COMBUSTION

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COMBUSTION

2547

590.-
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621.4023

ISBN 974-13-2888-5

l- 824

http: / /www.cupress.chula.ac.th

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mai 30,000 tlfimuui
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(water) (lOUllflSllltin) Bl^JJ (air) (foiiltflSJlllun) UtiSJSiqlvl (fire
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m untr

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y

stoker) iSuflf^l^nuVllJm^i'Iffi'U
fl.ff. 1833 Sfn1llI2;S<yflPnm^lv1mmu?^Sf^fllWif1S9^4fi (traveling-grate stoker)

fl.ff. 1845 SniSlbs^MWgigThuUUvigiyl (fire-tube boiler)

William Fairbain

fi.ff. 1855

Robert Bunsen, Ernest Mallard and Henry Louis le Chatelier, Berthelot and Vieille

iSufiinDg^WSJinO^ljlJl^TJ (Bunsen burner) «tf^^l9Sn3J^llis;S%jffl9fntrP151Dl?y Robert

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y 1 v v

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composition) <Hf99?l51ttlVI9imff«19l§9lVI^ lTJUfU2J<M?fUlJ^l>3 *\
(reaction zone)
 (combustion technology) vitfimyvtaiodssmiflginnimia* iiiu

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Stephen Wilcox

fl.ff. 1859 llI«5mOU<H^3JU?n<U04<It1flCjniy?llins^l'2lVll4SanifitJ (Pennsylvania)

fi.ff. 1861

(four-stroke spark-ignition engine) lf!mft?9ll?n 1^0 Niklaus August Otto

fl.ff. 1868 Yiqugm^qnfmj'UO'JllJfnlvl (flame propagation theory)
i

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VNfl.ff. 1868-1910 (n.ff. 2411-2453)
>* i i

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f9<i« v
winv
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V

vi.fr. 2439
V

in%j^?l<utr3T«i4ij [trtniruin«?i8ojJUTi'jil?s;i<nffllyio w.fr. 2541]

fl.ff. 1883 ViqiygllJtiQ mQnn!)fl«lIlJlllT4fl1^llinIfltl Mallard lias; Le Chatelier

fl.ff. 1891 SfmihsSwSfMmj 19141 (steam turbine) l9l4flf<ia5nTflfJGustav de Laval

fl.ff. 1893 Sm?<iJ?s;^<yfmf9<ieju^io?iism«K'3fjmi9?muij3fl«a<H'3SJ (four-stroke

compression-ignition engine) rijT4flftll?fllfltl Rudolf Christian Karl Diesel
 20

i«

fl.ft. 1910 ifl?t)*uan81jmfllfl«WWflitrSfl (electrostatic il

F.G. Cottrell

fl.ff. 1920 (pulverized-coal combustion)

fi.ff. 1928 1.3)

Fritz von Opel opel uasl^9'iii9uS?!nio5'3fjim4iej9ijjfl

^
in Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky (fl.ff. 1857-1953)

1.4) lltlS Robert Goddard (^|llfi 1.5)

1.3 Iflf9<l<U<U<S'uiff OPEL (fl.ff. 1928)

 1.4 Konstantin Eduardovich Tsiolkovsky Nm (fl.fl. 1857-1953)

(fl.Pf. 1882 - 1945)

-r
fl.ff. 1928 flcniJUfmiNIW (The Combustion Institute)
(Pittsburgh) IJflfsiyillianifio (Pennsylvania) lli
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f Burke and Schumann ^nifJ91JJ14
• • • f V t

fl.ff. 1930 9iiSiJfl?ifl?0MiJfln*mjunfriiW

Frank Whittle

fl.flf. 1935 Hans von Ohain i7nfl9ntnmitl013JlJ ^

Frank Whittle uvi^^nqyui
viiJflflti^SSgiSo^imsiSuguii^niJ Frank Whittle
fl.ff. 1939 inflemifnilHiiiUJ (combustion text book) l?ijJll?nil0*l?»mf 9
Explosion Verbrennungsvorgange in Gasen (Springer, Verlag Berlin, 1939) (fmyuOQIjIiJ)

m9?lTJUUll?1lti<Ufnin9^nq<y?0 Explosion and Combustion Process in Gases (McGraw-Hill,

New York, 1946) WtlulflO Wilhelm Jost UVMiaQSUll (PlilJfi 1.6)

1.6 Wilhelm Jost

fl.ff. 1940 (combustion modeling)

 1944 wwi v-2 (A-4) Q|i)yi 1.7)

arms race) ^S [Baker, 1978]

1.8 Bernard Lewis mtTW51«1?O1»1'M0Briiu y

(fi.ff. 1899 -1993)
 fi.ff. 1951 inaemifmiWil'HSJ (combustion text book)

Combustion, Flame and Explosions of Gases (Academic Press, New York, 1951)

Bernard Lewis and Guenther von Elbe HVNlCJQSUlJ (fl|llvi 1.8)

fi.ff. 1954

1973

1d^nni#vm^
i.flf. 2541]

fl.fl. 1977 OTUfl?s;tt'3«9'3fnff^1U5n«U9^ i2;Syf^\4l?ieilJ?yvi Rockwell

International

fi.ff. 1990 SCRAM jet (CJQUIDin Supersonic Combustion RAM jet)

a^jJinfn'i 10 mi
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til
iiJ

600,000 10
V V

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i<in^i<i^i^^^
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(detonation)

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Le Chatelier

5 linYlYWimn YiqugllJin mimullWI (diffusion flame theory) QnffiHimiUB

3 lliififiwiUin ^1?im?lHlllvi3jfld3J^tt9^<U9'1<itinurf<I^Wfntrpl11!)1?O Lewis and Von Elbe

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0.5 m/s) Vlf8fmM«n*mmWlllJljfluihu velocity) (5fhfT<l
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i1
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(explosion)

CO

18 20 tl 1996
CO2 milflin 280 ppm

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efficiency) m9ifiu1ilemjng 3Es

(thermodynamics) flfTUYmiflli (chemical kinetics) IIUQlJniittodieJ (transport

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(services)

• 1900 TO 20 30 W5 SO W I7C W '90 2000

1.9 ^'3€tJ1>3iTl4infl^llTnt4VI^1T4?1£JlJ<lu6ll'3^ 120 ll (fl.ff. 1850 - 1970)

[Hottei, 1972]
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fi.ff. 1850 - 1970 1l8*lJft5lVlffffWTg8llj5m (U.S. annual consumption of energy)
[Hottel, 1972] (wood) riium* (antracite & bituminus)
(crude oil & natural gas liquids or condensate) untT

(natural gas) (hydro power) YmMIUlhlfliia? (nuclear power)

(total energy) IWjej uijmfo^a^naiQfioutf
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(population) UUfTinfiatin (logarithmic scale

120

1 v

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17 tl (■ointl fi.ff. 1935 - 1952) qfil^dTufiwi3i4i50iviS<ivia'nimvivlt4infinj<uiT3tl
fi.ff. 1885 qfilft4imiiiasuntfi!«iJViSiwaQifli4Tianimwdii4ffuinfi'uu5i'3il fi.ff. 1949 8m?
fi.ff. i958 8fn?ll'Via<iiiiJJinn'ii^iunQtl fi.ff. 1943 uas
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j;

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| GROSS NATIONAL PRODUCT —
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u 1958, 1961, 1963. 1966. 196$
* J JAPAN
*n secfuence from lower left,
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2541 69.699 2,749,684 61,466 25^ 1.1 1996

2542 73.562 2.871.521 61,662 25.6 12 1999

2543 76,884 3,004,659 p 6W9 25.6 12 2000

2544 80.307 3,059,072 p 62,309 263 1.3 2001

0.0

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IMiuihnnK PRIMARY CNCROY SUPPLY PER OOP

—•—rni^«W«wn«#tt«tti(BU«Tnn^PRIIIARYEHEROY SUPPLY PER POPULATION

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V

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1.3

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1 V

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V V

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ractical applications)

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i V ■

inns

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cycle)

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39

500 - 600 °c

^ (waste heat boiler, WHB)

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1.17

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«a «* a> o/ ev
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fumjloih

air

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 1.5.2.3

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vmiu
«

wnivhuu i<wu9^?im5inpiiJgn?oi (reaction

rate) l

(n) (mixing control)

(venturi effect

IH1VU

(Coanda effect) [Weinberg, 1974]

(pulse combustion)

J!

v
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[Weinberg, 1974]

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recirculating combustion) fl9?UloT5l9di<aa2;i9aflll4imfi 10 lllD^lJ1ulcKUinnill§9i<W^<luntrll4

nmi<u

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 (<0 latimiWnre
i J>

[Harrison and Weinberg, 1971]

700 taf
Vjf

10 [Harrison and Weinberg, 1971]

(carrier medium gas)

(conventional burner)

j '

brid electrical-combustion system) 9T0

1.5.2.4

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iJfjjjq^
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(n)

V
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(dolomite)

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i •

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t

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[Saravanamutto, 2001] ll4flllJ'3Vlfil9<Uir'3U^ll1l0inmf9^OU^n<l<H\4lintrtt9^lflf9^ lfif9<Jfls; 34
■

MWe nu 68 MWe imsYuviiiQfin 292 MWe

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h
coal or heavy oil to gas) l1ejnW3Umifl*nairhni5W§flUmr (gasification) V!?9 wSfllhmJ
eh (conversion of coal to oil) mon9WimQUl1illHlli1wll4lflf94MJ0
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(corrosion) filiin<mijuasn'njs;mi

niinum5uibriiiifiuii!9i3i3J^

igflfllllllll^U (combined cycle) WlioHl Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle

igcc ^9

J q 4

(waste heat boiler)

kJ/m3 39,000 kJ/m3

(inlet temperature)

untnresuinS
i dci 3; s; *a o 3/

[Hottel, 1974] wiu

process) U84ia95JJl5 (ri Hygas-Electrothermal

CO UflS H H CSG H?0 CO -Accepter

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co -Accepter emumn

viu waufm H-coal YiWiSitfufuiofm char-oil

vinsmin luoflwthu

QIUTUJHIflUIUIJ

oimff

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(bench-scale)
^ 4 IIS' . . . K i> A g
fniUl^Cig mft* (proven large scale) imSJVIIQJJVlflSi

lli0l01Julfl?<jni?lSwiflfeNfriSfflTCUlJ IGCC (demonstration unit)

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f[IEA Clean Coal Center, 2002] lflolliqfallf)$miihH Buggenum
mifnSQEitnjjimo uvi^iwno^fi Wabash river
Polk Power jWh
Pifion Pine f
 suii igcc

isjijii igcc wjia 250 MWe vu£i9<a Buggenum

fl.flf. 1993 [Saravanamuttoetal.,2001] f
(Siemens)

(shell)

igcc 43 48

s)2Jiieno<ui4i«(«9'a?2JiJiJ igcc W^S-j 600 MWe llgnflrw

uiJ igcc mtai^ 250 MWe

V V i i t V

Polk Power miUU^1^f fi-fT. 1996 (ififn'l

3 ll) [IEA Clean Coal Center, 2002] uas
ll fl.fT. 2001 303

(US$) tifoBfllllw 1,213 US$/kW

(doe) uflsfnfiranmmonasfin

(General Electric Corporation) fhlUfl? (Texago

Development Corporation)

il^ 2.5 - 3.5 isjuii igcc

38 hhv)

igcc «UQ^ Polk Power

Ol«5nifl1flllfll!ma*lij0«lJlJ IGCC «U9^ Polk Power

SviSfiivim
46-49 nJewun
w 900 -1,250 us$/kw iviiini
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mfrlra
igcc Irimimmmtfuif9*5ifm^

(pulverized coal combustion, PCC) mQiTllNTUIjTvil^n lliguiflfllSJUU IGCC ^^

3i 200 tl
n (green-house effect) ^nin^vil
co

a<ivn3jl<u<wS?nimenl?i (Kyoto Protocol) 1ml 1995

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igcc ^Sil^sSnSiiTW^^^ 43

34 iilgiil'uwiviiijfu m\i
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ifus 2541] tt^iH«Qi isuu igcc
(proven technology) liJ^^
 i V

(fixed carbon) flilbsJJIfU 11 - 30 llto&SuwlflOTilHllh (Vmf)9"N93Um)

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^SJfr^ 4 - 5
u (higher heating value, HHV) 1J9<mnllifldmri9Vm4fl1fl99ylu(lb4 3,200 - 4,500
kcal/kg Cnrni9%39<3U11<a) nf9l)iSJ3JltU 2,300 - 3,200 kcal/kg (Hfl'ntf'NS'Mllcffl)
ii^SfSri (rank of coal) mifVU MM
913J?nillJUtifs North Dakota Sfiifniulgw (higher heating value, HHV) fN£?<l 4,000 kcal/kg
l igcc

• t i

(CO)

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v V i

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Qfni?nn^?niilisn9uni9^ni3J2ja'ulwuntt (synthesis gas
syn gas ^S9^fliJ?sn9uiian^9 co lias H

IGCC

- 3211J9 wufllflmhvmn (vtdn^^&iflsldffoifl'i)

iili QlllliuSnlwflfijJflis North Dakota wSoSfli
V

12 illgil^WPimTUTJ !1i1ll191tlliJCfl'31ll^nilJ<UWl9'gSl?'3ilOfl0iniff (air

separation unit, ASU)

syn gas

V IGCC fiw9^<nifni3JtT2;91Plim^9tUVIfjfllji^inn<Un (warm gas cleanup)

syn gas rf
^ syn gas
 1.20 isiiu Integrated Drying and Gasification Combined Cycle (IDGCC)

(drying
process)
Integrated Drying and Gasification Combined Cycle lioflfJQ *) 11
GCC VI 1.20 Hntti'91J^14ff1?lfniuSl4tiTUTil4^Q ITQUMU^UQ^ syn gas
 isuu idgcc 1.20

2541]

(coal beneficiation)

fmrffiUfhumj (blending)

idgcc idgcc

ifier)

2541] 12JUU IDGCC ^«

^ (combined cycle)

(added value)

70
1 ^ 1 tu ex dtj/qs/cV liijid a 3/ a> A
(smart) iil'u^93min mflinm? Wuntrvi

viu
(economy

(efficiency)

lai#9<^

umns«innfi
WnijS^in^^iJ (environmentally compatible)
5SJIIU IDGCC ll?1?lllfi903Jfl'Wtl^1JJinWVil94 ISJUU IDGCC S

1.6

i$N3j™^
Baker, D. The Rocket : The History and Development of Rocket & Missile

Technology. New Cavendish Books, London, 1978.

Chomiak, J. Combustion : A Study in Theory, Fact and Application. Abacus Press an

imprint of Gordon and Breach Science Publishers, 1990.

Hamilton, E. Mythology. Little, Brown & Co., 1942.

Harrison, A.J., and Weinberg, F.J., 1971. Proc. Roy, Soc. A 321 p. 95.

Hottel, H.C., 1972. "Combustion and Energy for the Future," Plenary Lecture,

Fourteenth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, pp. 1-23.

IEA Clean Coal Center, http://www.iea-coal.co.uk, 2002.

Leicester, H.M. Alchemy, Encyclopedia American. Vol. 1, p. 510, Glolier, 1983.

Saravanamutto, H.I.H, Rogers, G.F.C., and Cohen, H. Gas Turbine Theory. 5th edition,

Pearson Education Limited, 2001.

U.S. Department of Energy (DOE). Industrial Combustion Technology Roadmap, A

Technology Roadmap by and for the Industrial Combustion Community. April

1999.

Weinberg, F.J., 1974. "The First Half-Million Years of Combustion Research and

Today's Burning Problems," Plenary Lecture, Fifteenth Symposium (Int.) on

Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 1-17.

Weinberg, F.J., Ed. Advanced Combustion Methods. Academic Press, London, 1986.

Wibulswas, P., 2003. "Sustainable Energy Development Strategies for Thailand,"

Proceedings of the 2nd Regional Conference on Energy Technology Towards a

Clean Environment, 12 -14 February, Phuket, Thailand. Vol. 1, pp. 1 -12.

Williams, F.A., 1992. "The Role of Theory in Combustion Science," Hottel Plenary

Lecture, Twenty-Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion

Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 1 - 17.

Wiinning, J.A., and Wunning, J.G., 1997. "Flameless Oxidation to Reduced Thermal

NOFormation," Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. Vol. 23, pp. 81- 94.

i.fr. 2541.

imanieu , vi.fr. 2546 vi'ui 63 - 72.

Vl.fT. 2543, Km 181 -193.

W.fi. 2541.

Combined Cycle".

, 2541.
2.1 untn

90

10
 V

2.2

ntrMta

2.2.1

a/ 3/ i

jjnQnfluviiiiJoei

Smu o

-164 °C «lilflw'UO'8lT1fn (liquefied natural gas, L.N.G) U

(liquefied petroleum gas, l.p.g)

it

wu Iravm uosfliwu \49nsnn14w l.p.g

t i V t V

fr l.p.g <ni1^1«£jmiii55^1iffl<imol(afiQi3J«T4im2j l.p.g

(producer gas)

(substoichiometric air)

55 id05i*T4w))

(substoichiometric oxygen
 oiuWn vrft)
i

tftamS*9u <n rfu lalfi^'u iiasgs^'nS^ (c h ) i3w& fwS

(reforming) Vtf9

(gasification)

2.2.2

aluwru fnn^fi 2.1

914^ iJfi^lJn 90^ ©VI

25°c J!d
25°c

Vn^^ (higher heating value, HHV)mf) gross calorific value (gross C.V.
t V

lias;f!ifmjJ?Qliyn^Wl (lower heating value, LHV)

net calorific value (net c.v.)
t if

HHV (wfB gross C.V.) llfis Z.//F

net C.V.) 99

t Im )h (2.1)
mo fat /g
»J9 h 2,440u/kg
H20

fact

V *>

win* 2.2 n

2.1

unar 1vi?Ghi«tfoiunti
LPG fnnchwfiu

CO - 20-30% 18-25%

H2 - 8 - 20 % 13-25%

CH4 80 - 95 % - 0.5 - 3 % 1 - 5 %
V
CH <6 - uayjjin
2 6
V
>CH* <4 100%
2 6

CO <5 - 3 -9% 5- 10%

N2 <5 - 50-56% 45 - 54 %

HO - - 5 - 15 %

11CH
2 6

fliirwi 2.2 ^9elivifilin'3i3j?9U'U9viiintnl9iviaNi$ii>9 n mixurn l imenrnffuas 25°c

unmvoivifta HHV LHV

(MJ/m3) (MJ/kg) (MJ/m5) (MJ/kg)

isTflSlW (H 2) 11.80 141.77 10.06 119.85

11.77 10.10 11.77 10.10

umu (CH4) 37.05 55.47 33.38 49.99

BIY1U (C2Hfi) 64.93 51.87 59.38 47.46

Ivmvm (c Hg) 92.38 50.34 85.04 46.33

{blYlVI (C4H(o) 119.80 49.52 110.59 45.71

IBMflVI (C H ) 58.71 50.28 55.02 47.10

osqlvlSii (C2H2) 54.05 49.89 52.22 48.17

38.37 54.13 34.83 49.13

6.33 5.81 5.77 5.30

2.2.3

(family) IMmnammJllJ (Wobbe number)

(2.2)

H
Wobbe number = (2.2)

41
11)9

H fl9 gross M19 net calorific value (C.V.)ii9^lfltr(MJ/m3Tif9 MJ/kg)

d fl9 (relative density)

d=\

?4lVlfi9Un
(Wobbe number) ?4lVlfi9UnU(U9difl™?9l4TJ94l$9lVlS<l (gross
C.V. Vff9 net C.V.) WU MJ/m nf9 MJ/kg iT

fl'31U113J1Oi5'3fneifnvl<U9^lflin91JlU (Wobbe number)

USWl9'ali19f1?1fniJJi'9ll<Ll9W (heat input rate) m
lifi2#TS (injector)
at V
(2.3) ind

q - Kx X Wobbe number (2.3)

4
13J9

q f!9

K m filfl^WQ (constant) = I—— .A f

A (injector)

A r ftf) (injector)

air
 (injector)

(gas change)

(flame stability)

VHIW1 (burner ports)

(Wobbe number)

Ist family) 11/14 unffffalfl71SH (synthesis

H = 50 %, CH = 26 % litiZ N = 24 %

Wobbe number 3fl19fjl'Usl}/3<i 23.9 C?<1 31.4 MJ/m ^ITifu gross C.V.
Vlf9 21.5 QA 28.7 MJ/m net C.V.

(2nd family) nivi Uffi (natural gas) ^S?fQl4lJ52Jn9UTi^nn9 CH

= 80 %, C H = 7 % lias N = 13 %
'38 2

Wobbe number 41.3 §4 58.0 MJ/m gross C.V.

37.1 0<l 52.4 MJ/m tfinflJ net C.V.

2 ndu (group) Il9

Wobbe number 48.1 if* 58.0 MJ/m3 gross C.V.

43.4 0*52.4 MJ/m3 net C.V.

Wobbe number 41.3 «<l 47.3 MJ/m dTVifli gross C.V

Vlf9 37.1 §4 42.7 MJ/m thvffll net C.V.
 ri family) (n9 L.P.G. Tif9
Wobbe number SfiiBgUiim 77.4 V\A 92.4 MJ/m thrill gross C.V.
* * 3 o v
72.0 0^ 85.3 MJ/m tTTHIU net C.V

wru

l.p.g.

2.3
y v

i§9ma>3mtiQiT^^1vttylwi]99<u<u5uiHfi^nii'UPiiJii)ini4iij<ui<i

nium
« Ac*

(ultimate analysis) sU9>9'U13J14PlllVI3J9OVnIan

jnsuliJftoTnqfniuoTJiJisjjifu 84
3 iil9ii(vu^5i?jliil(?i?i^n4lljjini4 0.5 nloii<Sun
0.5 J

(cracking) mupiu meiM i?itti?iJ?

uasihtfuwn diiwu jil^ 2.1

 vnuuvmaau

0.9%

0.2 %

0.8%
5.6%

2.1

2.3.1

ns

VI19 alkanes) Lllivlfiu (naphthene Vff9 cycloalkanes) WtCS, 9slillJjSntf(aromatics)

(olefins nffJ alkenes) qM

c H
n 2n+2

(normal) IVU
 SlYlU CH

CH-CH
3 3

(/j-propane) CH-CH-CH
3 2 3

(n-butane) CH -CH -CH -CH

3 2 2 3

v • tf

5 = m\m (pent); 6 = (hex); 7 = ISllvi (hept); 8 = 99nvi (oct); 9 = Iut4 (non); 10 = l^lfl (dec);

11 = muflfl (undec) l 12 = Tfilflfi (dodec) lil-wltJ

c h iffniiionlgWmwIiuliQoWlfiti (cycio-)
n 2n

c H
n 2n

CH=CH
2 2

CH -CH=CH
3 2

(l-butene) CH -CH -CH=CH

3 2 2

(2-butene) CH3-CH=CH-CH3

H H

HC; CH. H2C CH. H2C CH

C
H H2C- CH H

C
H.

2.2
 c H
o 2n-2

(diene) mjjQ v&u

CH3-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH2

1glfiifiil>U9w^8'34iivn^tu94fnl'iJ9<u 6

VI 2.3 I1

CH

HC CH

HC H

HC

2.3

(c H) (c h ) Amu
10 8 J

(benzo[a]pyrene) ^{flnniilliUilJfnivTlJWli (carcinogen)

f
imsi^?f'3U^i^tytu9<ittiiilis;n9ijy1t1fjn'iiu9ttv1afi<u (asphaltene)

Lide (1993)
 uuvlvnSu

2.4 (pah)

2.3.2

in?l5S1U&fit]%l (British Standard

Specifications e Institute of Petroleum (IP))U?1SUim21UASTM[ASTM,

1996] muwu

(volatility)

2.5

(The Institute of Petroleum) wft) ASME

 600-
Diesel no.2

550-

Gasoline

0
20 40 60 80 100

2.5 (astm D86)

^ (Redwood) imsJlil^oilia^ (Saybolt)

(kinematic) K%1l
(standard U-tube viscometer)

(IP 71/87) miJJU'UfifiT'fi^oilfiiitjn'ii

(kinematic viscosity) (v) SviviitJ^Q centistokes (cSt) I'UUMSWfmU'H'fifllflinijfl (dynamic
viscosity) (fi) R9w?if|tuis;<H'3i^fni3J1H<u«miuim^n (v) niifmjjviuiu'uunj9<ii3i3ju (p) Si
111 \i centipoises (cP)

fmimijfllflinfin |ii (centipoises, (cP)) = v (cSt) x p (2.4)

cm'
 3°C

5°F

O^ I V I] it

i V

fi 2.3 il

(Sp.Gr)

15°C

vnuv4
Sp.Gr = (2.5)

15°c

API (American Petroleum Institute) IIV11J

API- (2.6)
Sp.Gr
 2.3

trmhsnou ^niji^ (°C) ^Mfotfin* CO

fn?u9\ijJ8i48nlvR CO -
609

H2 -
400

vmifturf
IJIV1V1 CH -188 537
4

emu C2Hfi -135 472

Twsmvi CH -104 470

3 B

VI9 31J 9 fill 11Y) VI CH -60 365

4 10

VJ85U9a99fUYIVl CH 10 206
8 IS

-12 418

VI9 511 9 fl WVIVI 135 205

A ACt

9^^avi CH -
305

™» CHjOH 11 385

l9VnVJ8t1 CHOH 12 365

•I

(1)
v

(2) ni\4/3tU!nnfin3J11^1iltit4U9^<U13T<ulfieik^?gEi9<i (Dulong Formula)

Qn = (46.428-8.792pJ+3.17p,)(l-x-y-s) + 9.4205-2.449x (2.7)

IJJ9 Qo = (net heat of combustion) >if9 LHV, MJ/kg
V »

p, = i I5°c, g/cm3
V

x,y,s = ill

(3)

(mass percentage) 119^1111914 99n€lDU

 Qg = 0.339 C% + 1.256[H%-i O%] + 0.105 S% (2.8)
Qn = Qg-0.224 H% (2.9)

UJ8 QB ftafhfnUlftmilU (gross calorific value) mtl HHV(MJ/kg) ll?ISfhc%fH% O

s%

^ (organo-sulfiir compound)

(SOX) Sd
x-ray fluorescence spectrometry

fmugulumfig ffoni?%il?ijifunin<u€»<9u4j^ (solid deposit) vnflfoinmiliifmjjfgu

tfh
9W"UY11£J (inorganic soluble salt) 4*V14 lflS19Un3 (sodium chloride) &\l$\l

0.5 nJo/wuw nas; 0.05

v

(residual fuel oils) mimi

vnn lglPI5fniU9l4ll?smY19SnUJJPintrY13J<U141«lT1fy (large condensed aromatic hydrocarbon)

^ibsngu^itigsemijmjjscnj 1wT«n?i«vi num^ou ufiso^SvnsivlutfiJi^ilTsmvi (long

paraffinic side chains) ym8flin#3«
 (precipitation)

(non- polar solvent) mi <U9iJJ9m8ilmt4

V

fhatffllYllJ (octane number)

9m?^
(spark-ignition engine) imm<autl fn9f)fHV)<U<W93

iflfi 100
r N I

o )

95

95 nJ9ii^i4mifisJW9iw0tii0ilivi'u 5 iiloii'Suw Two

fi^90nm^Jllll^99nl9^4tT9<lttff^fl^9 Research Octane Number (RON) UBS Motor Octane
Number (mon) ^trg^^fi^iKnnriKinuYiiigtjlufnivifitig^iviiwij nfinno Itjmivifltfoiivn
RON W9<JfniI^3J9tUVIfjfl91fnffmifjfO^tlUWVI 125°F fniUin?91Jmf fuauwfi 600 rpm
fttii« 13 o^fnriQ^ntfi (figwgxjopneiuu) l<u(uaisfifniivi?irf0U<Ki mon ilu
ftnrinlffi 300°f 900 rpm wv& 19 - 26 eufnihwiiih wmaiSii Ififj^li]
fil RON S)S^-3nQ1flT MON ll^SJfniUHPinril^niO^fii^ttg^liejnii sentivity
y

(cetane number, CN) «] nilfii99fim<ul\4

'

loo iras

15

flflf engine)

13 m fmuinieu 900 rpm

15O°F 212°f

(standard mixture)
 (CN)

CN = (lD1V!QVl?9fJt1SJeU9^SmW) + 0.15(fl1W'3<U19tJ3SJ<U9'3i9MtVl<U) (2.10)

SiihSh 55 ritiiiii

52.94

(cetane index, CI) fl^1CimJfii$muurini?1^l1Jii3Jl11U9UfVU

i 1 n ,

ficyfiQ Ififii mfi9£j<os;iiuwmwfi lfltJmv^^^;9fJ^o^n1fUYl^4^3J<u3Jflwml49n ^ Cueejfm 35)

(calculated cetane index)

(mid-boiling point)

(calculated cetane index formula) (ASTM D-976)

flTM inftCJfTCI PI<V'UcKl<l1tJfnW'3fU (calculated cetane index)

(calculated cetane index), CI = -420.34 + 0.016G2 + 0.192G logM

+ 65.01(logM)2- 0.0001809 M2 (2.11)

G fe fnijjriQ^fliivns; API
M fi9 m 50 iitaOTum^m^nmmiJii astm /nolftniumjuiienniff, °f

ial wick lamp) iia

fni3J^ni9<iiiJin1y|
2.3.3

automotive gasoline)

(spark ignition engine H?9 SI engine)

fvu

25 - 225°C

125.6°C

(diesel fuel)

(compression ignition engine H59 CI engine)

2.5

2 vif9^^119^09aejaifafrawifa wm
2 Sfniuni4iimiuuinn'3i

ihlMiVIIUlflf9^(jypin<llTwuntf (gas turbine fuels)

t V

ym (aviation turbine fuels) l1UHinnl#i3im4fhfl (kerosene)

V 1 V V

2 (?j|il^ 2.5
fi! (parafin) imrlfil4 (naphthene)
V V

(aromatics) WtnJOJjlwoVintJ'JUWI'J *| nUUSIsS^lfllofl^UW 150 - 300°C

 uas astm

(nonmilitary turbine fuels) ASTM (D1655)

[astm, 1996] Sibingluemnfl 2.4 wflfnui Jet A, Jet ai (m9 jpi) im Jet b (vif9
JP4) <U9fl101fl5o<iS1U13J14 JP3 Lias JP5 military turbine fuels) *U9>3

oiuimfH

(safety) liaS ^ (engine durability) ifiiJVmn iwilWQIUlJaOflnlu (safety) UU

(freezing point)

Jet b -50°c

4m<^
ignition) fiSiia
Jet b
.

