among students which helps them to
understand real-time scenarios.

MQF- Malaysia Qualification Framework

We can compare Malaysia Qualification Framework (MQF) with accreditations
bodies of India like National Assessment and Accreditation Council
(NAAC) and the National Board of Accreditation (NBA). As far as the conception
is concerned, MQF is quite similar to NAAC and NBA accreditation. Having been
worked at India for more than 13 years under the institutions running under
AICTE and accredited by NAAC and NBA, I have to say the deliverables of NAAC
and NBA could not reach the level where they were intended to. The major
barriers of the implementation are the scattered policy frameworks with no
clear guidelines and negligence of government agencies in regulating the
implementation of same. Another difference is the flavour of the education
systems. In spite of having world-class education setups, India lags behind
Malaysia when it comes to attracting foreign students from the Middle East
and Africa.
Course: Comparative Education (6466) Semester: Autumn, 2022

Being the most liberal Muslim country of the world, Malaysia is able to attract
more students from the Asian subcontinent while India is not very popular
among non-Asian students due to its cultural diversities and other political
reasons.