(wide cut gasoline) ctf^<nilflS)infniHtTjjiui3j<um?jmniiim<Hvn (naphtha)

(liquefied petroleum gas, L.P.G)

y
0 a/

lf)?9WU0 (engine durability) UU

9H imj Q^nifiyjj uaswsjm iili4wu luinumnfnTi'Ufln'msfls mtrsttajyilun^vita (turbine blades)

ua^9i«iiifiQiiJi9aviimirilijmmjl^i49n«infio^9^fiQij^jjil?iiitu^ii9^Tiim
inu 22 iilf)?ivu9i (1fitiil?uim) il?jJifuiti?l9ia?li4tt^tjfii3jtiHin<u 5 iitalWvifl (I^icjilfui^?)
• 1 V

uiiiiims^tiintri^iviaiiyiJiHilMtfmniiasliiVjj^Qf fiTwiiasJwiiiiflu
4

oQ3/i I

niflfin<MffM
 LZ 103

036 S8U 08£

06 SK9 Z/M L'P\

9S-LZ

06 68 - 36-38

601 601 - 001-16 (KO"a)niA1UQBLU

t

KZ OLZ (Do) fraitwotw^wwwk

ei 11 3S Zt- (Do) ^mtw^
u S9 SC3-0I3 S33-0C

9.0I x igi 9.oixgz.o 9.OIXS3 ,.01 x 8'0 (s/.j1") Do03 wiiwrcitniuwnurtLcu

WZ.0 96iO S80 8iO-3iO D09i usmiLB^tprcLcw

UrtBrtLR

BQMLUQ1 nontum nrti^QnurirtjB

nrtin njtin
»

urumu

os-

(V K>f) Ofr-

53

ooe

%06

061 %O?

%03

S03 %0I

308-1SL -8 - SLL

£0 CO

S S (%
33 33 (%

(iar)ivi»r

(SS91CI) wisv
 Qiiimn) (mi)

01

0.865 0.928 0.953 0.986

2.6 X 10"* 15 x 10" 50 x 10s 360 xlO"6

38°C(m2/s)
:) <-17 <-18 -23 -1 19

^fJQTljivl (°<2) 38 38 55 55 66

?hifrt (°c) 230 260 263 - 408

014 (%) 86.5 86.4 86.1 85.5 85.7

was (%) tfmnnn ifcoinn 2.5 5.0 12.0

iJlinaiisln 51^14 (%) 13.2 12.7 11.9 11.7 10.5

ilfinoieonqfWU (%) 0.01 0.04 0.27 0.3 0.38 - 0.64

lJfuituitfi (%) - <0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04

fiifmuftmi i^ff-9 (HHV)

(MJ/kg) 46.2 45.4 43.8 43.2 42.4

ihtfuwn (fuel oils) t8i4ijiiTwfifi?9iifi^3J?n?il? n9iil9lpi?fnl'uatj^nTh^inn

V

12 4 5 at\z 6 2.6 si

Iflifl 1 mWll'Um (kerosene)

(dodecane) c H
12 26

4 5 utts 6

in??i 6

oivnuoa (CH oh

riiuiru vifaW (C2H oh) wSfll&nnmmiifna

if If
 wrw ifimtinSnio? (dimethyl ether) vftrnfmnuntr
[Fleisch et al., 1995] rf
^9 coal-water slurries (CWS)
25 - 30 nWrifi f

2.4

«i viw

aoniwu Iwlniwii nixisou ih

45

iviiifu
iiifu (fjMi^iw 2.7 lJ

(free water)

(capillary effect) iltls;i8t4i3ifigng?inauiTl9m'imniCJmv< (physical absorption Vlf9

V V

bound water) §l§

10

(slag fouling) min^ni9W (erosion) uasm?Wfn9U (corrosion)

 i

2.7

oernhou, % rmuvii, % im, %

w 45 15-50 0.1-1.0

35 90 0.1-10

thummnW 25 30 >5

5 5 >5

riumviuQ'UYmi'iw 2 4 >5
y

40 24 10-15

i§9m«^u^Ds;t}mio^iw1Ivmmyfusflum'ylflJUl (as-received basis)

<hmnufiisvmn#'H9 ^IM^ (dry basis) Ml9itl aniycus<nmi9'n9 (dry,

ash-free basis) !

V • i y

^^filJ?iM (free water)

(bound water

2.4.1 lfai^S^Vl}41£l (Biomass)

(cho) uasanmj (c h o)
6 10 5 40 44 6

(woody biomass) imsSiUlfiTUfllu'linjJ (nonwoody biomass)

Jliloil^) Wllri n<lH (limb wood) Ifnyltf (wood chips)
(sawdust) chuiiJ (charcoal) lfryiO9n7S?nu (pulp waste) lltaflli tTQwSillia^ljJliilfl
(husks) mil&KI (bagasse) vli^T3 (straws) f?1TJ?H<ffn (stalks) llla9ni3Jap| (pits)
(manure)

2.4.2 'MPl(Peat)
 aimvilla
2CHO -> CHO+CH+ 2CO
6 10 5 8 10 5 4 2

fmuisru m

80 - 90

2.4.3

diuiiuinflsnnlftuislfoinaiMflfiii *i

(biochemical decomposition) <W?93JnuSm?iaiJClJJniun)9<J^^<U?lpil<l

v • y

S«i 'niW^PiSfniultJ fmuvi^ (porosity) iJfinanniismo (volatile

matter content) ^?9JJnillJ?llltU^9<l99n5lflTJUasl8^?^liafl?l^l^^ms^Sll?lJlfUfnil'lJ9<U
lVI3J3JinnJ14 <WPI9Slllt1Olilll1UCnT4<Hl4YlUflfn?l (rank of coal) q^UUniliaiftlJ (JJll?intUfnilJ8ti

fi9 an mw u^jiiijtr u?is;u9tjvi45ilcwCTli4'ntj^ iionn

(coalification) diufluflfMffilssjnBiJTianflQ fiTsuou

mi 9s^5iSou man ufiaiSau uunfiiSou Ivuiviftiwju uu^mfltf

(wiu uilwiiw iwunnlifw uasiwimSluw iflw^u) wnw 2.8

UU<l?n3JffnplU9>3CnV!V!<U (rank of coal)

(grade of coal) ffnStu9<idivjii<u

ffnS9divjii Oeif<ganl'u^Snfn^<ni (low rank)
nSq^ (high rank)) mi5Wl(DinfhflQlU19U'U9di<U<HU

(dry, free ash basis) f)1?1^vi 2.9

^'HI19JJni9>3mi (ash fussion temperature

mi Tfiom?u?;idiwTitil<Hiliiiil<uH4iiin?i 10 mm ^^
(gravity separation)

2.8

(ppm) v (ppm)

Ca 760 >5000

Na 28 200-5000

K 39 200-5000

Mg 110 200-5000

Mn 97 6-210

Fe 10 >5000

P 40 10-340

Si - >5000

Al 6 >5000

Cl 48 200-1000

2.9

(MJ/kg)

>98

92-98

lirijlttlVJYmW 86-92

78-86

69-78

{j^uutrfriHsmeiq* a >32

{j^uucftrif?sma^ b 30-32

uYjSifatmisma^ c 27-30

24-27

tfimvjimflf B 22-24

'BuSigSiTtf c 19-22

flfliuw A 15- 19

^flliiPl B
2.4.4 1J£iS

uiniJii4if9Vi^9d9iflfoli4iS9^ *nntnfmwh hi snn

urn mnnminaunn urn uoslun^mvminufrci Sinnfrii 5,000 fiumiu

2.10 osmtJ'iiSrfiw'viiNilvi^ljjl^iJisinQi 30
10-15 iiJ9ii^u^im2jfi'3i3jWw<iJi2i3Jifu^fi9<u(iih«3^<i^9 15-25

2.11

man ufo iSw^'u) osniSorioiiTfleiiSfn^viminsjttu ivw iftwi

(refuse-derived fuel)
1

rdf m?ili rdf 11WJlfcfi

w!u tiniiliifinuuifipiggnfif^viij^ nf9*1 V
 2.10

43%

10

10

man 6

1
A
OUT JO

100%

fmrNvi2.1i
rdf

chufiu
(RDF)

(wt %)

tnuswD 81 65 55 40 85
4
19 35 45 60 15

%)

6 6 5 5 7

50 55 68 78 52

0.1 0.4 1 2 0.3

0.1 1 1 2 0.6

tromtau 44 38 25 13 40

(MJ/kg) 20 22 23 33 22
2.4.5

<4

lili fmilfmsiiIfitJlhsjnfU (pkpximate analysis)

nf (ultimate analysis) fhfmu&m ims9ai<Hf}5vi?19Um?n<ll0<aifrl (ash
fussion temperature) lll'Ufl'U

(proximate analysis) fmnnn^iU ASTM D3172 flSSftilJ

lJ?um?m?smOYUNlW1# (volatile combustible matter) il?3J1Qifnill914

105 - no°c

900°c

750°c

m?Qlfl512JmiUUlltin!nq (ultimate analysis) muinflSfilJ ASTM D3176 A\kfYYi

V V

loo nuflioilfuifume^inw chn ubsj s

(ASTM D2105)
 (astm D1857)

850°c

(dextrin)

lwi?n9UilUUltlfl^91fnff (oxidizing) M?OUUliafltnmtf (reducing)

lilnunn) ^<nilTiiaii?ui<iJ§oi4|ilvi?^ifl<uuuurfi'i *|
uvi'3YiT^ni25<u9mJfnt)jJUii?i93Ji9iu|<Llfi5<ivi
9tu<Hfi5Mfi9jjm?n<u9«3i^Tuu9|lnutTQ<uiJ525n9U<y9'3m i^ SiO

Al 0 lias TiO
2 3 2
ma'3^ liiniflisJviiifi^il^nQi wiu Fe2 o3
CaO MgO Na o lias K o u flsS9fuvigS<Hfi93jm?n^i

2.5

uu

iioi fiioenmw

iflu^Iu)
2.6

d (relative density)

Q/M
nfg
H hhv wfe
HHV

K .Af (ttJJfni 2.3)

LHV

m M

P F/L2

q Qlt
SpGr

M M/(Lt)

v L2/t

P Mil1
 J

M inn

Q
t n^

T Qtuvmij

ASTM Specifications for Petroleum Products, Am. Soc. For Testing and Materials,

Philadelphia, 1996.

Fleisch, T., McCarthy, C, Basu, A., Udovich, C, Charbonneau, P., Slodowske, W.,

Mikkelsen, S-E., and McCandless, J., 1995. "A New Clean Diesel Technology :

Demonstration of ULEV Emissions on a Navistar Diesel Engine Fueled with Dimethyl

Ether", SAE paper no. 950061.

Gary L. Borman, and Kenneth W. Ragland. Combustion Engineering. WCB/McGraw-Hill,

Inc., 1998.

Lide, D.R. (ed.). Handbook ofPhysics and Chemistry. CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1993.

Williams, A. Combustion ofLiquid Fuel Spray. Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd, 1990.

. ilhuSaumnliiha. nifiQ^iifiSmtrufi wfi<3nsalNM"nvienmj, 2533.

3.1 UVIWI
a*w

(viu

tnwi? f«f
%t

(chemical kinetics)

luntna
 f o«nm?m«ilflnfounS uti

nanf!e1jignmuqiiTflaownw'3<uQ4ilgn5oi (rate-controlled) iii

3.2

ngmo^untrwfo
sJ (gas law M?8 equation of state) ng^QVliili^ LID

V i \
ttuijS<w^TUvn'am9?lu1?i<ui5ntf^viii9eiii9fj n S90 12 truvn (3
(fundamental properties) WwSoSfl 6
(derived properties) fHfltftliTS^njiW) WllffW^lwwimfi 3.1 3
ilnnen iras^QiwofiiJ^ings^lwfrufn^ims unsfimSoSn 3 trjjiT^jjfisiu lAiri
meilu fmu?t)ij iwMiwil^inglTinfl'Boviiiu^ 6 tfjJiTnfiW
iaj?ot46niTii2;fiil5iJinTfi^viiJ5inglTinQ4jfe
s'Wisaulsafl'if (Helmholtz free energy) Ufis;<W^'niJ9fns;eU9<imJlJtr (Gibbs free

energy) ibmgUmgfofimN iflefisnituiuntTHtf

 12

arwijflpi'n <] vhrfcrcftu

mmwims

fimuflVi (P)

eammj (7) AW (w)

IQlilviiFll (f)
fnnufotiBitvnsj c Wfl-MTliSOTSIIO^ IS^lllsnvIV (a)

/>

3.2.1

(Equation of State or Gas Law)

tru mi trnwz m tin m iutt«<i tin nsue ^ untrlu |iJ P V

(3.1)

PF =n/27T (3.1)

me p ms t ndd^nnmtimnti -dm r ^9 fin

(3.1

(critical point) ■0SUfjtUtT3JUPilll<UUntTm9?lJJfl^ ifintrimSJgtUVIflU r= 273.15 K (0 C)

P = 101,325 N/m2 UfftTgflJJflS4lWQ14 1 l3Jai0sSll?3J1Pl? 0.022414 mJ UfiSlintT

l niiilua (gram-mole vife gmol) dsSu^ Af fifu we) M &
(molecular weight M?Q molar mass) Svrihmil'Unill VlfQUntY9^J3Jfl^^l14Q'U 1
> v

(kilogram-mole vtf9 kgmol) t)s8 ina m nlanfuife M

M^5= 273.15 K (0°C) U9SfnilJmiP= 101,325 N/m2
iJ?3Ji«i«u!)<iiintrflii4'3'u i lut\m© 0.022414 m3

(Avogadro's hypotheses) naTainuntrlfl "1 SlIlJJIW?

T= 273.15 K (0°C) liaSfmyflU P = 101,325 N/m2 (nft) 1 lmtnmfl) unfflfl 1 fl

23 molecule ^ , * *
6.02283 X10 iftlfmimienTQfnifl* (Avogadro's number)
mole

3.2.2

(First Law of Thermodynamics)

(n) <wa4<ni4/nalw (internal energy) («)

(internal energy) («)

tf (translational, vibrational and rotational activity)

"0s;Sniiuiliiil^wvia<i^it4fliE]li4i?njJil?uifufiim^<il?i?jtr3jm? (3.2)

= CodT (3.2)

me

r 1811 T m

(3.3)

3/

*| ffusnnuunmjinmuffnns; r

= 0 (3.5)

Si (state W19 point properties)

 (heat) (?)

idq

flt4f|Qitr3JlJ^1JlimjAvn<| (path properties)

(fl) 4TW (work) (w)

(moving boundary) I1TU

p nmrnrnvwumiwii

= PAdx

= PdV

= nRT

nRT RT

F Mo

rt „
f/w Hf9 dW =
Mo V

(isothermal) (r

W = \dW = I
 RT v,
tf19 w = to (3.6)
il/ °»

01 p Sfi

w = P{v2-vx) (3.6a)

(3.7)

W u q ilt\Z w ifl^S ^ uas; w v\

= dq- dw (3.8)

(isolated system)

dq = rfw = 0 => du = 0 (3.8a)

(isothermal expansion process)

= 0 => dq = dw (3.8b)

(constant volume heating process)

dw = 0 => du dq (3.8c)

CDdT dq

dq_
(3.8d)
dT
 IQ-MWatl (enthalpy T110 total energy) (h)

muvfatl (A
(flow work) p

(3.9)

(3.10)

snn

du-dq-Pdv (3.11)

dh=dq (3.12)

dh = Cp dT (3.12a)

(3.13)
P dT

dh du d(h~
Cv
p dT
4 I

h-u=PV = nRT
V

dnRT
c nR (3.14)
p
° dT
n = 1

c
f-\ _ n
(3.14a)
p

t i o>

IIJ9 i? = 8.314 kJ/ (kmol. K) lI«fnifnfMfl'3tnnaiU0^un«f (universal gas constant)

3.2.3

(Second Law of Thermodynamics)

(1) (entropy) (s)

(irreversibiiity) WfU

dq
—- (3.15)
T

ndq
(3.16)
12 J

(isolated system, rfw = rfg = 0)

trm* « iiiisj

u-Ts

(Helmholtz free energy)

(3.17)

/(Gibbs free energy)

/ = h-Ts = a + P (3.18)
r

f-f = RT\nri (3.19)

(p Sfhfufl) 1#

dT
dT (3.19a)
T _

3.2.4

(Thermodynamic of Nonreacting Gaseous Mixtures)

(Gibbs-Dalton law) «1M John Dalton (1802) iftflUTIimunfr W «1 f0.

flOUnffSuVIHtTJJO^QanW UasWOinlutl 1875 J. Willard Gibbs

John Dalton ll^
A eb tf
(n) Yim<u03fi

moWil5jJini

(3.20)
j=\

Pi (3.20a)

1119

n RT
j
n _
(3.21)

SountT9^m]fS!n0iJuasy=i4,5fc, / iras ».•

trwm? (3.21)
 = XjP (3.21a)

(3.22)
n/V

ant

(3.22a)

mjWU

'7J"7 Pi (3.23)
nM M CM CMRT PM P

(3.23a)

nAMA nBMB ncMc (3.23b)

nM nM nM nM

M uas Af

X.M. (3.23c)
A A a a C C It

ttJJfn? (3.23)
 (3.24)
'p,V

(3.25)

(3.25a)

(3.26)

I1?, (3.27)

(3.28)

13J9

A~1B ~ ~*i (3.29)

=vA=vB= -vt (3.30)

P = (3.31)

(Combustion Stoichiometry)

D i
 n?rw
V

YuflufNmJ?snoiro0*iSeiyifi*iJu u&u c, H, N,
o ims s

3.1

h ) 40 (c h )
8
60

V I

C3H8 +5O2 -> 3CO2 +4H2O Tf?O 0.4C3Hg 1.2CO2 + 1.6H2O

C4Hl0 +6.5O2 -> 4CO2 +5H2O Vlfo 0.6C4H,0 +3.9O2

o.4C,H
3.6CO2+4.6H2O

ainifr

0 4C H
0*6cV +5-9(°
c H
J.6 9.2

C H +5.9O2 +22.18N2 3.6CO

i luti eimtf 28.084 Ijja

0.052kg =0.810kg =0.862 kg
 kg o.sio kg

0.862 kg
H
H = (3.6x12+9.2)=52.4
= 15.58

3.2

c - 83 h - 17

4<4 o

1 kg

830
= 69.16 lim
12

170
3h 9ei = 170 Tl/fl (9SPI93J)
1

(empirical formula) 1 kg6 f0 C 69.16 H 170

<» a a
1 kg

15.32 kgOimff
l kg itoiyj^j
16.32 kg Wo
531.50 mole Oimff

69.16CO

1 kg

+ 3.76 «+--- ]+- N.

(3.32)
4 2 ) 2
w

T1JJ , o,
2

mole c, h, o, n nas; s fiii)wo^niJ«ncijlu 1 kg

3.3.1

(fl) (stoichiometric mixture)

(3.33)

WU fl5fU'U93UntTnf9m!nWff}J5! ch 40 lias c h 60
3 8 4 10

3.1

100X0-052
= 6.1
(0.052 + 0.810)

c = 83 H = n

3.2

= 6.1
(1 + 15.32)

(3.34)
«=!<» 3>

3.1

0.810
(A/F) = = 15.6
•"" 0.052

3.2

15.32
(A/F)) = = 15.32
nnoo
 (fl) jn (equivalence ratio) O

8«rithumj^tlfltrB<ilKfof!B (fuel equivalence ratio)

y fad /y Air TlflKi/Tl

— = 7 — (3.35)

uns r|
equivalence

ratio) <E> oxi

°oxi = (3.36)
fuel

< 1 <*>oxi > 1 (fuel-lean mixture)

> 1 <Doxi < 1 fuel-rich mixture)

ft
O

(percent theoretical air)

(air ratio)

100
= 100Ooxi (3.37)

~0-8
100

(percent excess air)

100
 100
- 100 (3.38)

fuel

iooO . - ioo
0X1

3.3

C = 83.7 llJ95m!fl H = 16.3

hJq&Suw (tawna) Ol&intrco =11.8

o = 3.7
2
N = 84.5 nJowuef (T«eiil5xnw?)
2
(a/f)
nneu

<^<4 o

1 kg UU CHONS-

«CO
4 2

n W
3.76| m + - N.
4 2

837
m = = 69.75
12

163
v = = 163
1

w = x = y = 0
 uij chons-

1 kg
( 163 ?\ 163
C69,sH,63+ 69.75 + — ](O2+3.76nJ 69.75CO2+ H2O
V 4 2

163
3.76 69.75 +

(69.75 + 163/4)(32 + 3.76X28)

(A/F)
rrnou
1000

(A/F) = 15.17 P1OU

(F/A) = 0.0659
IWBU

iJ9<ifnfii9i4 c

1 Um 3J N 9£l 0.845 Ulfl = 0.845x28 =

23.66 g N276

23.66X100

76.7

= 30.85 g

l Inn S co. = 0.118 Tim

= 0.118X12

= 1.416 g

1.416X100

83.7

= 1.692 g
 30.85

'" 1.692
= 18.2

. = 0.0549

0.0549
O =
0.0659

= 0.833 tneu

o uas; H l liimwgSgunaiiliJvninmltamSsYumlvm

tl 1 lufl S N2 9g 23.66 g
o

O A Zj.OO

76.9

7.187 g

o CO2 U9S O2 (tTQVIli

0.118X32 + 0.037X32

=
4.69 g

O H 7.187-4.69

= 2.227g/l limimfftJ

H2o

H2+-O2 -> H2O

2

= —x2.227
16

= 0.2784 g
 100
X 0.2784
16.3

= 1.708 g

30.85
(A/F). = = 18.1
1.708

o.i

(F/A). =0.0554
054

0.0554
= 0.841

100

100

0.833

= 120.05%

<t d 100
= ioo

= 120.05-100

= 20.05% P101I
3.4 mQlTumflfTPli (Thermochemistry)

hW

3.4.1 leuvfaflinRifluwMiinWwfMffrnJTCnoiJ (Ah°f )

(Standard Enthalpy of Formation of Compounds)

Vlf9^PlfJQlU?9Vim?SJUlllfl9?2;ilU9^molltTmXJJ1?115TU (^CUVtfjS 25°C (Vlf9 298 K) UfiS

V V

inmms;via^ilafi?tJn^<uft?i fniJjf9T4<ui4iitJfnii9vivitiil3Ji?i?5iii

(standard enthalpy of formation of compound) UTIUfhemflJfini-Jof

i° («Qvi9ej 298 nuiMnvmnnsgwHflSjJiem™
vmnnsgwHflSjJiem™ 298
29 K utiaftiut) ° vtinoMttnn
298 *
l unoiniff) umhtuiliifmijftm w
£S

Ah°,

vi inn
^298

1 K f*fl I
C(s)+-O,(g) ->CO(g) Ah°f =-26.42 ■——— (3.39) v
v o 2 y298 moleofCO

1 . . 1 , . o kcal
-H,(g)+-I,(s)->HI(g) A/», = + 6.00 (3.40)
2 2 /298 mole of HI

n. (mm n.i)
3.4.2 (&h°r
298

(Standard Enthalpy of Reaction)

298

AH
298

(products, P)

(reactants, /?)

AH
298

ttumi (3.41)

298 y298

(P) (i?)

3.4

AH CH,nii9imfr
298 4

CH4 + 2O2 + 5.46N2 CO2+2H2O + 5.46N2 (3.42)

m
94.05 kcal/mole

(AA°, )„ 57.80 kcal/mole

^298
298 2

17.89 kcal/mole

(Ah°f7298 )ou 0 kcal/mole

(A/? , )w r x 0 kcal/mole
>298 N2(b)
A4 o

(3.41)
AH°R = {lx (-94.05)+ 2 x (-57.80)+ (5.46 x 0) } -{lx (-17.89)+ 2x0 + (5.46 x 0)}

= -191.75 kcal PI0U

3.4.3 I9urnnfoim§iwnia<imtim*bii4 (aa° )

298

(Standard Enthalpy of Combustion)

a* I I 9/ til 9/

tof

kcal „ , ,
Ahl = -191.75
298 mole of CH4
n. (pnn^ n.2)

3.4.4 f)|]m9iIwif)Sn0c1 (Thermochemical Laws)

(n) figam'tflO-^niJTitf (Lavosier-Laplace Law)

Jlllufilfl (enthalpy ofdecomposition) Ah°, Srfimimil©T4vi'nill<!8fn?riow:<3

d298
v ■

(enthalpy of formation) AA° <!J9<ltnilJ5S;fl91IS11fl51?3md^4'UU?!iSlflf9^Mll1fJ^?<in^<U13J

! =-AA° (3.43)
tf298 y

C(s) + -O (g) ^CO(g) Ah°, =-26.42 kcal/mole of CO (3.44)

2
 CO(g) C(s)H—0,(g) Ah° = 26.42 kcal/mole ofCO (3.44a)
298

(«U) ess' law ofsummation) naill1l9Uifallff

*x Jt A a/ d t A

^298 ^ 298
f vife
^298 298

3.5

Ah co (3.45)
298

C(s)+-O2(g) CO(g) kcal (3.45)

2 298

C(s) + O2(g) CO,(g) Ah°f =-93.91 kcal (3.45a)

2 y298

i«ra co(g)+-o2(g) CO (g) AH° = -67.62 kcal (3.45b)

(3.45b) W

+ 02(g)-C0(g) O2(g) CO2(g)- 93.91 kcal-CO2(g) +67.62 kcal (3.45c)

2

C(s)+-O2(g)-> CO(g) Ah°f =-26.29 kcal/mole of CO fl8U

 3.6

AH (3.46)
'298

C,H, AH° (3.46)

298

C2H4(g) + 3O2(g) -»2CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) AA° =-337.3 kcal/mole of C H (3.46a)

298 * *

H2(g) + -O2(g)->H2O(l) Aft° = -68.3 kcal /mole of HO (3.46b)

C2H6+-O2(g)-» 2CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) Ah°c =-368.4 kcal /mole ofCH

H (3.46c)

4C| o

ism

(3.46a) + ffilfm (3.46b) - tftlfm (3.46c) Ifl

C2H4(g)+H2(g)-> C2H6(g) AH°R =-37.2 kcal

298

3.5

^298
f

(Ah (AH°D
298
98
(l)
298

H,(g) + -O (g) -+ H.O(l) Ah°f f =-68.32 kcal (3.47)

2 2298
98

(1) iflunntr (g)

H2O(l) -> H2O(g) = 10.52 kcal (3.48)

v •

-O2(g) H2O(g) =-57.80 kcal (3.47a)

en?u n. l lumfiwinn n. utWHfh A/i° vi (s) «u94m?n (l) imz untf (g)
7298

3.6 (Chemical Equilibrium)

o/ a*

f v

og'unm

(law of mass action)

(k)

aA + bB cC + dD (3.49)

= kf caA CB

= kb ccc cD
mole
 (3.50)

ccd
(3.51)
acb

kf
— = k

c (3.52)

<* II «d at

tTUfn? (3.52) l5«n9n901<mnq?ry^mf)U<U9^fmriJ?nimsQin (Gulberg and Waage's law of

chemical equilibrium)

(3.53)
RT

BCD

K,
pc r»

c+d a+ft

rtJ Pp
LAB J

"c"d
(3.54)

A *B

pp

k = c Db (3.55)
 An (3.56)

(3.57)

0/3/ <=k ev a"

KC = (3.58)

HI (3.59)

Kc =

k 17 n. n.3)

3.7

1,300 K fmumj 1 u?f cnmfr

log iC = -0.3307 Yl 1,300 K

°io P

ClF3(g) (3.60)

stage of completion) i9u X-

llflSl1onQifi'ii extent of reaction method

-Cl2(g) + -F2(g) -Cl2(g) + -F2(g) +x[dF,(g)] (3.61)

2 2 L2
UJ9 X = o

X = l

0 < A. < 1

,f cif

i
ni

(\-X)l2 (l-3L)/2(2-X) (l-l)P/2(2-l)

3(l-X)/2 3(l-X)/2(2-X) 3(l-X) P/2(2-X)

C1F3 X X/(2-X) \P/(2-X)

I» =(2-X)

(3.60) iissj ttum? (3.55) W

1/2 3/2
(3.62)
p p
PI F
U2 h2

K
P [(1 - X)P 12(2 - X)f2 [3(1 -

. 4 X(2-X)
K (3.63)

: = -0.3307 mxiuK = 0.467 p =

a: iias; p (3.63)
 4 X(2-X)
0.467 =

0.467 X33/2 X(2-X)

X(2-X) X(2-X) 2X-X

0.6067
(l-X)2 (\-2X + X:
0.6067(l -2X + X2) = 2X-X2
0.6067-1.21X+ 0.6067X.2 = 2X~X2

1.6067X2-3.21A,+ 0.6067 = 0 (3.64)

b + V b2 — 4ac
(3.65)
2a

-(4X1.6067X0.6067)
2X1.6067
3.21 + 2.53
= +
2X1.6067

0.211, 3.99

• 4 ■
fn 1 = 3.99 °tf<i3Jififni 1

V 0/

= 0.211

1-0.211
Jf = 0.2205 « 0.221 P10U
U 2(2-0.211)

= 0.6615 « 0.661 P10U

2(2-0.211)
0.211
= 0.1179 « 0.118 P10U

2-0.211

d 1
x(
 I I a/

3.6.1

(n)

*nntnjm?ni8* VarCt Hoff k

.66)

AH,
inK + constant (3.66)
RT

S9mfniJjfmi<lJtmJ|)nfen (heat of reaction) flSlvmil InK \/t

uuumi^'u&uitTfl'jlusiJfi 3.1 lflcjufiifmuaiflvufis - ah ir

In Ko

-- AH IR
R

\JT K

\/T

Oil)
I*S

lua
3.7

(Adiabatic Flame Temperature)

R (reactants) -► tnwmritoW P (products) + Yrawu (energy)

(3.67)

111 9

nJ Ahfj (3.68)
J=*

uns

(sensible enthalpy rise) WM

/=/> /=/.
(3-69)

(3.68) uns (3.69) tMlutram? (3.67)

 (3.70)

S«,AA/- (3.70a)
./=*

Tile (3.70b)
'298

298

P = l iJf?cnmffuas r= 298K) 1'

98

2' 3.2 3.3 if^

298

Tf (Hess' law

interpretation of 7\.)

3.2 (adiabaticity) lu
 T=zTf
P — \ atm

i
AH°

T
P = latm

298i=p

3.3 ess' law)

7

(3.70b)

Tf
a1 A

(3.70b) T

(«) mmntrajm? (3.70b)

(iteration technique)

(l)

(2) ^TUQ9iTnfniaj?9i4v1iJa?iiJ?i9oioiniJgn?tn«i3jfni3Ji8u!)?^ (A//)

rf

(3)

(4) Tf

VI 3.4
 T (fhtntu)

jllfi 3.4 (iteration technique)

u'
f

(D g^miijSn(nonadiabatic) ^3mi
^3 ui5ejifn

(work)

(2)

(3) (diluents)

[p

n. n.2)

3.8

H2O(g) (3.71)
 v d

H,0 lias oh (dissociation)

extent 3.7 iStJUtTJJfn? (3.71) ln3J1

(3.72)

H2(g) + -O2(g) (3.72)

2

/ AT = n /Z«

2(1 ~X)
(i-X) 2(l-A.W(3-A,)
(3-X)

(l-A.)
o2 (1—X)/2 (1 A.)P/(3 X)
(3-W

2X
H2O 2Xi>/(3 A.)
(3~X)

■ \+X
2 J
3
-(\-X)+X
2

3 3

2 2

2 2
 = (3-X)/2 (3.73)

h2o 2XP/(3-X)

P» Pn 2(1 - - X.)P /(3 -

= flfi

0 —

f +lAh
/O2298

-<! Aft

i=P 298
 1 <
dT = -Ah
rH2 rHi0 H2298
298

(\-X)Ah, + Ah, +XAhr

yH,298 /, yO,298 JH. 0298

+ XC. = ~XAhr (3.75)

r«2° 298
298

trufin (3.74) uasmifm

(3.75)

(1) QlUfKIW (trial and error method) 3.5

(2) TSfl^ivJ (graphical method) IflOl?tJl4nnv)utTfl<lflQ13JmJWUB12;<K'ii>3

mJWUKii T lias >.
(3.74) imstTWfm (3.75" " " " * Tf
~ m^nsvifii A,eq iSejimjT^frQotTSjmilii Tf
3.6
 '/

rf m cp

(3.75)

O-X)fc dT
K rfr = -X,AA,
•/H,0 298
(3.75a)
2 ~2 "2'
298 *" 298 298

\cpdT (3.76)
298

M9C. 298KQ<l7y4q^ " ,4

3.7
 MM

r!3.7 C tOin9fUlHf]3J11Q>3 298

t*" (3.77)

101 (3.75a

A.
(i-x)c \ (3.75a')
-298J

Tf deuvti cp imX
Yl 3.5 ims 3.6

6.0x10?

- 5.5 C02

I 5.0
6>

4.5

4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5l_
400 800 TfflO" 1600 2000 2400
Temperature T, K

3.8 298 k CO.HO, Air UUS N

2' 2 2
 3.8 YiHimm o
<f a aAa a. i q <a
o

Tf

<a d i

3.9

3.9

cy

3.8 (Dissociation of Gases)

i 2H (3.78)

(i Twa) (2 ijJfl)

n. emu n. 2)

of dissociation)
 f (degree of completion)

im

tt9iin

Pi

p
ufftr 1 lun

2H = 2

wfo
H, —> (\-X)K2+X2K

(1-A,) lufl 2X laja PA, mole

= (l-X) + $X Inn

P-1

=o //32 = p A, = o
iir\ 2

2H

mvmali? p
extent of reaction

(3.79)

(l Turnqa unnni'MI p 9S89U)

Kp ,P ims p flmmavnfh

3.9 ITflJ

^9 nginejinum9iliilfix4i2nifu9>3un?f^ljJinpnJgn?tn (nonreacting gases)

noiJYiiii4^

(Gibbs-Dalton Law) ^^
lf (reacting mixtures)

(bond)

25 °c
 vrii-3CJtfl\4 kcal
W9nsnnfi ngfqritfowcu nfiol

3.10

m q/m

q/m

Ah OIN
298

&h °

qin
'298

(N/I?) R

lf~n)
(NtLlf~n)ft
M
 n

P F/L2

QIM
q

R QI{NT)

s QKMT)

T T

u QIM

V I)

u l)lM

W FL

w FL/M

;vMonfraiaQiniimftiiMiija l/N

P MIU

WTH8I1

mum
b
c

eq trims

f ni9

fuel

J09U Ttf9 iintretaa

oxi
p

l fniutm

Q
t nm

Gary L. Borman, and Kenneth W. Ragland. Combustion Engineering. Chap. 3,

WCB/McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1998.

Glassman, I. Combustion. 3rd Ed., Chap. 1, Academic Press, Inc., 1996.

Kanury, A.M. Introduction to Combustion Phenomena. Appendixes A, B and C, Gordon

& Breach, New York, 1975.

Lewis, B., and von Elbe, G. Combustion, Flame and Explosion of Gases. Appendix C,

Academic Press, Inc. (London) Ltd., 1987.

Strehlow, R. A. Combustion Fundamentals. Chap. 2, McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1985.

Turns, S.R. An Introduction to Combustion : Concepts and Applications. Chap. 2,

McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1996.

nff tvoiwiiwaznmfinfaij fftmj<uivifi1ulfio<w52;fl9umpii^i4i|1,2529.

4.1

(n) viu

3 v
4 let
9iiJi

(n)
i v

^10 (simple rate equation) TJQ^fmiflfllJgn?CJiT?jeJ5'33J (over-all reaction)

'il «ijj«u9 (fi)

 d A o «/ 1 «4

(finite rate)

<u kf\&

tn?wS«nfu«iff c utistn?

+ > c +

(law of mass action)

r Yintn r fan fit)

_ dcc _
r —

dt dt dt dt

=ny /

dnA/V _ dnB/V _
r —• — ~~
(4.1)
dt dt dt dt

1 (constant volume reaction) V kfttJfill (4.1) ffUJIIfl

(isothermal reaction) (lu

B»nnni5if?flaJSn5Biwitn t Ifi
 M3&M

n = P(v/RT)

v iws r

4.2

(thermochemistry)

Sia9wnj9^^
<i d 1
WSISJUflT

(n)

fniuS
(proper orientation) <H?91l<Uni!fmiJfl<Un5J
1l< (total pressure)

4.3

(Molecularity and Order of Reaction)

1

cS
 ufrfiVl^

$1*9 rf

(n) 2o5

n2o5->n2o4+-o2

(unimoiecuiar) ivmsfl n2os

(first order)

dt

(rateconstant) SvrVIQCJifl%I I/second

(u) (Hi)

2HI->H2+I2

(bimolecular)

hi (second

order) rwii hi

^ hi hi

dC 2

—= k r

dt
UJ0 k2 cmVmole/second

(n) fmtrfntuniifu m laimj laogn 1«ka (no J miiJin mnii ujiami

(bimoiecuiar) HflSJlllvilJgn5Cn9W?llJtr9«3 (second order)

2NO2~>2NO + O

h5 )3 n)

(bimoiecuiar)

(second order)

fttrumi

H5)3N + C2H5Br->(C2H5)4NBr

_JCC2H5Br =

((C2H5

(C2H5Br) Umfl ?l05'33J (over-all reaction)

(d) (water-gas)

(bimoiecuiar) ll9 ?ai8TJ«TJtro^ (second order)

gn?ai8« CO, lifts H,

co2+h2->co +

'CO 2 _
 (trimolecular) UllSllll4iJ§nSaim4mJtmi (third order) (NO)

2
=k C C
dt

z^0f!ifi>3ft«u0>3m?in?iilgn?en (mjmjtnu) SniiioiS'u (mote/cm3)

jqk^ 3) 2/second
2

(v) iJgnltnf2;wQi<if\ijiJ0i4JJ0vi0nW (co) ims;90nSiDt4fll

eniviinuttlJJ (trimolecular) uasmfluiJgnfaiQutflJfnjJ (third order)
co

2->2CO2

dC CO _
C

dt

(third body) l8<uM'3fJ^<i0TOl3t40SJ?l0}J<U0400n(SliOli "0" Vif0luifiqt11J0^ 09n€lflV! "02"

(trimolecular)

(third order) WilJfJlim?

0 + 0 + M -> 02+M*

dt

M ener gized) lu
 V V •

(ch cho)

(CH4) u?isjfn|tii9U3J9W9nW(co) 3/2

3 3 3
-CH3OH-»-CH4 H—CO
2 2 2

^C
=k Cm
3/2 CHjCHO
dt

1.7 04 2.2

^uf^

^mv!^^^^

lJgn?fn!)lflllU4Oen-l«llIUfro«llJlJfl!) liUU^lCJ (simple) (complex)

(one step)

(reversible reactions)

Wililli (consecutive reactions)

4.4

specific reaction rate constant)

l?i «i fniJtruni? (4.2)

v v (4.2)

99w^u<u9^iJgnfait)9eji^ejiinutn<3fe)9fj (species) i \?\ «i

wo v/^99w^ (over-all

reaction) n = v^ +vfi +vc +

V

(4.2)

dc
A _
it/I C"4 (4.3)

Jt njunu

(specific reaction rate constant)

(4.3) l&rjjfm (4.4)

(4.4)

CA =

=c;;+1/(-»+!> (4.4) wJtHjfalmi'Mf

 (4.5)

_1 n
VI 4.1

^AO k n (« — 1)

(4.5)

—cAOn a<ilwfrjjm5 (4.5) (4.6)

""1 -
l/2.n
(4.6)

d i <a
(4.5)"os «=i Sjj c.liinuntn

dn

CAO lilCA0 knt

dn
 <H or V |A«« I a/ t$ HI'
n = l vii9 9i4«ii4ii0<i<Llnn?enmnnu<H\4>3 lw

\nCA ~ CA = (4.7)

iiJ tfiviiuiljjnltn

4.1

4.1 Hani?9<ufiiniPitT3Jni?8?i?ini?in?iiJgn?fJi9tln4^tivi^Qnif|3fi<i<n

In 2

A:.

=
r c

J= J 1J
3 C

.A
kC" 4.4- IT
n I n-1

(n)

l/c A , i/c2,
A

onnnvl l/c^
c innpfotivrm) 2A:3
(«u) U91

AO

inmm
AO

(2B'
B~' — n

4.5 iJgniaiaO'Wnmjl^ (Reversible Reactions)

(formation) itflSfmfflntJ (depletion) (species)

if V

nftn^tigai ndn^9tnuiiiciin«SuWin<ilil<ui'3M<ui (forwards)

(backwards)

vinm (tni 8fli kfcA

nfotn? ^ riowisnn
k6 cfl = kft(c<<O -c)iJqc=c
-4 fi ^O
- cy(
 dC
-= (4.8)
dt

=0
dt

(4.9)
k=k,CA
b f
/(Cjn-CJAeq
Aeq I v A0

(4.9) a^lutrum? (4.8) 1#

\
c-cA
A _ A Aeq
=k C
dt
\CA0 CAeqJ

c * c fi /=

(4.10)

r \ r

In (4.10)
c_-i
\ AO Aeq J

(4J0) c.A mciununtn t

tnnilu (4.9) n

Z:ftl^ij'tJnT13J10fl'311J'iitt13J1?tlVT1filf1<l^'3(ll9<ltT3J^lflS (chemical equilibrium

cohstant) K

4.6 (Chain Reactions)

(simple reaction) 1JVI

nimn

(multi-step)
 i

enn9ilgnitJian lctfens)mt4Qitin«59i4Qtr<52; (free electron)

(free radical) nlfl Yltfimymi CH3,C2Hs UaS

a/ <=!
V1UV1

V .|

(rate equation) <u94ilgn?entyf snnmin

(over-all "H59 global reaction)

€UN#ij#eiiJjinflij8BumjnjfNi]gn

(n) CH O

CH4 + 2O2 —> CO2 + 2H2O

 CH4+OH

CH4+O —> CH3+OH

CH3+O2 H

H2CO + OH HCO + H2O

HCO + OH -> CO + H2O

CO + OH —> CO2+H

OH + O

+ H2O

O+O+M -> O2+M*

20H + M

CH< CO

10 dgnfcntigowfginflilfjnfui 10
i tk o/

o,h,oh uas m*

CH3, H2CO, hco ims co

(ii) il2niaiis H ci ci

ejri9T4^

ci 2C1

+
ci2^
+
H2->HC1 +
 Qn9iJ gnfm^nWfl99S093j0fns H uas ci

H+H —> H2

Cl + Cl -> Cl2

H + Cl -> HC1

H ubs ci

(D

m*

grfil (2)
^^ (l) vimminiUh uas (3)
(inhibiting agent) ^illlfi

(fl) llgnfU1flH8rai8«QD8<I1W?l'WU (propane decomposition)

C3H8->CH3+C2H5

I
CH3+C2H4

->CH 4 j

I
CH.
 ch3 mis c3h7

CH c3h7

ch3+c3h7->c4h10

(ch4 ) unmtmSii (c2h4 ) uasumr

(acetaldehyde decomposition)

CH3CHO->CH3+CHO

+CH3CO

i
CO + CH.

CH3CHO—>

CH3 uas CH3co

CH

H2 u?is; Br2 H2 lias i2

HBr

(4.11)

kC
 k ims; m

iljjn5enmutrcjfm (4.11) rifa

Chain initiation (i) Br2 2Br

Chain propagation (ii) Br + H2 HBr + H

Chain propagation (hi) H + Br2 HBr + Br

Chain inhibition (iv) H + HBr H2+Br

Chain inhibition (v) Br + HBr Br2 4- H

Chain breaking (vi) 2Br — Br2

Chain breaking (vii) 2H H2

(i)

(H) lias tfuemufi (in) n9fni<iiaiejw'3<Hf9iSu^u9<i<Llgn?tngnlcii

h imaj

(iv H
■ 1 it

HBr HBr«sj<nivn3fifii^^Qoii6f<i (inhibitor) H

ii)

(iv) (iv)

Br2 (vi)

(v)

1490JJ1f|

(vi) (iv)

(vii) (v)
 H, UfiS Br, fl9(U'Ufl9Uv1 (i) (ii)
P a V f P

(iii) mitfv! HJ9tfufl9<uv1 (i) fl (ii) ims (Hi)

V

(Hi)
«S

vi (iv

h
f t

(iv) Tfiovhiil H2imsBr2tniniQi5eJwW1fitJ<S!n?Qniiiiwis(fl'ij?i9uv1 (u)

ims (Hi) i (i) ims(

->HBr
+
Br2-»HBr

2 uas Br2

(4.12)

dC HBr
(4.12)

Briias H

siui!

dC
=0=

—0 —
 y

ncmnvnfii c u as; c Ipf^geii* U9>in mnfiilgnieii

V
H Br *
j^iJgnfengnWiuis;95jlT4^il<U9^fni Hl(U3J(lf<U(U9«3 H, Br2 lias HBr t)1fl

uui4i c ims c vil ^liliiviijfiil'utnj mi (4.12) idhfaij iltTjjmiivijJilfftjmi (4.13)

H Br

k |v kxn m Qi H2 Br2
dCHRr
VI
(4.13)
dt
*,„ ( cHBr

Jt.iv CRBr2

d i
(4.11) ftfil&KTfl'

4.7 nii'isiSfl (Explosions

(Branching Chain Reactions)

4.2

(n)
dt i M d
P sisufii^ivn lin«m

(•u)

7; iras r3
 uaso
2 2

fap<p lii

pk<p<p
b c

P>P\

m9^flinfni3Ji'9i4 (thermal explosion) uas

■

(branching chain reaction) gtii^l^flfmj

 9«iini5infiiJ5n!fJi<iw^wniU9,tuvigfln(osi3<i^^inn(iit4

a \a. A o <H 3f a» V a/cfto/i I aaa <f I <=> ioao * Itfl V

A v

(simple chain reaction

i8ilgn
a

(thermal reaction) 1
mttliflftl5im?infllJgn5engnW (chain reaction)

r «-3fioiJgn?tngnWis;ij^iQo cc
 CC+R

CC+R

CC + R
CC+R
CC + R

+ CC+R

CC+R

cc

H
os d
H20 H
 H+o2emjin9n 3 3 mi unsroin 3 no

j/os

M+N-\—

C C C C ••• — Jr C
I ABC ii R A B C vrir/"BKfc ktr

(4.14)

(n—i)kacAcgcc = itf

=l
4.8

4.8.1

UJ9 P fl

= (nA/v)RT =

PA — X P

fl9mtfalJ<Uj?lcU9>Nlfm A
V V 11)1

C = X
A A

RT

(p/rt)

= kxXAP/RT
dt
 dC

dt

<y I /=t<^£x o/ ay q 1/14/

tfwnjiJgfrcjneufro m la «i la

dt

In - I{RT)'

dCA . -
ln| I flU \nP
dt

m 4.3

In (-dC,/dt) = m In P + Ink
A m

inP
4.8.2

ndiifSt)
\u
uibNnHij^^
(collision frequency)

%t]^tnw (third body) muwin'uu

4.9

(rate constant) uJSeruuiltn

$/ I £» *a*a £»

(specific reaction rate constant) 4.1

(Arrhenius)

vi 4.4
ims \/T

4.5 ka uas T

n A
(4.15)
dt

HJ9 4.5 mw

= A e ~E'RT (4.16)
¥

(4. enius' law of reaction

rate constant) A (frequency factor) (wIq pre-exponential factor)

im«llgn?en (collision theory of reaction rate)
RT
A- (4.17)

IW9 A m)miJfn<hfnlfl? (Avogadro's number) h n© Planck's quantum constant UfiSJ As* ^9

Oa

lriT^ (entropy of activation) 1SWQ13ffniQSfmm#9tJmJijW (activated

V

complex state) (reactant state) E

(activation ener 40,000 cal/mole h

(special H59 energetic molecules)

illwitu qxp(-e/rT)

E/R

utT^^
(frequency factor)

-exponential factor) iT*Ul9>3

<£"

nviuim

4.4

i/r°K

4.5
 o ■

4.6

(4.15) 4.6

^^ t nenu

(4.15)

• I V
 r=o cfa a

4.10 frill

jjjfc ^* M M | | M ^"fc #k M w i

(thermal reaction)

chain reaction) ^

if

I l«» CV *=>

4.11

(N/LYn/t

l/N

NIL3

Q/N

k
 n N

P F/L2

R QKNT)

r M/(L3t)

T T

t nai t

V I)

gnrneei

fiountm

eq

irra

Q
t

T 9tU"Hfj3J
Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., and Lightfoot, E.N. TransportPhenomena. Wiley, 1960.

Daniels, F. and Alberty, R.A. Physical Chemistry. Wiley, 1955.

Glasstone, S. Element ofPhysical Chemistry. Van Nostrand, 1958.

Kanury, A.M. Introduction to Combustion Phenomena. Gordon & Breach,

New York, 1975.

Moore, W.J. Physical Chemistry. Prentice Hall, 1956.

Rodiguin, N.M. and Rodiguina, E.N. Consecutive Chemical Reactions.

Van Nostrand, 1964.

Semenov, N.N. Some Problems ofChemical Kinetics and Reactivity. Vols. 1 and 2,

Pergamon, 1956.

Smith, J.M. Chemical Engineering Kinetics. McGraw-Hill, 1956.

5.1 umn

*a ^ a/ o «/ i

(n)

(Newton's law ofviscosity for momentum transfer)

(D) ngm?W11I9^VJ5l9l^wl'lJfn5dieil9Wfniul9U (Fourier's law ofconduction for heat transfer)

(fl) ngm?U<W?«UQ4vlfl^THflini5tiioT9ViU'3?» (Fick's law ofdiffusion for species transfer)

1/

fiini5t1ifiQi3j?9w

(kinetic theory of gases)

(simple
y

dimensional analysis) \49n^inU9Ylf'Wf11i9<lfl'313j{llUi]'3Wn1«fltii'3^<W9^t<Ull

5.2

(Fundamental Laws of Molecular Transfer)

5.2.1 ngfmW'H14fl<U94ibm4 (Newton's law of viscosity)

-fiduldy ; fd=

4 «a a/

5.1

5.1

ii^ 8

T = —oc

V110

du
T = -ti (5.1)
dy
 jl fl9fllfl'9^'3<U9<ini?Ul]5Wl4l1ejn'31fl'313JM<Uflimu1?lt4l3n (dynamic viscosity)
= pv ijj9 (kinenatic
V ^

viscosity)// ni

du a <t d <H v <H

of shear)
dy

(5.1) utrfi^S^'Bffvn^'ug^fiQiuiff'umgv! t
TU9<i mawyiii'wqwni^iiiilTj lilflnutrum? (5.1) weifnimo^ waui mwou (Newtonian

fluid) etf4iinttn?is;<u9'8mtn?n<u iHfynnjrauuu ruyi-unmjmjcnfmjjwufl //

eflnift9U (—) uailionug^ Ivratnjn1^ mtlW9t4UQ inmCJW (non-Newtonian fluid) (//oc—)

dy dy

5.2.2 ngfn?141fJ111419141ia<l^j1l01 (Fourier's law of heat conduction)

i \
7
7
7
7

Lt
q" oc(Tn-Tfy)/5t = -AT57%; K = pCpa

5.2

5.2 ^

^9 9tuvfn5ii9^uH\4iiwSfii^m9>9«in<ii^QiWf|5iiN'uiJi4?(^n^iiwwa1i>3
 (qn)
(j - TJ 8t SriTu wi

q s
Q
-oc

dT
(5.2)
dy

UJ9 K cal/cm/°C/sec) = pc a

fniumniiiiu (gm/cm3) C (cal/gm/°C) ut\za

(cm2/sec) (5.2)

5.2.3 ick's law of species diffusion)

"Aaa

5.3
 V

5.3

(porous) A viiiwi4?hw fu c
Aai

B rfi

w" oc

dC

iflo
(5.3) utrfuMtvmim

p, Af,/?, niass r^9 fniuwu (universal gas

constant) uas B

(5.3)

RT dy
 Ya =

tms

PMA/RT = pM JM

pDAB dYAM
xir" =

M by

mM a

-i

M =

wa = -

fh —ma)/ma«i

(5.4)

(5.1) S-a (5.4) murnvms

(5.5)

dp
F = -D (5.5)
 5.1

dP
f=—d—
dy

ftfl

T V pu (=

q a

(5.1) m (5.4) unsmi-Mfi 5.1 nu-iiMfii v, a »as z)

5.1 o«nrfiw?sjTi'inriim?im? (diffusivity)

Pr = v/a (5.6a)

UJ9 Pr

Sc = v/d

ma Sc n

Le = a/o = Sc/Pr (5.6c)

rifc) Le R
 m^
5.3

mlA9e^ uw

extrapolation)

vnm ti.

(simple kinetic theory)

<L/

5.3 (Concept of Boundary Layer)

5.4

"00

V f!9

(= u
*

i 5.4
 «„.

5.4

mi

(drag)

(shear force)

(friction coefficient)^ l?ll3J9tnjJ15QVnfniJJ'H<U1<U9>a6tfWU91Jini51

8 mzuz x = /

ojo (5. l uns m^ / 2

HTJl z Sfil

oo
/2)(w
wo

= (5. l.p Uao / 2)(Moo) ~ (6. l.p «« / 2)(«00 / 2)

x=o

V8 (5-8)

mnmjfm (5.8) tnuii i Yiimiwiun'fnjJfii p uas w

 tinmjfm (5.8)1$
1.414
cf « V2 (5.9)
rRe,

Re, -

(exact solution) = 1.327/VRe/

5.4

YI 5.5

V V

naiQ&>wi4QflfliJ9>a#uiJ9iJim
uas 7^

Tw < T^ ww firujfew

2^
£t *4 a/ <=5 1

T vi 5.5 Hunvuin* «i <n K9fi9£i «i

 (thermal boundary layer)
d as d
in
V

^ > <5t inn)

(heat transfer coefficient) (h)

= (Srl)(pu00/2)(St/S)

z x=o

x=

= (Sr\){puo0/2)(St/S)Cp(T(X)+Tw)/2

So Sfii
 8/AT
t

<v v tq V

Sla

uvwfh 8
8^
(5.10)
~8

(5.10) vju-ii ^i a-v (Pr<0

ll?i <5r > 8

(5.10) (5.8)

(5.11)

* — — jf ——— (5.12)
3y W

00

fin — —

q" = ACT^-T^) (5.13)

 h s K/8. (5.14)

(5.15)
8W 3

jn Nu == — ifig / fl9flQ13Jm'3V11^tU«n<yaiS5 (characteristic length) «U9-3UHWl?OU

1 K
(5.15)

Nu,
^Z.3 /Z 0.354 (5.16)
si, va

w (5.16) (exact solution) (5.17)

Nu,= 0.332 ReJ1/2 (5.17)

hi
Nu. = — Mm Nu; =
K

,9-3

5.5
 uflnmwiflnisvnfl^^

5.4fifmmni3

tw

(«flO=o) 5.6

7^
V

(snutrum?p p/rtw)

W1W144 (po0=P/RT(Xi) -a'-*~*

X

5.6

to y

^^(=0)

5.3 ims 5.4

 w

M«=0

5.7

5.6 5.7

=o ^ jc= uJ2){8'\) IU9 um/2

x=i 14 x — l

(entrainment)
■

u(/#l) WO (/'I) (area of entrainment) 1133 ift

2/ (5.18)

= p-(S'l)
2
 8/2

(5.19)
f.

4ai

r.2
(5.20)

um tins

- p) ijjq fl

jc=/
2
l

du 4 4 4 £1

IJJ9 .4 f)O WWVI

um/2

{l'\)fl(u
 (5.21)

hu innmjfm (5.20) ti^lvi (5.21) la

Nl/4

1/4
8/* = 1.681 (a/v) (5.22)

Vtff)

-«1.681 Pr"1MGr/1/4 (5.22a)

dt /X «9 0/ 1
Gr,

(5.22 a) ti^lvitrum? (5.20)1$

1/2
(5.20a)

(5.22 a) twluBrum? (5.

1/4
(5.18a)

fllfl A s K/S

A/ /
Nu; = —= -«0.595PrI/4 Gr//4 (5.23)
K °
 (5.24)

Nu, = O.555PrlM Gr//4 (5.24)

5.2

ni?i4Vi 5.2

0.332Re"!Pr"J
Nu =
3/4

su Jt/n <3.10s
'"7.
2. i m x = o
0
Nux = 0.332 Re l/2Pr1/J
Ffu = 0.664 Re 1/2Pr"3

XXXXXXXXXXXX" Tw

3.

Nu = 0.037 Re 4/5Prl/3

XXXXXXXXXXXX Tw

4.

•J Nu =0.57Rel/2Pr2/5

Res ux/n

5.

Nu =0.93ReI/2Pr2/5

6.

Resu d/n NU(/ =0.37 Re06

17<Re<7-104

7. m&mfo 6 =2 + 0.6Rel/2PrI/J
 5.2

su d/n
00

1< Re < 4 Nurf =0.891 Re"3

4 < Re < 40 = 0.821 Re0 38S
40<Re< 4,000 = 0.615 Re0466
4,000 < Re < 40,000 = 0.174 Re0618
40,000 < Re < 250,000 = 0.024 Re0805

9. 8 Nurf = 0.35+0.47 Re1/2Pr03

Gr s gx'$AT/v2 Nu =0.59(GrPr)!

104<GrPr<109

11. io
Nu =0.13(GrPr)l/J

12. io uas 11 11 im

Gr = cos a

13.
1/4
Nu, =0.54(GrPr)

10s<GrPr<2«107

14. m&mfo 13 ufi Nu, =0.14(GrPr)"3

2.107<GrPr<3.101

15. Nu, =0.27(GrPr)1/4

I/XXXXXXXXXXXXXX\

Gr s g/3

3«105<GrPr<3«10'

16. Nu . =0.525(GrPr)"4

10J<GrPr< IO9
 5.2

17. = 2 + 0.6Grl/4Pr1/3

Gr"4Prl/3
r"4Prl/3 < 200

18. mm1 Nu .=0.098(GrPr)0M5

3«108<GrPr<5^10'

.XXXXXXXXXXXX, NuA=l

20. IMJJBll^B 19 im NuA =0.21(GrPr)1/4

104<Gr< 3.2.10s
NuA =0.075(GrPr)1/3

3.2«105<Gr<107

22. NuA=l

Gr<2.103 -A-

23. muBufo 22 uei Nu. =0.2(GrPr)IM

10J<Gr<2.1«105

24. mUBuf0 23 im NuA =0.071(GrPr)l/3

2.1 -10s<Gr< 1.1 «107

5.6

5.4 qa 5.5 °] nu

iiSfiQi3Ju^n^

ti let
ljj}f

(concentration boundary

layer) W19JJ

(hD) (Nu D)
 K=

pD

jj9 8 m

(tnjm?(5.24))

(Pr = v / a (Sc = v / d) imuu

NuD = 0.332 Sc1/3ReJ/2

D (5.25)

= 0.555 Sc1/4Gr//4 (5.26)

5.7 4 (Turbulence)

molecular diffusion)

m9ift«ui?olvi?i?itf

(eddies).
£.. inhnJSmjlilmjnfn
.'.■ 1^14 fnflfmJJIQU (hot wire anemometer)

Jfl5.8 5.8

nu

(molecular diffusion Vlf9 molecular mixing) l

(eddy mixing) Sfl^QeJ Qti

vy a uas /> onrieliJ) ua

5.8
 5.

du
rT=-pe (5.27)

qT=-pCpet (5.28)

UJ9 f, ^ liaSfo^9 fmil'HWPimiJllJJ'nnUlllimgluQlJili^ (turbulent kinematic viscosity)

imifiQiJjfeuuuumoiSQifjiJPi (turbulent thermal dififiisivity) ufishf
(turbulent species dififiisivity) emmiflll WWII Umfli

v, aims

^^ (Prr

, f, f)

(turbulence) l-HSiSorigu^ "wui^ (scale)

HtTJJ (mixing length)) UfiS fniJJIIJll (intensity)
 V V

(root mean square of the fluctuation velocity)

fliniiq^p?iwni9^l5Jitiq?ifiQimiuv)^9<ili)itiqtiflfiiiviiniJWfif|fu
HJfliftnifllJlflflWJ (mean free path length)
V

rjfi (arithmetic mean speed) fl^iJljlAtimS91ffiUfnulflmCJflfi3fnJ (analogy)

it v

n wfurfmti
wf rf (Ludwig Prandti)
t

vff9 / «l'.du/dy

l m^4g^e<n

E&cy2 (5.30)

4 rf
IW9 c
5.8

(Heat and Mass Transfer with Non-negligible Interfadal Velocities)

5.2

5.8.1

t 1 { II Ir.I I 1 • <4 S'

-7
■W i

it

q" -

5.9

5.9

(porous material)

i«s;Wfiijm«r'«tf?3jm?

s r
 q ~
00

(5.31)

Pe
o/ o/ VI S/

(5.32)

5.8.2

(pv)

t t t t t ♦ ♦

ditilaviinn A
^\
Li
t t f t f t t t t
ipv)

lun s.io

5.10
 A (YA

yaw vN
AW

YAO0

SD

UJ8

Pe =(puS/pD)

5.9 afjjfniawin^ uia lumwmj na^TU uasuiaaQa (Species)

5.4 §4 5.8 wiiyiJimil^ntii'3^ni?'HimTJanetfni?fiiyl9T4 Tuojwwjj

(control volume)

I |A

5.9.1 tmnnsijfniJ*na (ttiofruniifiiiuriomo^)

5.11
 u, v mzw x,yii?&z

a UflS b

x c ims d ngrnm

f /
/

A1//
t
A^

!/ f

f
a •/ b

/
/ e
Az

(0,0,0)

m=pu Ay -Az

(O,AX)

^l dx

(0,0^ (Ax,0)

5.11

SJVl e llfis; f u

x nwmin 5.11

a vi x = o

mo~^ pu
 b Y)*=Ax flQ

dmn

dx

dx

Jl dp dp
= — • Ax • Ay • Az =—
o/ <w Ifl 3>

dp dpu
—H =0 (5.34)
dt dx

3y9 dpu dpv dpw

t H I —- 0 (5.35)
dt dx dy dz

dpu dpv dpw

(5.36)
dx dy dz

9« 5w 9w
—+ —+ — = 0 (5.37)
cbc 5y dz

du
—=o
dx

u Sfiifi<i^liJuiJ?iiJ§cii4iiJ?niiiso2J?iiiiiini4
5.9.2
V i . V

a u«fNnaT3im*B0fuihm©*imflfl8 unnisvnvifn (surface force) (mi

uasfmu&fh (n^ioi9m<JwiuinnuSi) u
(volumetric force m9 body force) (tfTU

odn'taronu m9^Dinfni1nal\4?2;uDfn5iwilv!^SD9Ui(upiviimf<U9i4 VliW

(Ludwig Prandti)

(viscous flow)

(inviscid flow)

5.11

(2)

s duldx<duldy\ (dTJdz at\z dTJdx

dT/dyidY/dz uns dYJdx<dYJdy)

(3)

mi

4-—__ — n

cb: dy

5.11

(Newton's law
of motion) 9tinltanfli3J flifns1<Ha9uWfm2WH
fmtnt

5.11

(pu)'tf(AyAz)

b U94 vi 5.11 S9

d
pu2AyAz + Ax—[purAyAz)
dx

.c

(pu)-v(AxAz)

d I19
5
puvAxAz + Ay—(puvAxAz)
dy
<9
unithiflYmifin?! c fi9

du
—fi—'Ax Az
dy

mr

du d I du I
—fi—AxAz-\rAy— —ft—AxAz
dy dy\ dy )

P Ay Az

d
PAyAz + Ax—(PAyAz)
dx
 d , , d d du dP
—pul-\ puv ft 1 =0
dx dy dy dy dx

du du d du dP
pu \-pv— = —fX (5.38)
dx dy dy dy dx

y nvn

dP
—=0 (5.39)
dy

5.9.3

5.11
V

a f19

dT)
(pwAyAz-CpT) + \ -K— -AyAz

viu kJ/m3s
 dT
(pwAyAz-C T)+\ -K— \-AyAz
dy

dT
+ Ax (pwAyAz'CpT)+\ -K— \-AyAz
dy

c fl9

(pv-AxAz-C T)+\ -K— \AxAz

' dy)

(pvAxAzC T) + \ -K— AxAz

■^
' dy)
d_
(poAxAzC T) + \ —K— AxAz
dy ' dy)

.nt
W'-AH'(AxAyAz)

A
13J dT l dx«dT

dT .in,
{puC TAyAz) + pvC TAxAz —K—AxAz + W.AH AxAyAz
p

= (puCpTAyAz) + Ax—(puC T Ay Az)

dx
dT
pvCTAxAz — K — AxAz
dy
dT
+ Ay— pvC TAxAz —K — AxAz
dy
'"• flfl

a , a a ar ,m
—puC T-\ pvC T K— = W,AH
~L P ~k P * ~S A
ox oy oy oy

dCpT dC T Q dT .,„
+pv—— =—K— + W7AH (5.40)
dx dy dy dy

5.9.4

ttiifn59i|ffitJ3j'3fitJ9tJ (chemical species)

dYA dY. d dYA

—- +pv —- = —pDA —- (5.41)
dx dy dy dy

5.9.5 tmfma^tWl

dp dpu dpv dpw

(5.42)
dt dx dy dz

du du du d du dP
p Ypu \-pv — = —fi (5.43)
dt dx dy dy dy dx

do dP
(5.44)
dt dy
 dCT dCT dCT q dT
E+IL K (5.45)
dt dx dy dy dy

dY dY. dY dY
A (5.46)
dt dx dy dy dy

(unknown) 5 WUl X ttf\Zy m u, U} T, P iit\Z Y

trmx (equation of state) WA

Tt Y was P) iimna

uttiunaj (5.43) (5.45)

(5.46)

= 0) (convective

term) (diffusion term)

(analogous)

<f o* i q o 1/1 | 3/<H etov eto> In SAi S<

luvufHrMinn wm?ui liluniJtyHTVittifity ^ intnnumiiwi mu in

S/i
ufn

(transport properties) fiflS5^9^llJSo<Uflintt3JlT^mTjJlfini1 (molecular properties) iv\i

V

S (eddy properties)
wms

5.10

fmtho
msriioleuma

loviJflinymwtnfl^^

5.11

L2

NIL1

Q/{MTf

Lllt
F

Gt

Lit2
AH
Q
h QI(L2Tt)
K QKLTt)

Le

fmuem L

M M/N

m Mlt

Nu im
p F/L2

Pr

Pe

q"
R

Sc

T 71

u in

W" M/(L2t)

w fniaji^ (ffliuuiriunu z) Lit

x>y,z

£ L2/t
i

M/(Lt)
M
v L2/t

P
M/L*

T F/L2
 D

f
m

oo

Q
t ntn

Benjamin, G. Heat Conduction andMass Diffusion. McGraw-Hill, 1993.

Bird, R.B. Stewart, W.E. and Lightfoot, E.N. Transport Phenomena. Wiley, 1960.

Kanury, A.M. Introduction to Combustion Phenomena. Gordon & Breach, New York, 1975.

Kays, W.M. and Crawford, M.E. Convective Heat and Mass Transfer. McGraw-Hill, 1993.

Schlichting, H. Boundary-Layer Theory. McGraw-Hill, 1979.

6.1

luuvm 3 4 uas 5 mS

nreinum?

6.2

nuiniimiSfllvlfa^

(fl) fl11lWi1>1^gnfniJfju1?10Dt1tjVn^lfjS (chemical kinetics) lill

(ignition) m??Slfifl (explosion) fmftjlyl (extinction) l

(flame quenching) lOWPIU

(u) fn?iwi1vi3jfignfi'3Uf53jl?itJfn5u<w? (diffusion) fmlvm (flow

(mixing) itlunan i^
 (fi)

tin

ilfJJ1CU (quantitative estimation

. l (n) ims (u) i

U) I

(uniformly
distributed) pi^g

6.1 (n)

Vli^lflS (kinetically "H19 rate HS8 reaction "H19 chemically controlled combustion)

inflllflnf01 (reaction rate) Sfiitfoein'ilftwim^Uyii'UeWJlJjfeTJiraSJinfltni (rate of heat and I

species diffusion) &WUTWfll11J?0UUfiSUQaffl^

&ihingm*tufm
|i)vi 6.1 (u (diffusion

diffusionally flow Hf9 physically controlled combustion) fKWlfm

(reaction rate)

(diffusion rate) (rate of

supply) Ut1S€fl51fn?Wfnfy (rate of consumption) UYIunW

J (overall speed of reaction)
Tfla9fltim5tnfldgfnmu#iluvn>d^ 4.1 luuvm 4
ffiMiillJ{jn5w'Ufl80«"l«lU (simple chemical reaction)
viu ilgnfcnififigehwej'ta «i YiSeVinnnm^iiignifniiQinn (infinitely fast)
Y

(chemical

time) fnNiid&8u#Qimum9mTiufi9fl5in^

VT?9 physical time) Sfhivhnil 12/D

1 i v ei o> a/
(nonflow) <H?9l'Vfnnfi19£jm<H9<ilW1 IVIU (residence time) JJfliminu llu

(characteristic length) D fitgmjitasmviiimsim?

(kinetically •§

controlled combustion)

S (mooniT
U) i!ejniJiin|]ni?fl3fl11im1vi&Tu'31^nfl'3llfl3jl?ie)ni5imi (diiSusion controlled combustion) |

amkbhier number) Da

i 6.1 (fi

rn mw7n^iiic
 s> *4rtt
<oinw<u<ii<ifitfi?9^iwilv!3j fF

(6.1)

5.6uvifi 5 ilisnou)

PT

wm = k C exp(-E/RT) (6.2)
1 yf

= A:* F exp(-E/RT) (6.2a)

wb k* = 30 c

uhsj r

(steady state combustion)

x l xi

trumi (6.1)) = oVmrn? wtntyrf9ivi8^ (trum? (6.2a)) (6.3)

EIRT (6.3a)
K\XAe

-EIRT
k, Se
Y = 1+ (6.4)

(6.4a)
ifie Da

Da=k* Sexp (-EIRT)lh (6.5)

-EIRT
YAW
1— (6.6)
,*s -EIRT *s -EIRT
k^oe
1+ 1+

A » *j ^exp (-EIRT) wf9 Da -> o

ttumi (6.6) W

(6.7)

W**k* Sexp(-E/RT) (6.8)

(6.7) MNiof^iiniMfmjjJimmi^^

fa h « k* 8 exp (-E/RT) nf9 Da -» oo

fnntrum? (6.4) uastrum? (6.6) W

(6.9)

(6.10)
D AW
it

(6.10)

Da-»oo

mi

nfoluvn^naunw

nfeiiJai'lvlmaul'u
iS

6.2

(c) BQni5l«i<»oi B (c)

mi Ivlan

ii]fnlvl«s«ii (extinction)

V t) V
 (n) (if)

6.2 auu

6.3 (Ignition)

^fi

Jfl8lT18*

(thermal ignition) will

(2)

Sfl€3JiJ94 ci ut\a H
 HC1 + H

Cl2-»HC1 + Ci

H2-»HC1 + H

CL

Cl Cl

2C1

CH3,C2H5,OH

6.4
it

(iflvifniWfmu?9i4<i^n9<u (bulk heating)

Ut1Sfn?S?l1vlimiJ1J^niU (lli<Ufnil<HfT31ll?9T4m<W1S^1U<H'U<l (local heating) ilf)

(rate of heat generation)

(rate of heat loss)

(pilot flame)
6.5

(Spontaneous Ignition Criterion)

6.5.1 (V =

VI 6.3

rwa// =

.11)

lit dT
aJ ( \
Vq -pCV hS(T-Tn) = 0 (6.11)
1
reaction
* dt > \ heat loss
'
term transient
term
term

a o 9 if t

mm q r unojofioei *i imifmumj p 1 i
p = Pc cri/fcfl/
 (6.11) ihsn9ii) Sn (hs (t-t))

r luisoflmfminfliJgfifai W m

fa p < Pcritical W Vqm<hS(T-T)

en p> ^ > hS(T-T)

fttimoivuJgnioifnii

Ahvw™ > hs(r -tq) (6.12)

6.5.2 (P =

6.5.1 v=

ims /i

-r wall

acts' '=»
7" >(r ) vnm9fuvi/i3j r
woff W/ wair critical o <u
tff

V waircritical
 wall

<4

critical

6.6

(Spontaneous Ignition Delay)

u9^ |

(ignition delay) T I ignition lag "hI9 ignition time m9 induction time)

ii9i^

rq -pCV— = 0 (6.13) I
dt

■ fff ,^5 <y

ower law' fm(6.i4)

(6.14)1
4 n A

20 8* 30 (Arrhenius|
UJ9

exponential 6.15)

-E
(6.15)1
RT
 *S KC31 <S . «9

20fi460 in© knmzk

nmzkn
mole

(6.i4)twliitnjm5 (6.13) ufooufiimw

iH(i5 T maunu

ntn / (6.16)

—i

f \m-\

t
(6.16)

n AQ 0

ilun

per. (6.17)
(m-\)AHk'cnAX

Sfin4€olTj(uaisfif!ifniu!'9\4<u9^fniiNi1iiw at/

(6.18)

lift)

?r0 exp(E/RT0)
(6.19)
E AHk C"
trum? (6.17) uas (6.19) utf?i^Wm<U9(li^mtJij'Jifiifn?iJ?i?iild0Ofniii!'9^i?jj^ ah
kf c" Tnm m
II /1q U

tit.

TUH 6.4

6.4 tit) mo

*» o.i.s'J- 4*-J!.
fafil EIRT

.1
d ex

r=400°C
o

ism

RT
t = pC
E AH k C
n A*
 rt:

E AH k C" exp(~E/RTn)
ft «A l»

Mm + n

Jff
kn C"An = w: - miv<

-E
Aexp

a/ V

=400°c

10.1 10 1 = 0.1, n = 1.65, —- = 15,098 K = -

= 30K
E EIR 15,098

1-0.1-1.65
gmol
10. = 8.6X10
cm

-0.75
gmol
= 8.6X10
cm

-0.75
kgmol
11
= 8.6X10
m3 1O3

-0.75
kgmol
,4 = 4.84X10' Us
m
 15,098 -10
exp = exp = 1.81X10
673 _
o J

-0.75
kgmol
Acxp 4.84 X109X 1.81X10 10
RToo_ m

-0.75
kgmol
= 0.875
> m

MWr „ = 44
lino

673 K
o>

MWair

101,325

8,315
0(5

29

kg
0.525 —
m

3CO
 44 44
0.06
Hill rC.H
H
3 g (44 + 690.2) 734.2

690.2X0.23
= 0.216
rO
734.2
V
a/ v

Po7c*H. 0.525X0.06 kg kgmol

[C3H8] = j o ^^^

MW, 44 _m kg
C3H8

0.1 o.i
0.525X0.06 kgmol

44 _ m

0.1
kgmol
= 0.484

1.65 11.65
0.525X0.216 kgmol

3
32 . m _

■1.65
kgmol
9.05X10 5
_ m .

1.65
kg [ kgmol | " f kgmol | ' f kgmol |
44 x 0.875X0.484X9.05X10 5
kgmol \m/ V m / \m/

-3
= 1.686X10
3
m *s

10.3

kJ
C =1.07-
kgK
 10.2 LHVvmT,mm<u

kJ
AH = 46,357 —
kg

,rt: 1
ttt
E

1
= 0.525X1.07.30
-3
46,357X1.686X10

/. = 0.216 s

V a/
6.7

(Semenov Theory of Spontaneous Ignition)

wall

6.5
 ^=0fl5im?inflflTlU?m4 (heat generation rate) = AHVknC"Aexp(-E/RT)
q. = eat loss rate) = hS(T-T )
wall

ims ^ I^lwiifttrurns (6.20)

dT
pCV— =q - q (6.20)
'8
dt
A .

nas ^ mwunii t 6.6 (n)

q -q = pCV— mflUfilJ T
* dt
waff

r t unzT
03 02 01
 (n)
x
niai Twail = T03 (riirieuiifi<arii)
!

fl9v a utm b

d2T

t mfjunii /

•osmmvnfn T

AT

— = 0 -»
dt

d2T
=0
dt

t<t r final r = o

mo t <t<tl

i8i4 au
dT
au
dt

d2T

dt'
 r uas Tb

m t= q
g

dT
— = o
dt

d2T
= 0
dt'

(meta stable)

r < r mo^mmj

1119 r > 7i
\>*i
 (ii) = 7

Twall r03 |ilfi 6.6 (n) ibsngu) ^ a was 6 sisj

r02 -319,tUHf|3HiI^nqS (critical wall

temperature)

dt

d
dt

r = r ^itrSci?niviimuujni (meta t=t

T> T
Jg

A A.

If

= r
wall 01

6.6(f0ibsneiJ) 6.6 (11) w

^
 d2T
dt

6.6 (n) \i\im q ntiz qt in

r<r *i w r = r

"

ilfi 6.6 (n) y\w\ c sl

(6.22)
dr )c

trumi (6.21) ims (6.22)

Twall = uri />

6.8

(Spontaneous Ignition Range)

uwfimirus uasfnuimi

(6.23)

(6.24)

nas (6.22) W

BC;exp(- E/RTc) (6.25)

im; = hs (6.26)

(6.25) ftivtmm? (6.26)

RT
(6-27)

TOc

i triifn? (6.27) i3<umjm?unm&?r9w8fr9<mn

(flame ignition) (flame extinction)
.4o.

1
2/? E
IV103J 1- lifS)U (infinite series) f!0
E

X X

2! 3!

Oc

1-
Oc jjj. i J
(6.29)

(6.29) flVhlfftJfm (6.28) Ifl

c Qc
(6.30)

(6.27) lias (6.30) r »rOc

i« 40,000 cal/mole lias TOc «1,000 K r -t

c Oc
«

50 k uas 50/1000 « (ignition

critical temperaturerc (rQc)

(6.25)

AHVkX] exp = hSRT E

r{t +(rt2 /e)}
T
RT
-« 1

AHVk^C* exp (6.31)

c _
 v^am^SSflivl
<a v

A vi

RT RT

mt x irtwth\nuaiif>wumnatnittfewitidfM a
Ac

uvmfhc. iwlwtriim? (6.31) 1$

-E
AHVk. (x'p/rt )
\ Ac cf c /
exp = hSRTc IE (6.32)
R T
c _

ujt m xA inW mim: (6.32) iitr«^fm«ArmJwsii'i^fnujmiini|S

AmJii'i^fnujmiini|S p

T rtt\i t\

3 > rE^
exp

in = 2

/2
hSR-
In - In +■ (6.33)
. T AHVk2XAE

p.uas r

= In
"H (6.34)
In
nRT
ft A
r

(6.33) UfiS (6.34) ihiflfrii "mjfm§8u0vl"(Semenov equation) O

r \
p
c
In nu —
x T , 2R
\c J

6.7

E
(E)
2R

(kinetics

parameter) Aim fh

(6.33) a a, 51, A^, v, k at\z x

A

P un 6.8

fa P Sfi
 d U ill III V
iflumuilfl

31JY1 6.8 fmutftJYMii i

(6.33) r nu x (fi p =
p nu jst (fi r 6.9 6.10 nnvlvi

6.9 fll1^3J<W14B1fS;Vf'31'39ai<Hf|0inq^(7')Uf1SJttlWWtT3J(^ )fi

 6.10 ) uasthuwmi (

6.9 uas; 6.10 (l) ^i rttfe p

v

(2) Sni9Ui<upiui<iiifis;ni€ui<upi'Hwiin^<ui4
V 1/

x 8olt4V'3'3i2;vi'3i-3<u9iJi<u?i^tf9>3fimi<u<u
Tiit\z P (3)

ims p afifi^ (4) fiintruni? (6.34)

0ejnii0iJn?9imivifiti0<Jiifis;Tlfni%mTi2Jfii r vuniifh v, s, h
(mixing) u?

6.9

(fi) Le Chatelier
 Le Chatelier

I O I

tnu

u\i\m\uh$\if\®umzmm')mh\

(iO 6.12
3/ o

c
lias; rc

|llfi 6.12
 pc - i(rt/r.Y
tc = r0

m k* fta

k* = cp/cv

V T

V
c

(fl)

„,„//

i%amn4
«

6.13

6.13
 6.14

I ft

|llf! 6.14 niIYl«?i9<iVf1fil^fUT1Q5Sfll<vJ^Q0W'Jl9'3^tlTlni?M0fll?91<w8'3

tc=
V

(u9««

(thermal reaction)

(chain carriers reaction)

6.10

(Forced Ignition)

mflm (incandescent

solid particle) umrfeu v»?o

(pilot flame) ulvmu io

iwwyiofHi!
 7* nJmlvfaiuaWIiitrNviuie
ITI3X

6.15

Twe
< T (Tignition ) (|iJ
v
6.15 (n))
(a)
Jl
(b) Mixim

tw >t{t
c ignition
) (nki5
v
 6.16 ibsnou)

Dawy Ml 1812

T,CA

6.10.1 m^8fllilimiiifemjTflaWin«ftaM m m

(Heated Spheres or Rods)

t (= J

fi 6.17
I

6.17

-Tn)/z
0 //

UJ9

dV = Ana da

Ana k(t -Tn)/r

> Ana (6.35)

T -T.
w 0
(6.36)
K
 T =T
w c

Nu = —7- imufh x tNiutrufm (6.36) W

Tc~T0
exp (-
(6.36a)
Nu

(6.37)
4 Affltn C

a Sfiiuin r a Sfiiuin Nu
(6.37)

6.10.2

iii1#faol#fmu59miniila^

(intensity of mixing)

fl (infinite slab pilot flame) 2a

t 6.18
 Yinai t=o
un'unJfnirlwui la

<■ a

(l) (slab thickness)

i«3
I ' 2J 3'

6.18
© q 9>
T ft

Jk
(2) 2a= 2a

6.18

((5^ ) (steady propagation

flame thickness)

(6.38)
6.10.3

fhuwtriJiJfinfliiiJflinVi
^— ^a>

(fl)

;eis MTOswiiwminu d r\*

fi 6.19 (n

(ignition energy) ©m^C,^)

u

E nnvliiJfi 6.20 (n)

6.20

6.20 (n)

E \

pnwnum 6.20 (11) merii

m rf ^9
E fwnii «-«naiT3i
• • • ?

ll?nlyl (quenching distance) ($|l]fi 6.20 (n)) UJ8 d imiinnilUSnflfh rf fil £"
ifimum </ innmiiliJn'iifiSn fii £

(minimum ignition

energy)
mln
 E* fmjJiQimqjmcnvm'utj

\\ u?nfu«finfl1vl

^~-—- qtmiNffumij
mir
<a ■ *» tq ilq it] j/

d
optimum optimum

(n)

|ll^ 6.20 fniwm/<W<UBVsJV!'31>avia<i<n<uS^lvl (ignition energy)£

$i E < Emia

(critical flame slab

thickness) WlTul#

q
« 2a c (6.39)

d nfizE nufmuww
4 min

rf oc P (6.39a)

^ .min
oc P( (6.39b)
 d oc P (6.40)
q

m *

E mm
. nug^f

6.21

P-
t=

% it

6.21
rain

min

min

min

(6.41) •Smd'uiS
4tc ( K
(6.41)
PoC\ T
3 \AHW
 inmJjJfBen
(fi ' «---*-*—tf^*-'-

iSonfiiWffii d filfrfiSwmi

6.11

(Range of Ignition WW Flammability Limits)

tnimfl nf

6.22

6.22

QtuvifjO finumj hKj nifB

6.8 6.9 ims 6.10

vi 6.21 ims 6.22 iJisjnou ^ 6.21 E .

mm

nniu iiBiifh £min 6.4iu?u

 vi 6.21 lit

(n) niErain uasfhv

.1 ^^
(n)

(a) v^m?8«Wl#AB«2;«fiiJtMWiJJf!i 5, m

nru

(U-shaped) mfi9<uniJiJ9<an9£niiS^ilvlli'3EJW'3i9^niJis;ni?(g|iJ^ 6.8 6.9 ims6.ioiJ?s;n9u)

Ti e mm
oc p"2 wwutninioSwflinmi'lftifliniiJfi 6.21 hm p
^

if 1
 flTSH 6.1

F llamas i

i TllttHjn (% tmoo)
0
* tmeo
-S
I'""'" !
i V0UKVIU14 •nvtxmur n Cfll) iniium
—1 i
^BSLVYiiBftntH
4 _ ....j
"m
2^29
—~-—-~-

44.1 0.0772 . -
8.99
BsSTIvm
....

58.1 0.0497 59 233 561.1 27.48 3.81

os5ria« 26.0 0.0772 31 - 305.0 0.72 -
0.76 -

osifmasu __^__ 56.1 0.0564 48 752 277.8 4.18 - 1.52 -

i
BsnnotaTvimfi 53.1 0.0528 87 - 481.1 8.6 3.82 2.29 1.52

uouTuitib
r 17.0 0.2181 651.1
o'suTali) 93.1 0.0263 • -
593.3 - - -

I ~ iuw5u 78.1 0.0277 43 336 591.7 13.15 5.38 2.79 1.78

t~ iuvwa iioanoaea 108.1 0.0240 - - 427.8 - - - -

54.1 0.0366 5.60 1.30 ? |

!~ Jme&ylaiTcne^
- -

:
\ !

58.1 0.0312 54 330 430.6 18.16 6.21! 3.05 1.78

r tFjyiTTuu ^ 72.1 0.0366 . -
12.67 6.69 2.54 2.03 i )
(methylcthyl ketonc) |
i 56.1 6.0377 53 353 443.3
-
1 1
tf-Uflimfa? 152.2 6.0153 - -
466.1 - - .

flifiiouifwaivlfi 76.1 0.0652 18 ltl2O 120.0 6.36 - 6.51 -

j....

riifiioutiouBnivn 28.0 0.2950 34 676 608.9|

TiTftaSiiniw _J6JL 0.0377 - - - - - - -

r ' ulflaiBmifM 84.2 O.O227i 48 401 270.0 32.98 5.33 4.06 1.78 i

Lj■* qflfmiirnni 82.1 0.0240 - - -

20.55 -
3.30 !
1 iffoatroumi 70.1 0.0271 - • 385.0 19.84 -
3.30, -

TSTSiTYiimu 42.1 0.0444 58 276 497.8 5.74 5.50] 1.78 1.78

rmuifiRflitiii 138.2 0.0142 -
271.7 -

woiwoaifltnu 142.3 0.0133 45 356" 231.7 -

-I 2JCNS, -
"i-" •■■— 1

i imBlaminoF 74.1 0.0337 55 2,640 185.6 11.71 6;69| 154' 2.03 j i

Btnu 30.1 0.0564 50 272 472.2 10.04 5/741 2.29 1.78 ! |

ibmiasvimi 88.1 0.0402 61 236 486.1 33.94 4.32 2.54, ""' ]
IBTliUBa 46.1 0.0652 - -
392.2 - - - -

KmaaiSu 45.1 0.0528 - - -

57.36 -
5.33] -

!„.,
iBflaussnlirfl 44.1 0.0772 ■ -
428.9 2.51 i.48 1.27 1.02 ■

68.1 0.0444 5.40 1.78

0.6T87
—

uojuoaTBilmii
-
100.2 53 450 247.2 27.49 5.74^ 3.81 1.78
; UBHioaiemMfu 86.2 0.0216 SI 400 260.6 22.71 5.50", 3.56 1.78)
iftTflilQU 2.0 0.2950 - -
571. t 0.36 0.36 0.51 0.51
liftvTmijnusfl 60.1 0.0444 - - 455.6 15.54 -
2.79 .1
154.0 - " ~r? : - -
-j -]
^ _...|

F umvi 16.6 6.0947' 461 164 632.2 7.89 6.931 2.54| 2.03
UJIllUBa 32.0 0.1224 48[ . .408 470.0 5.14 3.35] 1.78 1.52 s ;
(unaifcfiiJYi 60.1 0.0947 -i - -
] 14.82 -! 2.97
uojujpaTyjuu 128.3 0;0147! 47 434 238.9 :j :: —
~
'■
U4.2 """00165!" 51 425 240.0 "
\z
~72~T
™™

uanmtmumi 54 359 284^ * 5.26 3.30 1.78

l-ivmviii 70.1 0.0271 47 370 298.3 - - -

Imivm 44.1 0.0402 514 283 504.4 7.29 . - 2.03 1.78

Twthw 42.1 6.0444 48 272 557.8* 1 6.74. 2.03 ■j
;

'■
uoiuBalnmiuBa 60.1 6.0444 433.3!
t= -1 4 4-
~~92~f
„

-
0.0227 43
56X8
\ HfliiBvlnaiuu ioiij 6.0210 -
27.48 -1 3.811 -i
- - -1 252.2J -

"■ T"" :\ -r'

106.0 - -
. -J -

J20.0 JU : _2911-. 1

[tinlvnu looeonmu - - -
468.'3s *1
jivBinn'iiQfl jpi 150.0 0.0130 - - 248.9 -1 -[ -! i
...| JP3 112.0 0.0170 -1 - - -

— " j
. I JP4__ 126.0 0.0150 - -
261A -
-i -i -1 ■
170.0 0.0110 { i « .1 « n . < i
-: 242.2, - ™ „. 'T -I -p
■—4
i • ! i
6.12 tqil
D L%L

d (gap)

Da

E QIN

AH QIM

h Q/(L2Tt)

h M/(L2t)
D

K QKLTt)

(6.15)) (MAJ/Vt

uw MIN
V </
Nil

P F/L2

q Qlt
,m
q

QKL't)

R QKNT)

s L2

T T

t t

u Lit

V L\vo\t

W" M/(L2t)

wm fenni? infi
Y

x
omnmin

5 fmiifmanfiaLWi mil L

P
fmiimnuiiu mil*
L

c lfl£)fl (critical)

g in^UU (generated)

i f!1?^?l Ivl (ignition)

/ t^itlti (loss)

min taitjfl (minimum)

q fniVliWlUTi (quenching)
w, PF HIW (wall)

fmumjmj nil
F WSA

Q
t ntn

Glassman, I. Combustion. 3nd Ed. Appendixes E, F and G. Academic Press, Inc., 1996.

Kanury, A.M. Introduction to Combustion Phenomena. Chap. 4. Gordon & Breach, New York, 1975.

Lewis, B. and von Elbe, G. Combustion, Flame and Explosion ofGases. Appendix C. Academic Press,

Inc. (London) Ltd., 1987.

Strehlow, R. A. Combustion Fundamentals. Chap. 12. McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1985.

Williams, F.A. Combustion Theory. 2nd Ed. Chap. 8. The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company,
Inc., 1985.
7.1 urmi

im

fin

nnwtru

iv Mm 9i^n ifithin3<uiii9i§en
nw
 8 uas 9

7.10)

(single droplet combustion) ?8

3J (group combustion) [Chiu et al., 1982]

(partial group combustion)

(single droplet combustion)

VT

Spalding (1953,1955,1961)
 (droplet spray) efoill I49flflin
fl
** • j

(light weight liquid fuels)

U^THfuntfilf9mS<llV1fiQ^Mirn (heavy liquid fuels)

7.1 uasemnvi 7.2

 fmi4Yl7.1

T T I
flash fin

(T -T )
flash fire fire flash

°c °c

10 69-76 78 59-66

uesijoaihwa usaneaea 34 105 117 71

-20 55 56 75

30 - - -

148 - - -

fown 196 - - -

215 - - -

unkau 10 16 100-150 6
285 344 - 59

CTlfl4r!7.2

P, C C Ah
I rap

M gm/cm cal/gm cal/gm/°C kcal/gm

uosueatmuviu 72 0.631 87.1 0.557 0.397 36.0 10.82 0.314

86 0.664 87.1 0.536 0.398 68.0 10.69 0.314

U85JJ8filBlllYW 100 0.688 87.1 0.525 0.399 98.5 10.62 0.314

14€1JJ9a88niY114 114 0.707 86.5 0.526 0.400 125.0 10.60 0.316

114 0.702 78.4 0.515 0.400 125.0 10.59 0.316

us/uoaiflmu 142 0.734 86.0 0.523 0.400 174.0 10.56 0.317

UBSNSaflleiflVI 170 0.753 85.5 0.521 0.400 200.01 10.54 0.319

0.400 121.0 10.59 0.322

eenfm 112 0.710 80.5 0.525

78 0.884 103.2 0.411 0.277 80.0 9.56 0.359

32 0.796 263.0 0.566 0.410 64.5 4.74 0.726

luvnuea

46 0.794 200.0 0.5601 0.460 78.5 6.40 0.528

lovnuon

120t 0.7201 81.0 0.490 0.4001 155.0 10.54 0.318

154 0.825 69.5 0.460 0.4001 250.0 10.30 0.316

inuunifi

llniJtim'tfti (iui) 170 0.876 63.9 0.450 0.400 f 250.0 f 10.12 0.316

wiqja (nai^) 184 0.920 58.4 0.430 0.4001 260.01 10.00 0.315

^i^a (niln) 198 0.960 55.5 0.420 0.4001 270.01 9.88 0.318

58 0.791 125.0 0.506 0.340 f 56.7 7.36 0.453

92 0.870 84.0 0.386 0.4001 110.6 10.16 0.320

106 0.870 80.6 0.411 0.4001 130.0 10.30 0.319

7.3 (Atomization)

(filming) Mf9ifl\4i^«i«6ui4ifi<nmnuin (filament)

(disintegration)

Eisenklam (1961) imSJGelfand (1996)

7.3.1 (Pressure atomization)

(swirl)

(spray drying)

Ii!l4 Eisenklam (1961), Chenetal. (1990) UBS Williams

(1990)

7.3.2

(Airblast atomization)

Sn^i^9di<i?Q

Lefebvre

(1980)
7.3.3 (Rotary atomization)

m FriedmanetaI.(1952)imsWilliams(1990)

7.3.4 ni'3ll^n^l&il)4fls;ee>9l^Oaiff£ini'3V<Ufm<Ua4&€fl (Impinging jets)

d dt$/ a/
?'3g^tr9ai!)?!)<w9i(iii<w\4n5Yiijn

flimu1dflul#as99<9ihij'UYi

UfiS99>3 l^iensUTHQTM ifmnmMtfO mi Williams (1990) ifluflfu

99^9<i^8^m?i^9^1^a<i^iwWmj'U9^m?i'39iv!'3iiiJinm9i9i6tf<u2;

-r

(efficiency of atomization)

o.l-l

QQ'a (drop size distribution UllUUU

tili (cumulative count) VlfeillUJlIlJtfl'Ufli^ (differential count 7.1

vi d =
 o* d o*
100
V

7.2

tf}Jfmvi8?9l8eJ>3nfl9
vi8?9l8eJ3nf Rosin-Ramler size distribution function [Rosin et alM 1932]

-qdr

\j/ d q (size constant)

flia8fh9$bsnyi4
8hb 2-5
N.A.C.A. 1300(1957) Ranz and Marshall

(1952)

100

•7

CD

7.1 ni5n?2JinfJ(y<unPl<U9'3a2;99^UlllltJlltrs;tr3J (cumulative count)

 •I

rr
CD

Tl (differential count)
7.2 m?n5S<D1O««Vn?l<U0<ifi2;90^llUlll4U1T'3UPli^

7.4

9/

7.l

(single droplet)

(droplet spray)
V

V it

14X4

• ■ V •
nJii 7.3
•a a>

7.3

T imz Y
R FR

^
7^ (fin t fl9is)truijSlHminu^f9<u9yn'ii9Qi'Hfj5^iS9?) (T)
r inn °i

FR

7
fOO

■mtilufnmfl

w-t )

—Y

ww
w 7Vr^
 R W

(7.1)

(n)

<S a
m&mifljj^nih

(7.2)

(7.3)
8 S

(7.4)

fi
trumi (7.3) afl5ita'MJ'uita?r3Jfm (7.5)

db (7.5)

dr w
1i
 (7.5)

ihu

(ii) qsiuiaaaa/'

ivnnil -pD (dY/dr) IN0

fjjfnivnnu ww.Y
FW

libnumifm (7.6)

wn Y
YYW LFR
= w"
WW dYp (7.6)
dr w

(7.7)

. _ | YF YFO0
bD = (7.8)

(7.7) nfi^iJfi<i3Jiiflt4tt3jm? (7.9) qMiHjjoutriifm (7.5)

 • it
W — (7.9)
dr w

mitm (7.9) uttpi>3fi'3i3J^jJT?wB?2;M'ii<ifiiyi^i3Jtviniifiitt0'9fiiS0

^jJT?WB?2;M'ii<ifiiyi^i3Jt
« V

(7.9)

dr r ihmn

«i flfiifiwl&niJtnjfm (7.10)

d 2dT d
]C T) = 0 (7.10) I
dr dr dr

d d
= 0 an) i
dr dr dr

(7.10) iras (7.11)

dr

dr \hi taim? (7.10) lias (7.11)

tmmofN
. 1

(7.10Ea
(7.8)

(7.10) unsjtr3jm5(7.n) ^nB«|ilfi^ini3Tjfrjjmi (7.12)uns (7.13)

 d ( 2dbT\ .„ 2 db,
(7.12)
dr\ dr dr

' = 0 (7.13)
dr\ dr dr

v- A
F FW

(7.4) unsmjfm (7.8) m b = c (t -t )iq & t - = (F -Y )I(Y -Y ) = b

T g W oo ^ D FW F*> FW FR DW

uasjife r —>oo sisl^m t=t imz y = r oo F F°

(7.4)

(7.8) *[®b =0 ut\z b =0 vmnsnnfiu&iflriifm (7.5) uastnim? (7.

V

(7.13)
3/or

(7.14)

db
dr w
(7.15)

dr w )

r -»oo = 0
71 7*00
(7.16)
b = 0
Z) Z)00

QJ if

43 I

(Lewis number, Le) 3Jfl1

ivnnu l (a/D = im® a = D)

g F g F

;tf3jm59^5nyw?t^^iv!
 (7.12) *Hf9tftJfm (7.13) S9tfUfl110^1W<Uf91U^Utf9^lllJlJ55?3J?n (simple second
order differential equation)

tmtbn Wff (lHu eigenvalue) lias fh f

w
v
v <4 1
vmu

(7.15)

/'UO^ eigenvalue (W^) •UfJ^UfyvnnUfli b

(conserved variable) tTQVl

W a =D vliWirumi (7.12) nuttunif (7.

HI9 6. ivnuw
r »)_4
D eft <v
T m® d ooniilwfn«rjfi?n

2 "'' • It 2
par [WWR ]b = (7.17)

.ft _2.

dr

(7.17

db

dr

db

—^ +1) = 2:
li
fe

(7.16) -a +i)

b(r)
Jt _2
tf>00 -
In (7.18)
pa r
r8 8

b=

w"l (7.19)

19)

rw oonQintrum? (7.18) uastrufm (7.19) w

(7.20) 7.4

(7.20)
 naMf9i1unriti b

bT, bD lifts *

Zl = (7.21)

a =d Mi 6

(Pr)

r \ ^ '/3
ud
Nu = = 2 + 0.6 (7.22) I
d K v I
g
V 8 V

fii u M3Jioo<ifiQijJi!Qnj0'auntr^9ej^93j?9ijas99^iifi2;Sfiini?Uifi'3iJjl'9<u
^9 k, v lias a m?9wuia5flYi9sjm<u9fh
5flYi9sjm<u9f Nu^ ubjj a0

sm

-r

ummjwn5mmjnuunm49mnn %

(7.23)

(7.24) I
c* d
I

(7.23) SWhJii

W'=
w
\n(B (7.25)

(7.25) iksn9u&em939<if?Jssn9<Lm9 g^m

7.5
13J9 /
0/ 0*
5.2 \ftSw
A
/ nia<iisjmolu9ifnfffilMa<lh
I

<sl *S 0 in i/t 9/ a/ a la S' 'fl I v

VI 5.2 f!9 Nui = o.664Re Tr ** * ""

y/2 / y/3

0.664

■wsn^unW-infl
5.2

Nu? = 0.59(GrPr) 1/4

f \ ,/4 / \
aI
o
JJ L\ r V
g
0.59
2
V cc
g

flinmim?(7.2i)usl#Tifh

(7.26)
B7- =
 (7.26) uas; truni? (7.27) rfi^nuunu t niflounu
(graphical method)

ius-Claperon WlltTflWJIljdiJWUB'S
rnmcruni? (7.28)

fl 7.3

T°C\SfiP
1 mm 10 mm 40 mm 100 mm 400 mm 760 mm

CH3OH -44.0 -16.0 5.0 21.2 49.9 64.7

CHO -17.0 17.5 43.0 63.0 99.0 118.0

2 4 2

CHO -31.0 -2.3 19.0 35.0 64.0 78.4

2 6

CHO -59.0 -31.0 -9.4 7.7 39.5 56.5

3 6

CHO -15.0 14.7 36.4 52.8 82.0 97.8

3 8

CHO 125.5 167.2 198.0 220.1 263.0 290.0

3 8 3

CH O -1.2 30.2 53.0 70.0 100.0 117.0

4 10

CH -36.7 -11.5 7.6 26.1 60.6 80.1

6 6

CH -45.3 -15.9 6.7 25.5 60.8 80.7

6 12

CH -26.7 6.4 31.8 51.9 89.5 110.6

7 ft
r 0

lenJivm CH -34.0 -2.1 22.3 41.8 78.0 98.4

7 16

2-«tf1EiaU CH -3.8 32.1 59.5 81.3 121.7 144.4

8 10

QQnmu CH -14.0 19.2 45.0 65.7 104.0 125.6

8 18
 C /T

2 (7.28)

11J9 C UflS C 7.3 7.6 U?IS; 7.7 UtffN

(7.28)

l uas 2

Pl+Pl~p

/= 1,2 p fig

P2M2_PM
I

m9P utis; a/ fl

80 _._ 120 160 200

 ■ <3
1 flf

(7.29)

PXMX

ton'slaw) lornp=p +p tfiifii? (7.29)

p
-1
Px )

p = p (T)

(7.28) 7.30)

7.7
 M
1+ —1 (7.30)

Jmf\

(7.30) fulumjfm (7.27) Itf (7.31)

v« "" f' w * (7.31)

:FR

9nu?mmi(7.3i)(uvimjfii r J5 t enumimrn (7.26)

(7.31) utts (7.26) vi 7.8

mtnnu Sq rF^ , 7FR ,p,mg ,mr . c,c,
I 2
r*** . r,c
A g
uas l trumi (7.26) fl
g

= o ujq r = r (7.31) <o

w °

m =o (r)= uj =r (t )=

(O im vi&)4fmmu94 7.8 5 ua

Tm»T (7.31) ro
i

iJvi 7.9 r =r
B

(7.26)
 (7.32)
C{(TB-TR)

flifU T «T
00 I
(7.31)
V V

7.10

(7.33)

y (TJ fa\nm Wsnnmjm? (7.30) ua

mtJ^

y w
FW

r »r
00 £

/ / Too

T
ii
,)
B= [C(T ?)]/[i'+C{(T
s

7.9 n !TJ«t1JI 1 Jo. »T

oo B
 Y =

7.10 Tn«Tg

(7.32) ^iltilunififi r sisSfhwhW y

FW rK

flash vaporization ^wnssimwijlviniaiYi

Leidenfrost effect lT49<lflin Leidenfrost

TJ [Bemardin and Mudarwar, 1997]

B 7.8 w

B (t )
 b

FW

(saturation

equilibrium)

(7.34)

Spalding (1953,1955,1961) (kinetic theory)

(7.34)

ifls (equilibrium)

(nonequilibrium)

n9fiimJl)5S;SviSm<Wlsi!cjnQl sticking (mIq accommodation) coefficient

(7.34)

7.6

(7.35)

(7.35)
(residence time)

ntinu<u0^mJW'3iJis;n9iivifneiilis;mi nKi
nin^nti

(t) t(M

ntnihi ftilufls

2 At

w
w

(7.35) W
4p o
i-L \n{B + 1) (7.36)
At

(7.36) meiiinuntiiifeufni (7.37) ^iianQingm^tfo^

8^a* (7.37)
 trumi (7,37)

rf2 uas / 7.

1)

L Pi

g g'

d o a/

n 7.11

1 1 4/

(7.38)

(7.37 =0

0
(7.39)
8p a
 t wSfninn

7.7
v y

lJ

m0UH§flfmw§flnCU«M source terms) IV10JJ

f (ileinii sink terms)

d2T .„ dT
K [W }C —
dy2 dy

dy
 d2Yp ... dYp
+ W* = 0
. fff

gDp
pgD (7.43a)

(7.44a)

ftWf!15 (7.40a) fa (7.44a) tnin^OlllaoWllflwlM0^lT4|lJ<U0^1i5<inft3J (spherical coordinate

rf dT d , n
Kg~r2 Cg —[W =0 (7.40)
dr dr dr

d dYe d . M ,«.
—r2-^ [r r2] YF+r2WF
F+rWF = 0 (7.41)

—r* -2- = 0 (7.42)

rfr dr dr

rf dYD
YD d
—r2 r2 ]
[fr r2 7p + r2^/ = 0 (7-43)
dr dr dr

wV = (7.44)
w *' [wV]
luffUfm (7.40) §<1 (7.43) 8fl1fWYifhllfmm*fmilfl8lifcM (7.44)

fmu/?tnjm?(7.40) a* (7.43) source

"Schwab-Zeldovich transformation"

inwifQJJIfl (infinitely fast)

«i (flame she F iiftsj09nSiio'u o

(flame shell)

/gms"UO^lSoma^ F +1 gmU9^00n€lS)l4 O —>(1 + /)gms 1194

(7.45)

trnwawnaw

oon9wu)'ufis AH flintrum? (7.45)

(F P) u
f:

K m W q
£. = -#» = +-£-- +J— (7.46)

/ 1+/ /AH

(7.47)

W (7.47)

(7.41) niv AH

(7.40) 1^1

d 2 dCT dCT d

dr dr dr dr dr

= 0
dr

d
- = o
dr dr dr

Q -Y J (7.48)

trwrn? (7.12) (7.13)

dr
= (748)
dr dr

FT

C (T-T
gK O
OO
b = (7.49)
Q + AH(Y ~
Y lumifm (7.49) flQWfhivhmj o uri
WofllwjiJvhlil mniffaufm (7.48)
aiifm (7.5) utigfluni? (7.9) Autrfi^SnfifqTr^fi^tii^u

d(Cg(T-Tj
(7.5)
w

Y — Y
£F IF
K (7.9)
dr
FRJ
W

qaiflufm(7.5)#Mi

dcgT (7.5a) }
8 8
dr
w

(7.9a)
rfr

sA
(7.5a) (7.9a)

f!9

(7.50) 1
dr w

(7.49)

(7.42)

(7.40) (7.48)
I
 bOT "" (7.51)

(7.41)

(7.42) a =d
8 **

(7.48) T .52)

(7.52)
YFR

b lias; b
OT FO

=0
dr dr dr

db
*;= 8 8
dr w

*** ' ** Q/ W J/ I

7.6

&uarA4i#&?r3jfm (7.53) (iujJowtrum? (7.18))

in (7.53)
pa r
r8 8

7.
* g

(b-b (7.54)
 r=R
w

(7.53) W&mjfm (7.55) (wiJewmim? (7.19))

pa
(7.55)
R

mass transfer number

5 5 =D =D
OT FO FT g F O

AHfY0M+Cg{T(O-Tw)

°FOW
Y —Y
'FR lFW

BFT ~bFT<*>~ bFTW

1.1A

(7.56) vt?9ttum5 (7.57) Mfgffiim? (7.58) wmi vi?0

tnnmivl b (trwrn? (7.57)) minu bqt (trumi (7.56))
 - Tw
~ YFW

FW

(trum? (7.30)) rfiinnumo

t « r

■oinfli j5

(7.59)

(7.59) 5l'33jniitTJJijSvn'afiQiul9wutis;vn^ifiSfni3jl9'urfi>9

7.4 7.4 B imnntu c(t -t) unssmou

8 °° »
(rr
r b r

AH

5 50 in(5+i) 20
« 1

fin in(5+i)nJlo\4iiiJa'alfiiJinifi9 B

(7.55) (7.59) ios

**
 utwmfholtminn b

9.00 2.21 2.22 230 72 36.0

785 8.91 87.1 8.15 8.19

8.83 2.04 2.06 2.29 86 68.0

770 25.80 87.1 6.70 6.82
-14.8
8.84 1.92 1.94 2.29 100 98.0
770 4120 87.1 5.82 6.00
-243
5.24 5.46 8.97 1.83 1.87 230 114 125.0
-32.6 775 55.40 86.5

9.84 1.88 1.92 238 114 125.0

770 54.00 78.4 5.56 5.82
-32.6
8.95 1.68 1.73 2.30 142 174.0
770 80.50 86.0 4.34 4.62
-47.7
430 9.05 1.61 1.67 235 170 200.0
774 94.00 85.5 4.00
-55.7
9.72 1.89 1.93 2.37 112 121.0
783 53.00 80.5 5.64 5.86
€0(17104 -31.0
6.18 4.65 L95 1.97 2.16 78 80.0
-18.6 790 24.70 103.2 6.05

2.74 3.00 131 132 139 32 64.5

-13.8 792 25.20 263.0 2.70

3.88 1.45 1.47 1.59 46 78.5

776 32.60 200.0 3.25 334
-18.1
5.25 9.55 1.79 1.83 2.35 120 155.0
-41.8 774 66.00 81.0 4.98

4.26 10.80 1.58 1.66 2.47 154 250.0

-71.2 750 106.00 69.5 3.86

11.50 1.60 1.69 2.52 170 250.0

-71.2 735 103.50 63.9 3.96 4.40
Aim (tin)
3.94 438 12.45 1.60 L68 2.59 184 260.0
107.50 58.4
Sum (mm) -74.3 725
4.40 13.00 1.59 1.69 2.64 198 270.0
109.00 555 3.91
Swifl (vnln) -77.5 722
6.16 1.81 1.82 1.97 58 56.7
-11.4 770 23.60 125.0 5.10 5.19

630 8.92 1.95 1.99 2.29 92 110.6

-28.0 749 35.00 84.0 6.06

6.04 9.48 1.91 1.95 235 106 130.0

-34.0 758 45.30 80.0 5.76

yic « 0.31 cai/gmrcandroo=20°c; t tnj^fiSfhnfhmj 0.232; J:

&wo
L + C,{TB-TR) ,(TB-TR)
 J

0OO

7.7.2

**<? d a/ q/

5 «icj 5 (ttunn? (7.57))

TO

(7.52)) iios;imufii b
WFO
(triifm (7.52

(7.53) 111

(7.60)

Tutrufm (7.60) foamjfm (7.55) W

a

c _
(7.61)
\
000
In +1

v. J™ ;

snnttum? (7.61) TiiW

r /
c
■ y

fftjmi(7.57)fls;m1s)S3^<u<u1?iEJravnsn?tB7 «05 /r
V

0.32 ua

= 0.232) ttwrni (7.

Oeo
 -£-«14 —BL- = 141n(S +1)
* P*a*
t V

i{ini3[8ti vim
V

V t J>

(absorption coefficient)

(ui tnti

ut

hQ/c (7.25)

<iJ<i B

Combustion Theory iflO Williams (1964) nWu

7.7.3

o* o/ q i

(7.49)

(7.51)
OT
(R<r<r() ^

(r <r <oo) (y = 0)

R<r<r

(7.53)imufh b or
 [*V] 1
In

ir) mamjm? (7.51) uaslii y = o wiufiflti

In
w VX pa r
g 8 8

(7.62)

iJiu€*fh b iwoWtfumi (7.55) uusftrum? (7.

(7.63)

(7.63a)

<r<00

n?s;vliWioTSfrnwoimi flintrunif (7.53) imurii 6 #qo 6 Wiia FT

=0

(7.64)
8 8

7.55) uastrum? (7.58) rfivioW

C {T T ) — [Q -+■ AH\Y Y )\i(B ~r 1) 1] ~t~ AHY^.,. (7.65)

•=r muffum? (7.6O)n^lwft3jm? (7.63)mfmufm (7.65) Ktnjm^^ivifijm'gQfu

(7.66)
 (7.66) mi*

1iiiiil?iiJatJwlilnii^fu<H^5iiiis;ff'3T4il?sifi9ij'U9>3Jj/3fid0o trtw fh Ah lu'uite

(Le) flmminu
flmmin 1 (a =df=

(7.66) l«oStt3j^%iuQiliiSn^fi9i?fuini?uontrfiio«u9<iiinfrunsiS?ieifisi9ej^^fi
niu^iunutnmff
iu^iun l
3 ftflno
nfw Sfhivhnu AHJY

(r)

(T) uns triii

unsfh

FR FR

.66) JJ 1
 Spalding(i953)1^iJ?2
u

7.12

Yi 7.2 fll A//= 10,300cal/g,/=0.296, T =20°C

2,750 1 1 1 1

A£rc= 10,300 cal/gm

r=3.48
C
2,500 -
XuS«m?i«intraiti

2,250 -

/ ^^^ **^
2,000 "

1,750 -

Si
1 1 i
1,500
0.5 1 1.5 2.5

Kilocalories/gram

flame

(fil r Ivimivlfe 1^) [Spaiding, 1953]

<? t
7.7.4

6=6

-exp[-(^/? )/pgagr] (7.67)

TO
wtiijjWpii3jtrijm?(7.52)!)2J^ifi5imwW™'3utJT9^fnw b fiimniiVfo y uas r
ias rc<r< oo niiriiflii fis'WfronreinOTniMin
y uasr tihwinri Y = o nas y = o trumi (7 67^
fiw cm
fOO * '

(7.68)

<r<r fii7 =0

t» •/? (7.69)

<r

(^+/^oo)
ooo
(7.70)

7.13 s;09^ I

7.13
7.8

b ivinlu

fl1TNvi7.5

V
6 itiuitu b tlflWM

10*3 cmVsec l§Ylfla0*

11.2 9.7 Godsave(1953)
iimfu 11.2 9.9 Goldsmith (1956)
Iriajm 11.1 6.6 Godsave(1953)
Tnajm 11.1 7.7 Goldsmith(1956)
10.4 7.9 Godsave(1953)
10.8 7.7 Godsave(1953)
10.8 8.6 Godsave(1953)
lakTvnfiaiiruw 10.6 7.8 Godsave(1953)
- 8.6 Godsave(1953)
lYlfHYlUJinYiaiUWWU 10.4 7.7 Godsave(1953)
- 7.8 Godsave(1953)
'glflfjijU (Pseudocumene) 10.2 8.7 Godsave(1953)
ivto?x|1aii9ano8ea - 7.2 Hall (1953)
lavnuea 9.3 8.1 Godsave(1953)
lavnuea 9.3 8.6 Goldsmith (1956)
levnuea 9.3 8.5 Wise (1955)
l495UOai8lilY1li 14.2 9.7 Godsave(1953)
uftfuoaisiimu 14.2 8.4 Goldsmith(1956)
lal'UQQniVl'U 14.4 9.5 Godsave(1953)
lal^aannru 14.4 11.4 Graves(1953)
- 7.6 Hall (1953)
11.6 10.1 Hall (1953)
lafiaaswifl - 8.0 Hall (1953)
illfi^iaoijoivif)/ - 9.9 Godsave(1953)

(IOO-12O°C)
•UllluniPl (r=0.805) 9.7 9.6 Godsave(1953)
ihtfuftafa (r =0.850) 8.5 7.9 Godsave(1953)
 (7.71)

{jcnulX&trnm? (7.72)

+1) (7.72)
Pi

ate b iiliili]flnijmjfm(7.59)«'niMYi 7.5 utwwhA Wt&riifm (7.72)

4wfh 7.4 viJfoiiVNutrfNfh /I

0fii X inniTn fii X

io'2cm2/s .73)

(773)

500

1,000

(n) ^ s(nj)i
4<4 e

(n)
• </

5ft 2
= 10 sec
[8p a 500 ft/sec
/
g 8

p,
I*
r
I t?wflJ0imffWp a VI 1,OOO°C « 0.0002 gm/cm/sec « 0.825 gm/cm3
/

C (7^ - Tw ) C (T^ - TB ) 0.3(1000 - 250)

= 3.24
69.5

.-4
, _, 2x10 _, ,
rf.
.0
< 8x10 x ln(4.24) =27.9x10 cm
0.825

-3
d0 < 5.27x10 cm. mis

(%)

W R W B

B «

23.2

10 7.2

[0.316xl0,300x0.H-0.3(l,000-250)]/69.5

7.93

2 _2 2X10 _, ,
dQ < 8x10 x ln(7.93) = 42.5x10 cm
0.825

do< 6.51x10 3cm P10U

 xtmivhmj
28

maim

ism

7.14

ffyiintn<u

\xr
ft 3 1 sec
3—x-ftx -— = 4,170
sec 12 0.18 x 10 ft

Re 5.2

= 0.664 ReJ/2Pr1/3

r« 1

0.664^4,170
K

fmuifitiu 3fps *

t 3"x3"

Jt
7.14

m
 h° Pgg i5-5 2
— « -L-s-x0.664V4,170 «1.1x10 gm/cm /sec
C I
g

Y
FW
B m
YFW —YFR

/too ' f» fff

»[l+(760/120-l)]*l«0.16
FW

" =-—ln(J? + l) =1.1x10 5x0.174 =1.91xlO~6 gm/cm2/sec. W91I

c
8

1.11 xio"4 gm/sec

V

imnriimtmifcimsimlwjfl^^
7.

3.214

1.44

1.1x10 5xl.44 =1.59xl0~5 gm/cm2/sec.

=9.30x10 4 gm/sec. P19U

d I
m 3Jmciain 10
7.9 (Spray Combustion)

(single

droplet) i«tf0i odi^lincnu tm

(droplet spray) 1814

(droplet interactions)

I ft V

Kanevsky (1956) ti

hum 9
s 9di4i3u5suu^uflflVlufl"ii-i4<n 7.6

^iifin?n^0tn-3?rwi^niJn?Qi<u0<iiis;00^iPio'3vi lung

(dense spray) [Chigier and McCreath, |

1974; Chigier, 1977, 1981; Onuma et al., 1975, 1977]

£904 i
(single droplet combustion)
 y

H
(external group combustion) [Chiu et al., 1982]

[Kanevsky,1956]
0 O Ot

0 O O S
S
o o o A
mm 1 cm2/sec
00 0.97 X 10"2
9.5 1.28 X 10"2
8.5 1.16 X 10'2
7.5 1.23 X lO'2
5.8 1.28 X 10-2
3.6 0.78 X 10-2

umiuoa 8.7 1.04 X 10"2

7.5 1.09 X 10'2
5.8 1.08 X 10'2
3.6 0.64 X 10"2

(group combustion)

4 ^n^fUS (modes) Miltrn^lll^llfi 7.15 ^9 external sheath

combustion, external group combustion, internal group combustion Ufis; single droplet combustion

N mis group combustion number G

 -4
(1O''<G<1) flu G

external group combustion (gaseous diffusion

flame)

(G>102) external sheath combustion

A

GROUP COMBUSTION OF LIQUID DROPLETS

EXTERNAL
GROUP
COMBUSTION

SINGLE DROPLET
COMBUSTION

INTER
NAL
GROUP
Illllllllll COMBUS
TION
TRANSITION
BAND

I . I.I.I
to' )3 1O4 105 106 1O7 108
0.05
s= (d/r^)
(1+0.276 Re/2PrV3

7.15 [Chiuetal., 1982]

 Contortion
Zon«

« 7.16 niVI'UCncl<U0>3 internal group combustion [Chiuetal., 1982]

2<G<l) OSj internal group combustion

external group combustion fVU single

droplet combustion (preheating zone) flSflflu external group

combustion tTQ single droplet combustion

external group combustion

(R)

Si G<10"2
single droplet combustion

Chiu et al. (1982)

G>1 (turbo combustor)

G»10 internal

external group combustion

(soot formation) ^li (particulates)

fil4^^TiltTl4l«fntflinm?Sfltn9tli'aJJin internal group combustion
c4 »=» Act i dH «a
,ili4u?ntu<nuu«i<w9ma«3
 (initial droplet size distribution)

(residence time) mz rfo<UTilflinfwW1wg

IqSpI Probert (1946) 1Mm5niSSnO'U<l41flf1S99<UlUlJ Rosin-
Rammler [Rosin et al., 1932]

b r d
o ntavNtiufl 100
td
r 0

7.10

(fuel injector vif© atomizer)

 (porous medium technology)

[Yoshizawa et al., 1988)] lltt

"excess enthalpy flame" [Weinberg, 1986] flf1T3n9

(conventional open spray flame)

plan and Hall, 1995; Tseng and Howell, 1996]

(self-sustaining combustion)

(co uns no

9* o
PI9U1 Jugjai et al. (2002)
V

'U (porous medium) (kerosene)

(syringe)

(porous medium burner)

(evaporator) iltMYlim (burner) 7.17 HIQ

 LPG

Exhaust gas
analyzers

7.17 [Jugjai et ai.,2002]

(combustion chamber)

(swirling combustion) mm
it

7.18

lt(^Yi\U (solid phase) nfowiS* (liquid

phase) uflgnlcnivl (gas phase) iiaisiwilvi
fohfa (solid phase)

(convection) imsmigpinawf^SflQillltJtJ (radiation absorption) flfl

(evaporation)

zUZx = 15 mm ftaUttfuluiillYi 7.19

650°C W Leidenfrost temperature [Bemardin and Mudarwar, 1997] Win

(mixing and combustion)

(flame radiation) (radiation from wall)

4 tl io

40fl

CO no Srf^i

(flammabiiity limits)

[Jugjai et al.,2003]
 Mixing, Combustion

Radiation

[Jugjai etal.,2002]

"Porous burned
i n Porous emitter-^] |<-
(t=2.54)

^/Position of
swirling air

with porous emitter

• • ■ o • ■ without porous emitter

50 100 150 200 250 300

x, mm

7.19

[Jugjai et al.,2002]
 7.11

Spalding(Spalding's theory of mass

transfer) S99'aiSoQl?9l<W^mfl'3 (single

? droplet)

forced convection)

fniW?9WllUU9tr?s; (free convection) WT«avi&liiflni1<Wfl17flllHafl17flfinfiw«9fJ'31liJq141I84

Spalding

Schwab-Zeldovich transformation rihifoo Uf)nt)infi

£0

&iin

^
7.12

Lit

C QKMT)

CL Q

(fuel)

G UWfnilMiiliAlUlJnqu (group combustion number)

Gr

g L2/t

AH

AT QKLTt)

L f!QlJJ19<UUpl<i<Hf9fl'313JeJT3
/ finutm z.

Af

Nu

Pr
 QKL't)

R universal gas constant) QKNI)

R L

Re

r L

S 1SJ0S 993 L

T T

A71 T

nan t

Lit

W MI{L2i)

W m Mltft)

x L

y IS0SV1KI L

S3

a L2lt

fi a

(volumetric coefficient of thermal expansion of fluid) \IT

0 livalence ratio)

X L2lt

v L2/t

00

p fmuwvnumi MIL1

T fmJJVmiWWlflf'a (optical thickness)

sticking (H19 accommodation coefficient)

adi limnmivm (adiabatic)

B,boil l?10fi (boiling)

b iWilw^f (burning) Vlf0 iTqihi (burner)

C

D (Vmim (diffusion)

e frfmsflm^a (equilibrium) "Hf0 R3UWf-3§ (emitter)

F l§9rw§>9 (fuel)
flash

fire

g umr(gas)

I ^JQ^intn (liquid) VI10 fniUtlil

0 00fiSlflW0?(oxidizer)
P tmw^nWforoduct)
R im?1^tTStfll (reservoir)

r nfn©^!^^^^^!!^!! (residence time)

T ^QmilS (temperature)
V mi^Sll'HCJ (vaporization)

vap 10 (vapor)

W wifo (wall)

0 t(f\llZ WJJ91U (uiinal)

affuanutunlawn
F

L tmurni

M JJQH

Q fniij?9ii
I t ran

Bernardin, J.D., and MudarwaTj I., 1997. "Film Boiling Heat Transfer of Droplet Streams and Sprays,"

International Journal ofHeat and Mass Transfer. Vol. 40, pp. 2579 -2593.

Chen, S.K., Lefebvre, A.H., and Rollbuhler, J., 1990. "Influence of Geometric Features on the

Performance of Jbessurers^lAtomwersfASME Journal of Engineering for Gas Turbines and

Power. Vol. 112, pp. 579 - 584.

Chigier, N.A., and McCreath, C.G., 1974. Ada Astronautica. Vol. 1, p. 687.

Chigier,N.A., 1977.Progress in Energy and Combustion Sdence.Vol.3,p. 175.

Chigier, N.A. Energy, Combustion, and Environment. McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1981, p. 248.

Chiu, H.H., Kim, H.Y., and Croke, E.J., 1982. "Internal Group Combustion of Liquid Droplets,"

Nineteenth Symposium (Jnt.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, pp. 971 - 980.

Eisenklam,P., 1961. "Atomization of Liquid Fuel for Combustion", Journal of the Institute of Fuel.

April, pp. 130-143.

Friedman, SJ., Gluckert, F.A., and Marshall JR., W.R., 1952. "Centrifugal Disk Atomization", Chemical

Engineering Progress. Vol. 48,No. 4, pp. 181 -191.

Gelfand, B.E., 1996. "Droplet Breakup Phenomena in Flows with Velocity Lag," Progress in Energy

and Combustion Science. Vol. 22, pp. 201 - 265.

Godsave, G.A.E., 1953. "Studies of the Combustion of Drops in a Fuel Spray-the Burning of Single

Drops of Fuel," Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. Williams & Wilkins Company,

Baltimore, pp. 818-830.

Goldsmith, M., 1956. Jet Propulsion. Vol. 26, p. 172.

Graves, C.C., 1953. Proceedings of the Third Midwestern Conference on Fluid Mechanics.

Minneapolis, Minn., p. 759

Hall, A.R., and Diederichsen, J., 1953. "An Experimental Study ofthe Burning of Single Drops of f]
Fuel in Air at Pressures up to Twenty Atmospheres," Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. I
Williams & Wilkins Company, Baltimore, pp. 837 - 846.

Jugjai, S., and Polmart, R, 2003. "Enhancement of Evaporation and Combustion of Liquid Fuels

Through Porous Media," Experimental Thermal andFluid Science. Vol. 27, No. 8, pp. 901 - 909,

Jugjai, S., Wongpanit, N., Laoketkan, T., and Nokkaew, S., 2002. "Experimental Study on Combustion

of Liquid Fuels by a Porous Medium," Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. Vol. 26, No. 1,

pp. 15-23.

Kanevsky, J., 1956. Jet Propulsion. Vol. 26, p. 788.

Kaplan, M., and Hall, M.J., 1995. "The Combustion of Liquid Fuels within a Porous Media Radiant

Burner,"Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science. Vol. 1 l,No. l,pp. 13 - 20.

Lefebvre, A., 1980. "Airblast Atomization." Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. Vol. 6,

pp.233-261.

N.A.C.A. 1300,1957. "Basic Considerations in the Combustion of Hydrocarbon Fuels with Air,"

Chapter I. Atomization andEvaporation ofLiquid Fuels by Graves. C.C. and Bahr, D.W.

Onuma, Y., and Ogasawara, M., 1975. "Studies on the Structure of a Spray Combustion Flame,"

Fifteenth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, pp. 453 - 465.

Onuma, Y., Ogasawara, M., and Inoue, T., 1977. "Further Experiment on the Structure of a Spray

Combustion Flame," Sixteenth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute,

pp. 561-567.

Probert, R.P., 1946. "The Influence of Spray Particle Size and Distribution in the Combustion of Oil

Droplets," PhilosophicalMagazine. Vol.37, pp. 94-105.

Ranz,W.E.,and Marshall JR..W.R., 1952. "Evaporation from Drops : Parti," Chemical Engineering

Progress. 48, No. 3, pp. 141 -146, Part II, same Journal, Vol. 48, No. 4, pp. 173-180.

Rosin, P., Rammler, E., andlntelmann, W., 1932. Z. Ver. Deut. Ing. Vol. 76, pp.443 - 447.

Spalding, D.B., 1953. "The Combustion of Liquid Fuels," Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion.

The Combustion Institute, Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp. 847 -864.
pSpalding, D.B. Some Fundamentals ofCombustion. Butterworths. London, 1955.

% Spalding, D.B., 1961. InternationalJournalofHeatandMass Transfer. Vol. 2, No. 4, June.

Tseng, C.-J., and Howell, J.R, 1996. "Combustion ofLiquid Fuels in Porous Radiant Burner," Combustion

Science and Technology.VoX. 112, pp. 141 -161.

I Yoshizawa, Y., Sasaki, K., and Echigo, R., 1988. "Analytical Study of the Structure of Radiation

Controlled Flame," International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer. Vol. 31, No. 2, pp.

311-319.

Weinberg, F.J., 1986. "Heat-Recirculating Burners: Principles and Some Recent Developments,"

Combustion Science and Technology. Vol. 121, p. 3 - 22.

William, F.A. Combustion Theory. Addison-Wesley, Reading, 1964.

Williams, A. Combustion of Liquid Fuel Sprays. Butterworth & Co (Publishers) Ltd, 1990.

Wise, H., Lorell, J., and Wood, B.J., 1955. "The effect of Chemical and Physical Parameters on the

Burning Rate of a Liquid Droplet," Fifth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion

Institute: Pittsburgh, pp. 132 -141.

8.1

m nhi \S multf chuiru 2 itasnau)

ivu

(solid

rocket booster VI?9l1cJnd9

?9l1cJnd «] Q1 SRB ?iyYinOlm1 lllini)

tflw^u mtilu srb

i,86i°c w
y

747 16 1,571 m/s

5,656 km/hr n?9itasinfu 3 ivi srb

124 iS9
41 nlaiun? fliniTwfls;gntrafll<H«nvis;ial«oS5Jj^vii2<u^iitt<u'3<i Irfflnatrujfi
 iiKj inoiniifn?09n«uu5suum?ioim^9mS^
V

[Spiro et al., 1987; Hsu, 1992]

naTJitfwff^nalnmnmlvi&vowa^u^

Swa

w $

naimjiwilnif

iWiftjiwwwaiiStiriowfiiin^TftnisjiJWO15 I

mo (volatiies combustion) snnUTW*"

WJthtf I

char combustion) 10 $
 % if V

v ■

8.1 «s;m'ul^QiSnia<ifn?HS«m
188 GWe ^TH?u<u0^1<ntjSni^ni?wS?nJiswiw 2,400 MWe

[Soud and Fukusawa, 1996]

Country MWe

Austria 1675
Belgium 555
Canada 9065
China 70
Denmark 45S5
Finland 1765
Germany 30,332
Hongkong 1030
Ireland 305
Italy 3495
Japan 15^20
Koreans) 1060
Malaysia 600
Netherlands 4340
Sweden 715
Taiwan 5825
Ukraine 300
UK 12,600
USA 94,483

Total 188.665 GWe

 daQivlsilflW'3l^9m^Ua2;il?lJ1Qifl'31Jj!'9V!^dieii9WgHll?9lV|^

7
V J* itft

V V

7 !

7 l?iii2J?fQi4ltidSmiyQiSJfn?iHiiTimiuufi on^u Iwsmi 5Sfi9w lYivnwou

vMu

.1
f

(7.61)

rr U )
—= (7.6D

'uu (nfiT3S9i<ffi<ln^fniui3vit^9mB«3ii?<iuin<u<u) fii 5 rafi

 (r>R-M)UflS£«-/r IY
C 0°° F,

r =

14UI94

(Pyrolyzing of Solid Fuel)

os i
8.2.1 usseit)

jmo99fiuis)in
y «

8.1

tA
1) imstruni? (8.2) nwftmj
 dT dT
(8.1)
dr dr dt

1119 Q<r<R

t>0 T= 00 (8.2)
dT A
=0 r=0
dr

(8.1) uasmjfrn (8.2) n9tr3jm? (8.3)

Mir 22 2
sin exp[~« n ccst/R ] (8.3) |
T —T R

^ 8.2
(at/Rz) (r//«)

0'
-r)
CO

9ur -m
p

(8.4) IHIS $

(8.4)

(dr/dt)T Tnlftnnmjfm (8.3) 7'= r

w 8.2 r= r

(r) moununai

(time-averaged pyrolysis rate) V

I

.5)

'p"O~Q

w (= pnd3t6) mz d ^
o

0.005-0.01

V
8.2.2

(transient heat conduction)

 -E/RT

dt

infinitely fast)

i «a <a

«i %/ m

?0^infimilw

friw

«os;in«iJgn?oil i^ijgnfen (catalytic reaction)

r • <? J» «*** d Adi

(numerical method) 9til^1?npmJ

(8.5)

1.5 S^a 2 ivh

8.3

faS tfilN'vmii^

mS0fiiovia^
^

(cloud of pulverized carbon)

tin
V V
^

nifi

0.25

1,100 k

<a

(heterogeneous combustion)

n.

u
a m
vi 4

^wictf0i<wS<iii l'u9iiSJs;<wiJ'3i(3'lu?i9W
 V V

(chemical

kinetics M?9 kinetically controlled)

tiyi 8.3
7 (r) Tir)

fi. t)SJinfii!'3n'ji<u<u5!i9<u n. uas «. uin

(diffusionaily

controlled)

(oc 7-0Sl°

vi 8.3 utis |iJ^ 8.4

m?
 ——„ --■= rjr)

iiuuuvn'

90J11QU

,nemH<m^'B?ijj?nfiS«fi<y9i2;fn5iml'MJJYi^i
 Tifmim
JK

Jl

<a *k <a
naWiJUYMUwffulunSnQOTnilN'h One-film model [Turns,

c + o ->co nw

= 12/32 umrco

|iJvi 8.5
y ,

co

2C+0 ->2CO

12/32

Two-film model [Turns, 1996]

lUflV^IWOflinianifctl
co uas t CO uas o ijgoinnB'w^^l^i
2 v 2

Coffin and Brokaw (1957) T49n«1flfi Hottel and Davis (1934)

^cnn'uiiasjotJO'U'iiSfn^iwilvisjltJtTcnusuntf^sTi'i^ co nu
99n5tf)ufium^iii™m9iYm>ainfl™ ^ ifnagu
« . y y

JT1'31<iH'3l§9mS^mJllJ?!'3ivl9d^m\4W«
" CO U1<5
lu co uaQimifnmj99n

r, 7, y nas r
O CO CO2

8.6
CO +C-»2CO

2CO + O —>2CO
2 2

4
if

1
"la
•I
4

I
I
\f

inf»fnfu0U [Coffin and Brokaw, 1957](milnUUlltitmJ)

m

He

8.4

v . y

J! ,

dYn . „ o dYn
2 [IT ]2 (8.6)
c/r

nhaSinmi mjm™a«iiMtWMl#ftmjfm (8.7)

d 2 dT .„
(8.7)
dr dr dr

= fhfi<i?h (8.8)

(8.6)

Y =Y
o o

Y (8.9)
ow wlow
dr

me

fu «in

(8.10)
wow ww
 A A
nuuv]tr9<i) lutwiifmiifm (8.9) ivhnutmfm (8.10)

(8.6)

wwutfum? (8.6)

[w;r2](y0+i//)=o
 (8.12a)

mini? (8.12a) trijji?cillm9viifii9«?im?iwilii^9>a9^iiifjfiilii9wfiSffr2 r 1a °i W

iS
imnufh a

8.4.

.12a

(8.13)

.12a) tia

(8.14)

?SS i 8.2 i

r = l uns j? « riifioW
= o.232 uas 5 = 0.232/iflenlitfum? (8.13)

uas/= 12/16) 8.7

 0.25 2,500
i i i 1 r

0.20 — 2,000

0.15 1,500

r?
0.10 1,000

0.05 500

1 2 8 10 12 14
r/R

If! 8.7
u (fm co2
 air

AlO 2.70 27.0 101.9 2469 2980 1.120 1.12 0.260 0.90 2.93
2 3

BeO 1.84 9.0 25.0 2970 3900 0.564 0.564 0.131 1.04 3.79

234 10.8 69.6 2550 1860 0.451 0.451 0.105 1.57 6.15 2.03

CaO 1.55 40.1 56.1 1487 2850 2.500 2.500 0.580 031 0.85

CO 1.501 12.0 28.0 4827 191 0.750 0.750 0.174 0.67b 2.28C 1.98

fnruou co2 1.501 12.0 44.0 4827 79 0375 0375 0.087 1.16d 4.16e
HflD 13.3 178.5 210.6 5400 5.590 5.590 1300 1.76 3.98

umjvnuij 6.16 139.0 325.8 3469 4200 5.790 5.790 1.341 0.81 1.82

mviau LiO3 0.53 6.9 29.9 1317 1200 0.865 0.865 0.200 0.21 0.73

MgO 1.74 243 403 1107 3600 1.520 1.520 0.353 0.47 1.45 0.225

PuO2 19.84 242 274.0 3235 7.560 7.560 1.755 231 4.90

KO 0.86 39.1 94.2 774 4.890 4.890 1.134 0.12 0.28

0.86 39.1 110.2 774 2.440 2.440 0.567 0.17 0.78

235 28.1 60.1 2355 2230 0.879 0.879 0.204 0.93 3.23
NaO2 0.97 23.0 78.0 892 657 1.437 1.437 0334 0.27 0.85
nmiau ThO2 113 232.0 264.1 4000 4400 7.260 7.260 L685 134 2.87

TiO2 4.5 48.0 79.9 3260 2750 1.497 1.497 0347 133 3.75

UO 19.05 238.0 270.0 3818 2500 7.430 7.430 1.726 2.23 4.74

19.05 238.0 842.0 3818 5.580 5.580 1.294 2.52 5.73

ZrO 6.44 91.2 123.2 3578 5000 2.850 2.850 0.662 1.20 3.19

1 \Xm llt\Z 5 xlO*4 gm/cm/sec,a 1.30-lJ;b 0.58-0.76;c L97-2.58;d 1.01-132;c 3.78-4.95

8.4.3

?n3Ji^^

(8.15)

(8.15) iHJfaumjmifm (7.73 uflnm*nuuffl'mtNiil!ieMfh a n\u D ivhmj

yinitntu^intrumi (8. *• i
iM'ini?oniS^m«'3 (^TUQfusiintrjjfn? (7.73) ims
.5 il?2jn9ii) niii^gmS^ii^ (fifmnfusnnmjfm (8.15) un nou) mm

i*tf9 fi 8.

v lit

3 mi ^U'U«S;^'3Of1finftimilWilv!iflT1^illJn'iifii^UtT^'3lt4JlJ^ 8.8 I^Tuetal.

utlf0
D

R
F

.Ol mm

s fninioi'mjfiimJiJisjSYi^midicimjj'jiiflin 2 cn 10 1#8«h

"3 1 a"2 iA-1 1 aO ml

10J 1O'Z 10*1 10° 10

dQmm.

8.8
6 0

8.4.4

(8.7)

• If L
\nr n \r> t —
 (heat of combustion) (cal/gm)

Kg [Wy ]CgT = -
dr

d(C T-AH)
1

.12) nutriim^ (8.16) 1«

Si Le = 1 m?9 d = a uasfisnianmjfm (8.17) (8.12) (8.12a) uas (8.14)

o g

TXr) fl-fltfwm? (8.18)

 - R/r
(8.18)

(8. «i litreWfmimWho*
(iffa CO2) (ina co)

8.7 wamnifh Kr/R) 0OX)O

(8.18) l«einiW4fiW/?/r«i

(8-19)

(8.19)

co (/= 12/16, r = 20 °c, r wo.232,

« 2,000 caVgm) (8.19) T » 1,030 °C

W, ■

co, (/= 12/32, r = 20 °c, r » 0.232, A#« 7,300 cai/ trum? (8.19)

«1,950 °c

tturm (8.

gm

A// cai.

fiuviinu c t mj9,cu<H l+yr

gm

tnntrumi (8.19) t t ■os

w

y =i)im<u9iniff(rooo=o.232)
 (flash vaporization) uasOiqmufoamSM^fllSufrsinfi (sloughing)
^00nlliJt)ifiS'3
(sputtering) ffa tf
mini* (8.12a)

(sloughing)

PgD0
gD0 (8.20)

iflo

8.5

T^ 8.3 (|ilfi 8.6)

CO |4

iiiJi^ttQT4<os;im?n?iiJiiJYiw'3i<tf0m?i4?0wimsfn««09netfis)u (f^iv) wo

co

c 1$ co

fw gm «U9^ C + 1 gm U9* CO -> (1 + fw) 1I9<I CO

co

(porousness) WWITLIOU [Sotirchos et al., 1984 (Part I & II)]

i niniiii co fis

/ gm <U04 CO + 1 gm 1J04 O -> (1+/) MM CO (VI141flinW'3fn51J0tl)

« 2 8 2
 Coffin (1957) vmiiSilfinai o uas co vi
uasco

A<nlumjms9^fni!miau9a«ij9<i o, imss co, lufrtnusunfffiffiS r 1a «i n

(8.21) uastnjfm (8.22)

(8.21)
dr dr

(8.22)

(8.22) WUIO^ CO2 source UHS si JtT3Jm? (8.22) S

(8.22)!™ 1/(1+/) utfnnmftmjtftin'H (8.

IT
=z)

(,23)

(8.24)

(8.25)

r=R

snninjimutrufm (8.24) (8.25) Y = o

OIF

Si gm V04 CO
2
 ^R ]l[fw{\ + f Hivmsp DdYdidr
ft
w (8.25)

dr M+f.)

lnl Y+
/ra+/f)

r =y 7 » in(r
0 O d O

1 >

In
(8.26)

(8.27)

w"r
-JL-=HYoaifw(\+fgn\) (8.27)

co + o

vxhsia

2
)55 = y f( (FlC CO
im
02
= 56/32ua

2M/w = = o.75y
C CO2

Wfco 2 miJfiTJfvu (c + o22

—>co) {B = 0.52 yo°o) f
Mf CO (2C + O2 ->2CO) (B = 0.75
 (8.28)

Hw co Sfhivhnii

8.6 (Coal Combustion System)

8.6.1 (Travelling grate stoker system)

(1) Stoker

(2) Air plenum

(3) Coal feeder

(4) Ash hopper

(3) (5) Water tubes

(6)

8.9
 t/h m

OSJlfsjmjlflO Werkmeister (1931) UflSfmurihiwj

col b

SiiS^^

5f1ffljitriiJiifiint4 400 K

8.6.2 I^Uiim^ifnitUJOiyfiyUflGl^lQO^ (Pulverized coal combustion, PCC)

(tube wall)nf9 wiT^tii (water wall)

y % 8.10
V <

300 MWe SmJYlTIU'iefau'Ulf) 15 X 15 m2 lias^lbsrtJlQi 45 - 50 m

8.11 uasidvi 8.12

5 <U

svi49^ni)^w
 A <t
iflifliflcrcfnniou

Rue gas
outlet
Regenerative
Induced air heater
draft fan

Radiant reheater
Feedwater inlet to
economizer
Radiant pendent
superheater

Water walls

Pulverized coal
burners

Solid ash trough

and removal .
equipment

n 8.10 eh9thwlJ9l9ihvi1ft (pcc) [Beer, 2000]

 Section A-B
about 65 % secondary air at 320'C

Coal-air
lr Insertion tube for oil mixture
outlet.
~^7[ ignlTfon Torch 24 msec

Coahalr
mixture with 30'/
B -»- primary air about BO *C

8.11 Beer, 2000]

18 8.12 ifSofl (pcc) imu eer, 2000]

(a)
 ''mean

otteletal., 1940]

U1JU Rosin-Ramler (Rosin-Ramler type size distribution law) [Rosin et al., 1932] flinNnfTOfhmfu'Mf

(weight

mean particle) / ^dldl

Sherman (1932)

iiijm^^ (g^iJ^ 8.10

lbsfl91J) ^llfl (coal preparation system) WVIi41W

(coal feeder) (dryer) lflf9<HJ^ldi^iiull1i8ww<3 (coal

pulverizer *H19 coal mill) lias tically transport)
diuiruvno^'heh (lower reactivity coals) w

24 m/s

iwiW

m?^^

^1^ t

ssenhigh (1981)

-3

y ash)

(residence time) |

(softening temperature

(dry particulate matter)

 flna«m^

1 V f •* V

ihi8ih«nnwljjVnmflilTin^
9^^^

(Environmentally compatible SbS (High efficiency)

(Economy) im

milM &wmwVlW\nw\\imM\f) *\ ibnnai 10 ll«ino««fiwil4in liw Cross (1941); Spalding

(1951); Beer and Essenhigh (1960); Essenhigh (1961); Bhaduri and Bandyopadhyay (1971); Raju et al.

(1982); Beer et al. (1984); Cantley (1988); Essenhigh et al. (1989) Ufft Beer (2000) &X&M ^ivrfu
ftt)di4WininOTmjni?lW1Wmo'lWliunS vi\l WolfhardetaL (1964); Field etal. (1967); Doiezal
(1967); Essenhigh (1981) lltis Wall (1987) ft

8.6.3 ?21JlJni3im1tf&fifoiaitffiemmtn (Slagging combustion system)

1930 Wflfn?WJIin UUm5lHillitfiriI«rfnjn0UWtn [Doiezal, 1967]

(slag)
 MUT HEAOCR

SLAG TAP

8JBMERGCD
CONVEYOR

fi 8.14 WrQQdi^ntftjltliinUIJlll^niWi^lfltlta (cyclone furnace boiler) [Essenhigh, 1961]

-• i

(cyclone furnace boiler) [Essenhigh, 1961] flf«m«^llJ|llfi8.14 W

i'u?ii^<u9^i9in1ii^<in/ii^<Hfi9Ui<Hfn<u9<ji^hl?itilw

refractory)

(cyclone slag outlet) mmu% (slag tap) a^ffimnij?hifiwinnJ^ I

(submerged conveyor) ^ludi^mgfliiaU^llJYHGMlJ 80
 NO

1970

(stagged combustion)

NO

(fuel-rich combustion)

-lean combustion

8.6.41s;iJ1Jni11Ni1<KUU1JUVIf)§1^<um^ (Fluidized bed combustion, FBC)

(l)A-cell

(2)B-cell

(3) Over air port

(4) Free board

(5) Fluidized bed

(6) Air distributor

(7) Air tubes

(8) Super heater

(9) Tube bank

(10) Chimney

8.15
(mature technology)

8.15

5 -10 mm

(inert solid) mi Ymo l9u#U miinnflffinitasJJICU

mi 0.5-3.0 mm
2 i'dmm\imMmi\\m$')iifi%'n\i'il<u (limestone) m9 laTaW (dolomite)

1,050 - 1,170 K
e 0/

CaSO4 fnjjt

v -\

ade of co nfTltW SO

no

fn?U9UWlfimn (< 200mm ia9B(flyash)WQfm81l(canyingover)!iatl

W |

fragmentation) U9^ditJfnili9lJ (liiiJ inPI<0infl'31Ui thermal stress

(volatile matters)

him

fn51J9Vll8«3 (char combustion) ^iflfn^UWnWQ^^OgS (secondary fragmentation) [Chironeetal. 1989] |

lision) I
(char attrition) UflSflin percolative fragmentation [Beer, 2000]

ow reactivit

(free board)

(residence time) inuf?3 3 WififiqQIHqij 1,100 K ffalU

ijitnuiiti-uenomuiPi (capacity) I&'io
flO 350 MWe 0{jfilhs;iYmcyi]<U [Beer, 2000] #1#
<« 3 MWe vumnnj

(circulating fluid bed l1onO9 «! 11 M?0 CFBC) IWU CFBC

fbc

(atmospheric fluidized bed combustion H?0 AFBC) UftSfmjjmJQ* (pressurized fluidized

bed combustion m0 PFBC) milWlin&llJTJ PFBCSt8f0^m<U9fT31llUU AFBC fl0 t

e)

turbine cycle) steam turbine cycle

loiliuwifitMod'MiSen

WU Rajan and Christoff

(1982); Turabull and Davidson (1984); Matsuura and Fan (1984); Anderson et al. (1987); Azevedo et

al. (1989); lifis; Chirone etal. (1989) ifllJWU ^IMflJWQgdi^^l^iinaimjni^lHiiM&llJlJ^gi^

i Botterill (1975); Davidson and Harrison (1963,1971); HtlZ National coal board (1980) 11
 V

8.6.5 SSinjmiimititfltinJchwwUWSm'm (Coal-water slurry (CWS) me Coal-water

mixture (CWM) combustion)

^wvi^m9nlTtdimsm3Ji^iiQd1^^Q^lll|1j^<j0^ln \
chuiiu itfomjimlHflfiflMWYWiI^^

coal distillation) M?OI4lllJ

(coal gasification) lSeif1914

h nwnuimn im»wuum««iWii84 cws

u4 S9i)a«i]d9a thennai

i (auxiliary

nhi
01

fiQTUiitnirwflSwinwMniiilTdTiiHulilimli^^

<!q !

mmihmfa (file, atomization) lUWnfl

mixing) liiflno maafiflwmt^fmifiua^aQWfiioww^^ Sirnan^w (deposition) wm I
I'

FT

1980 m?iJ«wi*siJiini?i«iWuiiiJ cws

cws

General Electric UWfTTifpiuffn [Spiro et al, 1987; Kimura et al., 1987; Staub et al., 1989]
llftiVlWestinghouse Electric Corporation im^frMfsgiuim [Riekeetal.,1987]

f)94i$9nra cws (slurry droplet) mjuuiAiamnn (utfn?8;Kunwijj

fi cws

intradroplet agglomeration)

i metal) etf<19!Jlw|ll(U9^ aluminosiKcate clays luthumj 111

erosion

98O-i,iook

(slurry droplet size) U9nsnni! ^

cws on uasfmtrmbn
(deposition)

ifemS^ cws TwoWiiuu^iagovn^fi^fnttwIliiiufnijS^(fluent) tnui?trnii4iej nai ntnm?

;99^ cws uwi^ipii^
i <*)
 ivjfilwTa«ni5UPidiwiiviSi«<m9ifi9TJ(iih^iansjinm?ioiJ?2JjJifu
?i 4 pm
inwi&iwojiltfmaoihsinfli o.i -1
ifhltftfumfimicnj cws tnndiiimJnfVmiwW

ifltlSnenfmiWIW (residence time) wgeiflQl 20 ms UfiSinfll#lfln#NluiJ!JJlJU^^9On-3imi

, 1987]

(self-sustaining combustion)

Iftsuu thermal
preconditioning m^Q«{Novacketal., 1987] Tflu8msquVMnf0Wl8<J CWS liaS9inifftNilM1jlrfS

S^ 450 - 590 Klw<uws^9ifnfftwiliiifn^n<iii1ii?9ug4S<i 590 -

< O< 2.2 n«iu WdraSniniiNmswiWqpnri 99 loloii^wwvl^tuwqfi cws 590 K nti

cws

llfftT ^lWQTOm«ififnui?OTndiTiWfllfl wKj Hsu (1992); Hsu et al. (1992); Rao et al. (1992); Dodge
et al. (1992) lias Seshadri et al. (1992)
8.7

8.2

qj J

8.8

BJ> T

C QHMT)
** p i <t
D L2lt
d L

E QKNT)
Jl
f
AH QIM
 Q/(L2Tt)

K QKLTt)

k (N/L3f'tt)/t
M MIN

R filfl^Wltf^^^9^110^ (universal gas constant) QKNT)

R J99<1^13T'Wl^9mS^ Vlf L

Re tfoumft
r

Sc

T T

t t

W Mlt

M/(L2t)
m
w

MI(Llt)

niaium

a L2//

00

CO

CO
 F

iimr
g

R UViehafSJfTU (reservoir)
S TOim (solid)

W W& (wall)
JlfilWU (initial)

ni£in

t ntn

Anderson, J.S., Carl, E.L., Mainhardt, PJ., Swift, W.M., Wheeldon, J.M., Brooks, S.s Minchener, A.J.

and Stringer, J. 1987. "Wastage ofIn-Bed Heat Transfer Surfaces in the Pressurized Fluidized Bed

Combustor at Grimethorpe". ASME Journal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine and Power. Vol.

109. July, pp. 298-304.

Azevedo, J.L.T., Carvalho, M.G. and Durao, D.F.G. 1989. "Mathematical Modeling of Coal-Fired

Fluidized Bed Combustors. Combustion and Flame. Vol. 77. pp. 91 -100.
Beer, J.M. and Essenhigh, R.H. 1960. Nature, 187. p. 1106.

Beer, J.M., Chomiak, J. and Smooth, L.D. 1984. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. Vol. 10.

pp. 177-208.

Beer, J.M. 2000 "Combustion Technology Developments in Power Generation in Response to

Environmental Challenges". Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. Vol. 26. pp. 301 - 327.

Bhaduri, D. and Bandyopadhyay, S. 1971. "Combustion in Coal Dust Flame". Combustion and Flame.

Vol. 17. pp. 15-24.

Botterill, J.S.M. Fluid-bed heat transfer. Academic Press, London, 1975.

Cantley, B. 1988. "Preparation and Utilization of Pulverized Coal for Power Stations, Factories and

Steamships. Mechanical Engineering Transactions. The Institute of Engineers, Australia,

12:3 & 4, pp. 71-72.

Chirone, R., Salatino, P. and Massimilla, L. 1989. "Secondary Fragmentation of Char Particle during

Combustion in a FluidizedBed". Combustion and Flame. Vol. 77. pp. 79 - 90.

Coffin, K.P. and Brokaw, R.S. 1957. "A General System for Calculating the Burning Rates ofParticles

and Drops and Comparison ofCalculated Rates for Carbon, Boron, Magnesium and Iso-octane".

N.A.C.A. TechnicalNote3929.

Cross, BJ. 1941. "Turbulence and Combustion in the Pulverized-Coal Furnace". The Institute ofFuel.

June, pp. 197-201.

Davidson, J.F. and Harrison, D. Fluidised Particles. Cambridge University Press, New York, 1963.

Davidson, J.F. and Harrison, D. Fluidization. Academic Press London, 1971.

Dodge, L.G. Callahan, T.J., Ryan, T.W. III, Schwalb, J.A., Benson, C.E. and Wilson, R.P. Jr. 1992. |

"Injection Characteristics ofCoal-Water Slurries in Medium-Speed Diesel Equipment". ASME

Journal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine andPower. Vol. 114. July, pp. 522 - 526. |

Dolezal, R., In: Beer, J.M., editor, Large boilerfurnaces, Fuel and energy science monographs, |

Amsterdam: Elsevier, 1967. |

i
Essenhigh, R.H. 1961. "A Short History ofPuiverized-Fuel Firing". Journal ofthe Institute ofFuel. |
January, pp.16-26.
jg: Essenhigh,R.H. In: Lowry, H.H. editor. Chemistry ofcoal utilization. 2nd supplementary volume.

f; New York: Wiley, 1981 (chap. 19).

: Essenhigh, R.H., Misra, M.K. and Shaw, D.W. 1989. "Ignition ofCoal Particles: Areview". Combustion

I;' and Flame. Vol. 77. pp. 3 - 30.

! Field, MA, Gill, D.W., Morgan, B.B. and Hawksley, P.G.W. Combustion ofPulverized Coal. BCURA.

;;■ Leatherhead, England, pp. 413,1967.

Hottel, H.C. and Davis, H. 1934. "Combustion Rate of Carbon". Ind. andEng. Chem., 26. pp. 889.

Hottel, H.C. and Stewart, I.M. 1940. "Space Requirement for the Combustion of Pulverized Coal".

Ind. andEng. Chem., 32. pp. 719.

Hsu, B.D.I 992. "Coal-Fueled Diesel Engine Development Update at GE Transportation Systems".

ASME Journal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine andPower. Vol. 114. July, pp. 502 - 508.

Hsu, B.D., Confer, G.L. and Shen Z.J. 1992. "Progress on the Investigation ofCoal-Water Slurry Fuel

Combustion in a Medium-Speed Diesel Engine: Part 5-Combustion Studies," ASME Journal of

Engineering for Gas Turbine andPower. Vol. 114. July, pp. 515 - 521.

Kimura, S.G., Spiro, C.L., and Chen, C.C., 1987. "Combustion and Deposition in Coal-Fired Turbines."

ASME Journal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine andPower. Vol. 109. July, pp. 319 - 324.

Masuura, A., and Fan, L.-S., 1984. "Distribution ofBubble Properties in a Gas-Liquid-Solid Fluidized

Bed. AIChE Journal. Vol. 30. No. 6. pp. 894 - 903.

National Coal Board. FluidisedBed Combustion ofCoal. National Coal Board, London, 1980.

Novack, M., Roffe, G. and Miller, G. 1987. "Combustion of Coal/Water Mixture with Thermal

Preconditioning". ASMEJournal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine andPower. Vol. 109. July, pp.

313-318.

Rajan, S. and Christoff, J.D. 1982. "Effect of Horizontal Air Jet Penetration on the Combustion of

Coal in a Fluidized Bed". AIAA Journal ofEnergy. Vol. 6. No. 2. March-April, pp. 125 -131.

Raju V.U., De, D.S. and Sen, P. 1982. "Mathematical Model of Concentration Distribution of a

Pulverized Coal Jet in a Horizontal Combustion Chamber". Combustion and Flame. 44, pp.

137-152.
Rao, A.K., Balles, E.N. and Wilson, R.P. Jr. 1992. "Features and Performance Data ofCooper-Bessemer

Coal-Fueled Six-Cylinder LSB Engine". ASME Journal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine and

Power. Vol. 114. July. pp. 509 - 514.

Rieke, K.L., Lew, H.G. and Rovesti, W.C. 1987. "ITSL Coal Liquid as a Combustion Turbine Fuel".

ASMEJournal ofEngineering for:GasTurbine andPower. Vol. 109. July. pp. 305-312.

Rosin, P., Rammler, E. and Intelmann, W. 1932. Z Ver. deut. Ing. Vol. 26. pp. 443 - 447.

Seshadri, A.K., Caton, J.A. and Kihm, K.D. 1992. "Coal-Water Slurry Spray Characteristics of a

Positive Displacement Fuel Injection System". ASMEJournal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine and

Power. Vol. 114. July. pp. 528 - 533.

Sherman, R.A. 1932. Proceedings of3rd International Conference on Bituminous Coal Vol. 2. p.
370.

Sotirchos, S.V. and Amundson, N.R. 1984. "Dynamic Behavior ofa Porous Char Particle Burning in

an Oxygen-Containing Environment, Part I: Constant Particle Radius'*. AIChE Journal. Vol. 30.

No. 4. pp. 537 -549. I

Sotirchos, S.V. and Amundson, N.R. 1984. "Dynamic Behavior ofa Porous Char Particle Burning in
la
\

an Oxygen-Containing Environment, Part II: Transient Analysis ofa Shrinking Particle". AIChE |

Journal. Vol. 30. No. 4. pp. 549 - 556.

Soud, H.N. and Fukusawa, K. 1996. "Development ofNO Abatement and Control". IEACR 89. IEA \

Coal Research, London, UK.

Spalding, D.B. 1951. "Combustion ofFuel Particles". Fuel. Vol. 30. p. 121.

Spiro, C.L., Kimura, S.G. and Chen, C.C. 1987. "Ash Behavior during Combustion and Deposition in j|
Coal-Fueled Gas Turbines". ASMEJournal ofEngineeringfor Gas Turbine and Power. Vol. 109. •

July. pp. 325-330.

x

Staub, F.W., Kimura, S.G., Spiro, C.L. and Homer, M.W. 1989. "Coal-Water Slurry Combustion in |j
Gas Turbines". ASMEJournal ofEngineering for Gas Turbine andPower. Vol. 111. January, pp. jj

1-7.

Thring, M.W. The Science ofFlames andFurnaces, Chapman and Hall, 1962.
Xu, CM., Davis, H. and Hottel, H.C. 1934. "Combustion Rate of Carbon Spheres in Flowing Gas

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Turns, S.R. An Introduction to Combustion: Concept andApplications. McGraw-Hill Book Company,

1996.

Turnbull, E. and Davidson, J.F. 1984. "Fluidized Combustion of Char and Volatiles from Coal".

AIChE Journal Vol. 30. No. 6. pp. 881 - 903.

Wall, T.F. In: Lawn, C.J. editor. Principle ofcombustion engineering for boilers. 1987 (chap. 3).

Werkmeister, H. Arch Warmewirt, 12. pp. 225 - 232,1931.

Wolfhard, Glassman and Green (editors). Heterogeneous Combustion. Academic Press, New York,

1964.
 Fue
DiffusiorfiM

9.1 unwi

foonviflivofnifimfvo^^ivomS^utis :€0n5iflMf©*
\u

nj9^

;fi3fi|m<u9^9immJj[U(j5) nJaiivJ^imTnlgunn

ex of
ijngnw mil fi.ff. 1990 n.pf. 2003

99^i4i

m
 m

fluis; (viu

#™^^

fl

^ «oHnuu«it!9'a<rn^fiw«fntfPi?9di4'ii«vi?oiJ
iiimoTUtwtmii f

(slit)

wpinnn

f^
 fiiiiJi!Qm?«fi^0i<wS^ua2;fi'3iJJvi^4ii0^untriV rim

(eddy mixing)
i d

9.2

(Plane Free Nonburning Jet)

9.1

trwm^

9.1

ifiqunmfioei
A
Y19

T uas Y oSfhtruiJwvn^fiQijjI'gtJiiasvn'ifnejmvi^iviimi
x ifltlS y = 0 Yl
nm fii «, r ims r

o . 4

mQm

(x -> oo)

, uas r ims;ifrytr'3uu'3ti<u9^iinlm§90 f
(y = o)

-rj im

vi 9.2

V 4 j—d
 L wmIujiIyi 9.2) snn^iJvi 9.2 tnjmmiiMrofloonl&ro*

9.2 2;jJ1fU 4-6

*/ SfhiSgauin

ulu , (T-T )/(T -T) uas; y/y

Fm

(growth of jet)

(growth of boundary l

(wakes)

(jet thickness) 2d ($|llfi 9.1 ll?sn91l)

vi

(«-«J 2fhfnwvmj9'3fh (« -«J

(Pr)

(Sc) 2fiiminii (Le) 2fhivhnu

2fhvhn

(fundamental conservation equations) Y\

 W^
d A
V)
A

«! fUYl

du
ho— = (v+e)- (9.1)
dx dy dy

P=P

mo « nas o x urn; y ^nuai^u n?fly1m?1vifiifliiuiJiJii?iflui? fli

n (turbulent eddy diffusivity) € SfhmifVU 0
V -

momounufl

(5.52)

UJQ c' = 0.0185 (Cf = 0.0128 Reichardt (1943)

e-C Su

m«0.85

du dv
—+— = 0 (9.2)
dx dy
 "oo' " ~
■(T
v
— Too
00
(9.1a!
5x dy

6YF
(9.1b]
dx dy dy2

duldy
(T-TJ =0 diT-TjIdy

st:
»•
duldy
£*&'. ■

d(T-Tjldy (9.3;
dYFldy

=(7;.~reo), yf=\

8t.
duldy
= oo, 0<y<oo, (r- =0 d(T~Tjldy =0
dYFldy

(9.1) (9.ia) n?is; (9.1b)

^mvif)Wfn^ndiQ^i

ar.
9.3 mtl

(9. (9.2)&H!fhtt

du __ dy
(9.4)
dx dy

udv/dy (9.4)

= «5« / 3x -f d(vu

() «
1 =(v+e) (9.5)
dx dy dy2

mim? (9.2) lias tfum? (9.5) «nin?ofln8wfiin?«9in ^ = o

Suvunifltrufm (9.2) *hwwftflin ^=o S^ y = S uastnn >»=o ^/2 Wwiutrurn? (9.6)
uns (9.7) fnuaimj

(9.6)
dx

d
(9.7)

(9.5) = o l?4 v = 8 n 1&nutnjmi

(9.8) llfi

(v+e)— (9.8)
dx dy]

d fi/2
f/2 du
ii (v+e)- (9.9)
dx
5/2
= o fb
ugy\y> S fii ^
(9.3) = 0 =0 vi y = (9.8)

.10)

d
(9.10)
dx

(9iio)

x=o

m dy — (9.11)

dy
d(T-T) d{T-T) 8u 8v
=u =- + o -+(T-TJ\ - + —
dx dy \dx dy

(9.1a) ^iltjtriifni (9.U)

du(T-Tj t
1

dx dy dy

(9.8a)
dx dy .
rifcwniwh (T-TJ lias d(T—rw)/dyWarns (9.8a) Sriiminugutm y mimjwf9inn
mimjwf
trunii (9.8a) a«

d cB
— \u(T-Tm)dy = 0 (9.10a)
dx*

muiiuj .10a) ^ pc

x=

(9.

f fnutrumi (9.1b) «s

aviBfj

(9.10b)

/2=M/flf. /2, (9.

d 1
(9.6) (U (9.9)

9.3 9.5

— =1-- 0<|v|<<5 (9.12)

 uitu

(9.12) (9.6) 8* (9.9)

8 mjrro (9.16)
.13) 8*

(9.13)

(9.14)

(9.15)

d
(9.16)
dx

(v

u mutiiifn? (9.12)
V

(9.13) &) (9.

 .85

(9.17)

wnmu .13)

(9.18)

Ifltjfmimumjfm (9.14) uasmifm (9.

3 d
(9.19)
16 dx

a in p

(Solution of Laminar Plane Free Inert Jet)

(9.17) {famifm (9.19)

(« ) Jl (entrainment velocity)

64v

64v

3w 3w d
i i
 = o 1$ u =
9.20)

-1/3

m
64v jc
i i
(9.20)
. uididij

/ i i

(9.18) Hhnutriifm (9.20) l

2/3
28 64 jc
1+ (9.21)

w\ii?it)if)w8mmiufi'\
\?itf u sjintrum? (9.20) utis ^ snntrjjfm (9.21)
in
(9.17)

9.22)

~2/3
16 64 a:
1+ (9.22)
ut 3Re.

« flintrumi (9.20) ims; ^ tnntruni? (9.21) (9.12)

u idu&trufm (9.23)
-1/3 N-2/3
64 jc 64 jc
1+ 1-2 - 1+ (9.23)
. **tdtJ d.
i J\
Re, d_.

(9.23)

(9.22) uas (9.21) fmmciafl$iJffinMiiiimjfm (9.24) (9.25) ua

 ^ 9.4 flsriiiriitnjfm
iiri (9.20), (9.21)
(9.22) uasmm'miafljikft (9.24), (9.25), (9.
1/3/ 2/3
Re^_
1-2^ (9.24)
64 a: _ 64* _
ul V

,2/3
16
'<5_
(9.25)
Ui 3 Re 64a:
ij

,2/3
28 [ 64x
(9.26)

1.0 r- 0.010 10
1—1—1—r

0.8 - 0.008 9.20-9.22

tftJfn? 9.24-9.26

0.6 - 0.006

a"
>
0.4 - 0.004

0.2 - 0.002

0 I—
240

9.4 I'wiirlflM /w , og /«. irns

(Re= 1,000)
 1.0

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

nun

(T-Tj(TrTj , YF , utu, =

0.9^0.8--0.7 0,6

9.6 l#Uf»TIJJlf1f\*Yi (isovelocity contour) nf9l#14^tUVIQ5n^W (isothermal contour)

(isocomposition contour) iltMlQffll&QejSfr?
 (9.24), (9.25) uas (9.26)

u iimuuijmiufl54en*jmjfm (9.12) wiiifrnQifmsMTuwu hJtihemrnaumj

(exact solution) «U9-9 Schlichting (1968) flUlflUfm (9.24s), (9.25s) Utis; (9.26s)

(lij99fnJS s ^ri9<ni0M3J1CIlf1<Utr3Jm?Min«S^Wama0l«9'3 Schlichting (1968))

l u/ut ^m'UQtu'ointnjmi (9.24) unstriini? (9.24s)
9.5 ^Id1^S
4 •

— = 0.4543 sech2^ (9.24s)

. \ x

v 0.5503 ( Re
—= — [2(fsech2£-tanh<n (9.25s) I
u. Kq. V x

.2/3
A
me = 0.2752

/ \2/3
25 4
(9.26s) i
d. 0.2752

25 /rf.)
1
= v =
I

4
■i
/ ,1/3 2/3
(T-T) YF _u
1-2
YPi ut 64*
(9.27)
. M/3 2/3
Re.rf.
0.4543 - sech2| 0.2752 — m
 (9.27) WWuJo&mffiu */</ jjfhiJfKi *\ miiru (9.27)

UfmiUHflW (isovelocity contour) V1?9 l^9QiM^5 (isothermal contour) VI ?9

flQUfi^yi (isocomposition contour Y19.6

vi 9.7 y (x, y)

F O J F

VI59

7 =//(/ + !) (9.28)

fi 9.
9.

(Turbulent Plane Free Inert Jet)

di

Re

(molecular viscosity) V

^ (turbulent diffusivity)£•

Cfumd

(9.19)
a/ W 3f

3 d
—

16 ^

1 32 C
dul=

-1/2
64 , x
(9.29)
3 d.

(9.29) tulumjm? (9.17) UflS (9.18) VII93J <§Vllvi*J W

-1/2
64 , x
1+—C — (9.30)
«.. 3
$■■

lias
23 64 , x
1+—C — (9.31)

. 3 4.

(9.3 i)fl9wmttatimimm^^

(9.20) (9.22) uas (9.21)

u fnntrum? (9.29) d ■oinmjfm (9.31)

m

(9.12) •D ui (9.29a)

-1/2
u 64 . x 64 ,x
1 +—C — 1-2- 1+—C — (9.29a)
u3 3 u. 3 rf.

(9.29) 'WlJ'31f!i?f>at{?l<«9<lflQ1lllf'3l'Ul^mJlJm0i5'3ll1l4^TSJE)S x Ifl «! (local

j —1/2 w S/ e« •
maximum velocity) K^llltalllaaUflUI x ^iiUtii x JJfnilifl ut
(9.30) flQusfunii (9.29) YHjQifniuifivniSi vs sjs
(entrainment constant)
01
V

u flintrum? (9.31) <wuiifhfniuM'UTU94wmiuum95flQiaiJw 8 w^%^tmCi?\m^m\

(9.29), (9.30)

(9.31) u

(9.12)

(exact solution) «U9^ Schlichting (1968) mutrum? (9.29s), (9.30s) ltf)S (9.31s)

1/2
U ( 3(7
-1 sech2£ (9.29s)
«,. V 4

' - . M/2
'5 _
(9.30s)
 2(5 4 x
(9.31s)
d,

oy/x; (« 2.96 fl y<5=l) UflS a1 flOfhfUflilfl Reichardt

(1943) s= s = f

(species) w^

9.6

(Cylindrical Free Inert Jet)

31HI 9.8

9. l - 9.5
 tic

sir

du du d fa_
ru \-rv— =
dx dr dr
(9.32)
dru drv
+ =0
dx dr

<u .eta 4 d o a/ <?• «a

UJ9 x HAS r

(x = vi u imst; fl x uas r

fliii Inum?\^f)mei\imif\'UYim')il\i\iivfs 9.
(9.32)

1 d
= —— \rudr (9.33)

2 d
vs/2=-—\ rudr (9.34)
dx

d rt
— \ru2dr = i (9.35)
dxh
d du
— I ru2dr + [ruv]xn = m (v+e)r— (9.36)
dx dr} 511

(9.35) S^ntJtusjfiaicinutrufn?
aicin (9.11)

x imsSfinvlinu

hTD>puC(T-
 Jo2itrPuYdr=nd*puY/4
F t I Fi

A 31

9.2

(9.33) a*

ira'UQ
ra'UQ 9.
92

^^ 1

48 x 48 x
i j .
1-2- 1+ (9.37)

-I
48 ':%
(9.38) j
Re, d
ut Rei / di J
I
48 x
1+ (9.39)
m

V<imOll1lfn
me Re. = m. d. I v ^lf1«Q1ffJJm? (9.37) (9.38) liHSJ (9.39) <V<imOll1lfnUtT3Jfn? (9.23) (9.22)

(«U)MfimfltJ(U9^fniSwVim?^ltf3Jfn?mmwmJ(WHmtlOVIU'lJ'UQ'U mt) Schlichting(1968))

arum? (9.37) (9.38) im (9.39) tnanmiJiouifioui^nunsfu*

Schlichting (1968) ^9^l^etfI3flV15^ni2;i)!)fifiS(lJW1fl|v!lil^^fi9UtU^^n?113Jtf1Jni? (9.37s) |
(9.38s) lias (9.39s) Pn3J«l^U I

(9.37s) I
«, 3211 x
 (9.38s)

/ \
2<5 32
(9.39s)

UJ9

^ (-«

vimm

«■>!

2r
1 + 24C — 1 + 24C — (9.40)
d.

v
i. '
— = 2C 1 + 24C — (9.41)
i

2(5
1 + 24C — (9.42)

Ou) wamaou9*fmm4imn?flmifmluam&i (H?imfio^iiiJU€<uT?i£i Schlichting (1968))

u 3 (d.
(9.40s)
u, 16~/no'\ x (l-^2)2
d
(9.41s)
u. 8
 r \
2d X

(9.42s)
Kd,J
ifig

1 3 r
g=
• ' V n\
lij

innN?imi1flfla9W94 Reichardt (1943)1$

"' = 0.0161

' = 0.0128

Schiichting (1968) •U9<m?f3ista^<3flm<j

f3is
i da 3;

Schiichting |

9.! ' J
A A
Reichardt 1
I
(1943

^9.9 9.10 lias 51JV1 9.11

AJl

9.1

d «a i A
 a A
"UniJSchlichting(1968)

imuuamm uuuuafiim
,10

0.021 -

/„ , \I/J S, \W

0.454 -^L-L 2.40 -L 0.094 • 10.00 —

Schlichting(l968)
\ x J \x J
\

16.0 0.394 0.308

25 Re.rf

14.6 * 0.520 0.100

Schlichting(1968)

kl/2
0.333 (d
0.079 0.084 —
u, Re Vx

0.550
0.156
Schlichting(l%8)
Re, V x
 10

ilj //
8 -

/ /
6 -- fj

4
-i
-
thj

I
QnYi^nTsuonimiJuauui/CRe =i,ooo)
I
/y/X ^i«fl?s\numjiiiiiaihm (Re =i,ooo)
i

V i i 1 1 1

0 40 80 120 160 200

xld.

9.11
 d i 4 d
9.9 fl mi
Ss?

• <«.'«.>

tMfrii
si

snnnlvi 9.10 «^
(2S/d{

^ 9.11

(Combustion of Free Jet of Fuel Issuing into Quiescent Air)

9.1 S<i 9.6

o

v=a=D

9.1 en 9.6

(reaction

(composite
variable) lfufUVIflijflfl<3ffli'mi Schvab-Zelovich transformation m3J

MwromliJsnnnsfiffliiijmsiHiW

1,500 k m 2,000 K mmi ri^waWinfi (n)

Howarth's transformation VlfoJilfotjluUKlll^Sfni^infnnutfJJiTSm^tT^mil (transport

properties) TilllitnSJlfflUfjniintTJJfniTllWJtJ&odi^llluStt:

(cylindrically symmetrical) ^OliaQtYlJJIItlfi'DSJllJatlVllflPl^ntiiQ ^

Mangier's transformation n0WH9SJlV Howarth's transformation j

l^o^fnAnfiWuuiO'j
I
iilluni?m3J
ad t in «*■ a/ . d ^

V V

iivjfiflsmjJeTjmjiiB^ni
(9.37) (dwfiiwwuuiiuB5<gi5) unsffiini^ (9.40)

p
 w

(9.43)
u.

-i

48 x 48
F(x,r) = 1+ 1-2— 1+

J V J

-i

. X
r) = 1 + 24C — 1-2- 1 + 24C —

\ i _
J

x/d>> l -uvi

Schlichting (1968) mmilfm (9.37s) iitiZ (9.40s)

1414194

f, o uti

f ~x niQJJTMITJJllW'W

V, KT-TJ d q r
hro = (v+e)—r 1 (9.44)
dx dr dr dr pC

r d dY W"'r
ru — r-~+ (9.45)
dx dr dr dr
me q llfiS w"' HO source term 110W&NTU W\l cal/cm3/sec) lias sink term «U9«
ivm gm/cmVsec) mwdhmi

(simple
single step reaction) flllltriimtfTflQBfllgilJfliftmjfm (9.46) Wmifciumjtnjfm (7.45) U94
00*lSof0mfi*m?n (single droplet combustion)

/gms ug^i^mS^i f+ 1 gm *u0>q99n5iflvj o

-> (i+f) gms wtm wS^intu'M p n- •Mo^fniu Jew (9.46)

Schvab-Zelovich transformation

(9. tins

sink term <U9<ltn?wSi?ljTfW<1i'lwtT3Jmi (9.44) lias (9.45) lflf)9

(9.47)
fAH

(7.4

/ 1+/ 1+/

WJm
un (9.48) 1

source term as sink term w ug^uiaejgcjy^yiimfn? m

(9.44) uas ffjjfm (9.45) iSofiguIaaxjitTiim^ii^rfg^in

 source term

(9.48)

source term was sink term

db db a db
ru—-fry— = (v+e)—r— (9.49)
dx dr dr dr

ijjg 6^9(S'QuiJ5uuiJHtnjS|iJuuiJ^i8uliniiii'4Su 5 uuufliufrufm

(9.44) uasmjfm (9.45) timifivimii b Fp

(9.45) (9.45) j = P)

= f) (9.44)

f
Yn ~
1+/ 1+/

j
Yn -
1+/

(9.50)
AH

-K.
'0T~\ ' *0
fkH

'0oo

(9.49)

(9.51)
 = 0, db/dr
r = 0, 0<*<oo, = 0, db/dr (9*51)
r>S, = 0, db/dr

(9.49)
V t

.32) yjmbsfm uansjinui^aij l<uiJ9ui(u?ino

ft

^ ^wu^u (9.32) viwi^iJim9im?fwm? (9.49) II

(9.49) w?9jjii9\jvl<u<u9ui<u?i«i3Jtnjfni (9.51) ^ (9.37)

b
(9.52)
b.

1119 F(x,r)

(9.52)

^9
Ivl (composition profiles across the flame)
(temperature prolBles across the

9.7.1

OfllgUJfli i
= Yn = 0

(9.50) I
I.

?■;':

£.
(9.53)

W9RQH mim? (9.53)

(9.53)

(9.53)

/ im 9.6 Yjmtasfm
co(/ = 28/46)

(9.53) Sfiimimj l /(i +16/28) = 0.

co 9.6

(isoveiocity) mini) 0.635 uui9* co

(Y^ « 0. (9.53) Sfhivhnii

0.232/(0.232 + 16/28) = 0. co

9. Sfhmi 0.

co

9.7.2

^,=0

-1
48 x,
=11+—^~ (9.54)
Re. if,
 i

fY<Qoo
(9.55)
i J

uflmjms (9.54) uas (9.55) 1

- _ uidt (9.56)
xc

xc oc 14

oc 1/V

OC 1//

OC \/Y
oca

200 300 400 500 600 700

100

cmVsec

111 9.12
 pJvi 9.12 im?;i<ifiQi3Jfjniila'3lvl(U9'3i??i^ilyi5^nisju9nuiJuiia2tJi? xc wu
/4 fifh Tlfof

= 0.015cm2 /secm9lNll<mjl'U91fnfr

« 0.06 cm2 / sec UJgimlwJjftuggnSlSJUllf^Ylii

(9.57)

i/c

oc 1//

oc 1/7OOO

ri 9.13
 9.14

9.13

«r, wh Iwiiintuinn c'=o.oi28

sugfmuuiiafiui? $i

(9.56) (9.57)

9.14

liiiilmWimuunJJiiii ic/</fwuiliwulfio««niJfii Re.

xc / d. ii(u iwiwo 'coo

9.7.3.1

x<x

9.1 S<i 9.6

 (9.5

(o<|r|<rc)

=0 flfJJfm (9.58a) •ll^

(9
000

p.-ss
, r)i4tnjjKiilwllil<?nJJ?t3jm? (9.43) snnttjjm? (9.58) meuntfjjmivnfii rF

4 '. 0<|r|<rc (9
-ifcS
 i t
9.7.3.

fern;*

(rcS|r|£ YF = .58a

—17/
FU, r)
\

9.7.3.

numivn

.50) V\
4s

/ /
I

=o rF=i,y/>=:

UTIVJfil .52

+
1+/ 1+/
= F(x, r)

1 +/
 (r<\>\<S) lF

ooo
Y = F(x, (9.61)

<\A

tnnmm? (9.50) W

Ooo

1+/

=o ro =0,7^ =0

+ JY,OOO

(9.62)

d a.
9.7.4

x > x
9.7.4.2
 (9.53) si^lutrums (9.63)
flmliniuwi9iJ*liJ«njjf»ufni (9.65)

fYoaoc{T.-Tc
 9.15

m x <

fi 9.15 9.59) ff<jtrufni (9.64) unifiwuie^

9.8

H =5.5%,CO

11.9 %,

9.15
 250 i i i

200

150

3*
100

50

-f n—

2,000 4,000 6,000 8,000 10,000

Re/
,S
9.16

Ref<2ooo

W. inn

.66)

8.55(11^/)"■ (9.66)

UJ9 Re.« 2,000 (transition)

Re.

2,000 < Re. <io.ooo nji4num?<uwnii9tuvifj5u9'3fmuTi'Ufi<u9^i?0ma-i nhj

9.9.1

iftav tjfuvurjfl

iJiJM^
m^^

wtfu
(9.43)

tfTii^oTi^

1di^eiiJuilfl^msSfiiminiJH?tm?tt(li4|il1?MwlQaiJ9<i9,QiM^fl

(niflunmfioo

win i^i§9ma^wwmli]iHivl^tfl<wiJ^oinifr^SmiiTifi99vi «i wiumn j|

9.17

*mho

u / ui
u / «,

i^ntii

(isothermal contour) £s
 i V I a/ 0/ i £S

fiir
ill o q S>

trmism?

j'Hf9uf
 oon'bnfl'UJ

di u itn tin s/
ITJtl llJ lU l^lititJ

'5 transformation m911t)

2;iointnim?9i4in^'wa<i^Tuufis;tT3jni?9ijfn^3J/3alfl J
v

Howarth 's transformation

V

m9liii?p»nJa«<uuii3<ui2;

dy p ry d
y = —=—° + wL—
I
I
5f

L- - JuaHi

^ (9 69) gn

P\ ^ 5 viuiifiQijjTiij^nij^tuvifjS t

oc rw rib m «0.7 - 0.85

9.3 m'u Pr, Sc vi r=o°cutisp=i

iintr Sc Pr Le

01^004 0.75 0.67 1.12

0.74 0.71 1.04

JJ4Y1VI 0.70 0.74 0.95
0.74 0.72 1.03
fuJuouWonW1 0.71 0.75 0.95
0.73 0.71 1.03

Mlfl 0.83 0.67 1.25

i>

wirmi 9.4 fmirunu^cuvif}*i riJ9<ue111 Pr, Sc iiaSL(i*U9<!9imf

ip=iuf?oifnff
Sc Pr Le
T(K) 01fl1Pf f oimff simflf t
300 0.81 0.74 0.71 0.72 1.14 1.03
350 0.841 0.81 0.7 0.695 1.2 1.16
400 0.87 0.84 0.692 0.68 1.26 1.24
450 0.894 0.86 0.68 0.68 1310 1.27
500 0.91 0.88 0.68 0.682 1340 1.29
550 0.925 0.89 0.677 0.691 1.37 1.29
600 0.945 0.9 0.678 0.71 1.4 1.27
700 0.96 —
0.682 —
1.41 —

800 0.98 —
0.69 — 1.42 —

900 0.985 —
0.695 —
1.42 —

1,000 0.99 —
0.698 —
1.42 —

composition gradient) 8fhiJ9tJ

8fhiJ eNift4Waf)CU«U9* pfj. =
 3c,y

O(x,y)

1wMQ<u9ri9<uvii4ilfi <oin<u<u^fi9milfioT4f!i M aims u

(9.68) uas; (9.69)

ilu i

iy = a = d

9.3 9.4

vuin

(infinitely fast)

9.18^©
(n)

(finitely fast)
 9.18

.000 K

9.19
 I

(time-averaged profile)

strained) WU (folded) mx$n (wrinkled) lift (convoluted)

(broken)

9.10 (Confined Jet Flame)

m
jSHm9fn?SntJiim^innl«fjfuany«us;'WU2iwinei'3nu
m

j
1

Burke and Schumann (1965)

Landis and Shapiro (1951)

 Thring and Newby (1953)

Forstall and Shapiro (1949,1950)

ast

furnace)!^ Hathrone et al. (1949)

11? Sawaietal. (1953)

,flwtT94^lU5Jl^9 l^^nUlltn*Un>3 (transverse m9 normal confined

1 jet) (longitudinal confined jet) lumJUU1fl<lT<Ul?9mH'9llt1SJ91fnff
if V

fiuiJiJvt^wwtslTiti^t4iunwi?^tr9>3^'u?iflfiiiii^i^fyiJin<l«

9.10.1 I9ttfhnilfl'mu<intim<i (Transverse t119 normal confined jet)

9.20

Hawthorne et al. (1949)

|
ff a,00
d 4 «=k

x fttrumi (9.70)

= 2.91 (9.70)

*0O
 • ft

w
a

9.20 awthorne etal., 1949]

vl (regenerative combustion) ,4
mm 1,000 °c

(recirculate)

(flameless oxidation)

[Katsuki and Hasegawa, 1998]

^ J
 9.10.2 IffflfliftUftilJUinEm (Longitudinal confined jet)

-d. ■u.

i*

9.21

[Landis and Shapiro, 1951]

ni?flny

I Of tt

9.21

[Landis and Shapiro, 1951]

fin r L)

i (9.71)
 (9.72)

T-T
1 + cos— (9.73)
Tm T*> J V 25,J
\
w« 1
1 + 3— (9.74)
d, 2V

I
—=4 H -3^ (9.75)
d. u
i J
i

d_
>L (9.76)
d: 2\ x

t
>L (9.77)
1.4
\ut

mmim (main flow)

(9.77)
V

0.7 mi<u0>3fni3Jvri4ittfvini0iii<u?j<u0>39,m<HfjSiYiiw<u enmm 0.7

9.22

d
 HZ
r-
C
r~
SI O

9.22 ts ^^
[ThringandNewby, 1953]

[ThringandNewby, 1953]
 9.23

nm

x2 « 2.25 dd

0/ <f

(vortex)

9.23

fl9JJ1 Burke and Schumann (1965)

9.22 9.23

(n) vu u ims;fi<ificB^l'UTn^iJgijitnjJi?ti
fiB

ttiJij?tuvi^

iWilnnSm I

iintr lemei
 V
o> a/ 0» I
0 uas

d_ dY0
(9.78)
dr dr dx

d_ dYp dY*
(9.78a)
dr dr

sink term ^'=jw

(9.78a) (9.78) niJfil /m9mM sink term

—rpD- (9.79)
dr g dr dx

= 0,

jc>0, =0 and r= d(YF-Yof)/dr

(9.79) vnfii (YF—Yof)vw)lwlitmhlmiim x uasirW

(YF —YQf) = O ^llvi x = xc, r = rc Burke and Schumann (1965)
Jt
%?*■* 9.80)

—KnDxrftt
(9.80)

(9.80a)
13J9 JQ UflS Jx f!9 Bessel functions

ill C.R.G Handbook m9 Jahnke lias Emede's Tables of Functions xr, ,

9.24 =5

,0=0.49

Overventilated flame

rc = 0 (9.80) luvn^^f^nii^
d?iQivls)S9dwiVll<i'3^ll1H'3llVll'a1i1l1(U949iniPfl10flllJi1Qlvl^1ll'31 Underventilated flame
rc (9.80) 9.24
i/l
•mn\ Overventilated flame

r in

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

1.4

1.2 -

I
 (9.80) firi n mmxi

(9.80)

Si;1 .81)

(9.81)
3.8317 Jn (3.8317)

(9.81) wmwounuwwof

yTUQ^ Burke and Schumann (1965) Yinrnin tn»J1?Q?f?lltn52Jff

(n)

m9i

underventilated flame

overventilated flame ulmlvto

(A)

(«)

underventilated flame

overventilated flame llbl ivIfl

 Burke and Schumann

1
D $it}mf\mimvf>*imsviiti\i4 (eddy diffusivity)
3/ • a/ <v v i

Cc OC Udd

I
(n)

ace heating rate

(fl) snnilJYI 9. UV1UY1 N O2 underventilated flame 92J S

f)90 «1 ^UuliJVKi 0.5<Y0l <0.7 underventilated flame fl* ■$

overventilated flame U?)3

underventilated flame

fti ^i9ifnfrSflTU/3i4<W9i<M3Jis;?njj'nf]ygiiJa'3lvlns)2; :Nrefi

•f
overventilated flame

•;r;

I
Thring and Newby (1953)
2Jl^9lVia4 ji
 (9-82)

:.;*i

= 1.

9.11

viTi4

spaiding (1955)

I if

(9.57) 24Cxc/«/'> lmjfm (9.57)

 (9.57)
M Qa}

Thring and Newby

82)

(9.43) w

24C */</' (9.43)

24C'x

WJ9

<Ds;<niW?2JOs;vn^m5imtlMwvi?9fi'3i3JtJT3iiJa'31lrlSfiiuin
v v « •

unu x

^
(9.83)

/2
(9.83) %
 7 (tuifm (7.73)

(9.84
d. I \2Cdfip DMB + 1)

jn x. /xr HiWfotnnjmifm (9.84) ^lattum? (9.57) S9

1/2
\
'0«
(9.85
Pv"
8/) Z)ln(5 + 1)
i J

>x
^i'.1;/-.'
vi 3
u d0 Sfiiuin fmuinfmSn «/

utis; Sfiunn x >xk

xc >
V

[Thring and Newby, 1953]

V 1

iiiio

xc >xb

[Burgoyne, 1954]
9.12

no

ameless oxidation) 9nufius;llfndT39dl'3asi9CJ?ll<UUYlfi 10

vi 10.9.8 «tf>a iyqml<ufl94nm'3<riTuiJYivi0n m^viPi9<i<uivn(u0?i>3fi?nQ liJ h munvi 10 m <] fi

no ctw §
10 [Gupta, 2000; Flamme, 2001; Katsuki and

Hasegawa, 1998; Wunning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997]

Shimo and Fujisou f|

(1999), Huang etal. (2000), Isaevand Delyagin(1995) t

I

9.13

ii?^ :

y '

1 I

™
is!
i4fn?mMWfifni3JtnQiu0^Ti0<iiHil'Hun W
1

(lMa0el^^%in<H?0lvjti<ulUTunuwmTi9<iiHilvfw)
d

nimj
 i
8/1

iiurnimi

a 9/

9.25 - 9.27 U
<Q*a

IVlifTU (temperature contour) I^KlflllltniylflttlilJY) 9.20 iflulllgeil^UJJVIOl l«tfV!

Katsuki and Hasegawa (1998)

Ryugo et al. (2002) Auwu iQnvufiuui]?

(opposing jet)

ame stretch rate

9.27
Y1<l^V!9IUQejWni?ftM)TwJ|HSૈ
i rfi
i]afli)tioaii5intu NO
!■«

i r.

9.25
 X

Y////////A idtnlvl I

9.26 WWlllmlvluiJU Modified Marble-Adamson

9.27

9.14

fhaivw

C QWT)

D L2/t

d rfumumwmm vif9
 (fuel) H?9 imm^QO (inert gas)

q/m

ramaotr

Z,

m/n

inert gas) -

Vlf9 ttltHmmw (product) F/L2,-

Pr

Qf{Llt)

ft Re

Jj
Sc

nm

W M/(L2t)

9fl5in-niw"iw?ntytfi9W§4
tfi9W§ Mig^nmnnfitniwSwnQien
MI(L?t)
Y

a
V

H fmuwwiifMiijn Mi{Lt)

p fmumwmu mil1 „

a v mm vair;

C ehumkiiJsnlvf
D fmim? (diffusion)

d l&4N"Mffuanfn4 (diameter) M? 0 mCil40n (outside)

F wgi'wS^ (fuel) W59 HfltTlft90 (inert gas)

i m?§« (injection) m9 molli (inside)

j ifUPIinatttS (species)

m ljuunutnjinw

0 99051!)^ (oxygen) <H?9llflttlTJ9W (inert gas)

P tfilHti^flfU6^ (product)

P *tf93YI1499n (port) Ml 9l^mUi5«t1 (potential)

T.t ^QiVIQU (temperature)

0 flfmsmjflfu ^initial)
F U5<l

I fmutm

Q
t ntn

imarmfmi

Abramovich, G.N. Theory ofTurbulentJets. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge, 1963.

Barr, J. 1949. Fuel. London, 28, pp. 181,200,205,225.

Bevans, R.S. High-Output Combustion of Volatile Liquid Fuels. Sc.D. Thesis in Chemical Engg.

M.I.T., Cambridge, 1949.

Burgoyne, J.H. Discussion in Selected Combustion Problems, p. 392. Butterworths, London, 1954.

Burke, S. and Schumann, T. 1928. Ind. andEngg. Chem. Vol. 20. p. 998.

Burke, S.P. and Schumann, T.E.W. 1965. "Diffusion Flames". First and SecondInternational Symposia

on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 2 -11.

Flamme, M. 2001. "Low NO Combustion Technologies for High Temperature Applications". Energy

Conversion and Management. Vol. 42. pp. 1919 -1935.

Forstal, W. and Shapiro, A.H. 1950. Journal ofApplied Mechanics, p. 381; Also M.I.T. Meteor

Report No. 39,1949.

Gupta, A.K. 2000. "Flame Characteristics and Challenges with High Temperature Air Combustion".

Proceedings of2000 International Joint Power Generation Conference, Miami Beach, Florida,

July 23-26, pp. 1-18.

Hawthorne, W.R., Weddel, D.S. and Hottel, H.C. 1949. "Mixing and Combustion in Turbulent Gas

Jets". Third Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 266 - 288.
Hottel, H.C. 1953. "Burning in Laminar and Turbulent Fuel Jets". Fourth Symposium (Int.) on

Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 97 -113.

Hottel, H.C. and Hawthorne, W.R. 1949. "Diffusion in Laminar Flame Jets". Third Symposium (Int.)

on Combustion. The Williams & Wilkins Company, pp. 254 -266.

Huang, I-Te, Chang, W.-C., Chern, W.-M. and Chang, R.-C. 2000. "Investigation of Regenerative

Combustion using a Heavy Fuel Oil". Journal ofPropulsion and Power. Vol. 16. No. 4. pp.

590-594.

Isaev,V. V.andDelyagin,G.N. 1995. "Reduction of Nitrogen Oxide Emission during Coal Burning".

Fuel and Energy. Vol. 36. No. 4. July, p. 253.

Katsuki, M. and Hasegawa, T. 1998. 'The Science and Technology ofCombustion in Highly Preheated

Air". Twenty-Seventh Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, pp.

3135-3146. 1

Laiidis, F. and Shapiro, A.H. Proceedings ofHeat Transfer and Fluid Mechanics Institute, Stanford

University Press, 1951.

Reichardt, H. Gesetzmassigkeiten der freien turbulenz, V.D.I. Forschungsheft, 414,1942; AlsoZ

Angew. Math. Mech.t2l, 1941, Translation published in Journal ofRoyal Aero. Soc.} 47, p. 167,

1943.

Ryugo, F. Hideaki, K., Yiguang, J., Kaoru, M. and Takashi, N. 2002. "NO Emission from

High-Temperature Air/Methane Counterflow Diffusion Flame". InternationalJournal ofThermal

Science. Vol. 41. pp. 693 - 698.

Sawai, I., Kunugi, M. and Jinno, H. 1953. "Turbulent Diffusion Flames". Fourth Symposium (Int.) on

Combustion. The Williams & Wilkins Company, pp. 805 - 814.

Schlichting, H. Boundary Layer Theory. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1968.

Shimo, N. and Fujisou, A. 1999. "Influence ofFuel Properties on Petroleum Combustion with Highly

Preheated Air". International Symposium ofHigh Temperature Air Combustion & Applications

(HTAOy Kaohsiung, Taiwan, January.

Spalding, D.B. Some Fundamentals ofCombustion. Butterworths, London, 1955.

Hiring, M.W. and Newby, M.P. 1953. "Combustion Length ofEnclosed Turbulent Jet Flames". Fourth

Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Williams & Wilkins Company, pp. 789 - 796.

WunningJ.A.andWiinningJ.G., 1997. "Flameless Oxidation to Reduced Thermal NO -

X

Formation". Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. Vol. 23. pp. 81- 94.
 PremixedFM

10.1

luimvi 6
S/<* e» . v r d
\ Ufclo/t

i a t -r
mo

JI'U'UQdgmoimS (kinetically controlled) l8

i <3

99n^ lm^9iYiwtrym™^^
V

(gaseous premixed flame) WigdKinigOliJsnivl^S MM nJtuivlvo^

(Bunsen burner) ivu Siviii (ch ))

(turbines

soHds) s08n€lm*eTflm*Hfl^
 f
I

raw
j1 w Hi
Qimff (space shuttle) IM^tnmflf ttfomSwqflfi'ntfiU'roin solid ammonium perchlorate ||
(NH4C1O4) M?9 liquid mono methyl hydrazine l^W?kmm?hCminifU'Uliv! mono I
propeiiants mii

q (macroscopic)

(solid propeiiants) iw9inPini?iHi1'Hw s

Nlri9ufiuihlll<U?r9<IUUim9 HUU9^jmJ^ (stationary flame) UfiS |

urmmumtiUYi (propagating flame) mjnuQf mtitaufhijwmnhgijfntuiil?n1v) 0
Exothermic reaction) grfl^ifQfllillpltiili^llflwP
ame structure) l&lfi ^tliVtgfi 9^lli2;n91J fniUHUIUlitJ UfIS

3wil?2;Itiut49m^

,y?iilYlt)inni?is;m^^iJ^nlpi§w<Hi9i^lwvn^fiiJnfigjj1iJft«
?s;Syi?fiivi^^ms;iJ9ngu i
<t*l V «l rf__ -4^.5.ia

imintiinu j

10.2 The Hugoniot

niw
p (defragation wave) (ffliltffl M < 1) (detonation wave) (Af>l)

\ \ \\ \ \ \ \ \
k I

10.1

ex a ai a

n. is;

u.

fi.

uvin (shockwave)

O Q/ 0* ev
"0.

Mx

> l

mmnmttmiz l

m= 00.1)

P\+Plu\ (10.2)
 (10.3)

mm m> ilafmnnuas u nofmiunfmliiti f h Tumjfm (10.3)

(chemical heats of formation) lWuriiieuifiml#UMff (sensible
enthalpy) uonfnnuutmrifffms 2 oiflimtnotfumntitm (species)

j ■ ■ - - ,
eV t *k

pxRT PlRT
Pi UnSJ /72 = (10.4)
W W
.1

A/

trims 1 m® 2

/=!

A.1 = c P'{XT-29S)+(Ah°f)
v ' \ f /298,
(10.5)

uvmfi 71112J 1 lUIS 2

(10.6)
1—1
 M

298 c 298 K Am 0 K

h = c r+ir.(AA!)
<

(10.6)

(10.3

= c
,2 2
(10.7)

(10.8)

WJ9 Mj « W2 » 0 liHSJ px » /?2

1
C0 + -0 -> C02
2 l

(A/i0J = - 8.935 kj/g, (A/k) =-4.064 kJ/g

CO 'co
II

°2 11

CO. [co.
 (10.8)

q = (7/1 lX- 4.064)+ (4/1 lX0)- (lX- 8.935) = 6.349 —

g

(10.7)

c .
PA
= c.
P.2
= c
p
W.12
= W~ = W

titative)

(qualitative)

mm

mo y H0 (10.7)

\
:'ti

(10.9) m
w
y—1
V

(10.1) ims; (10.2) vnfh

1 1
 {pi-pi) (10.10)
1 1

P\ Pi)

ff l wil&nntnjfm (lo.io)Sa

(10.11)

(io.i) uastnjfm (10.2) im

2 1 (
(10.12)

(10.13)

(10.10) uas (10.12) (10.9) W

"HUGONIOT" mutrum? (10.14)

= q (10.14)

• ■

vnntJinuvi fiSJfn^^SlUPI (explosion)

(normal

shock wave) ihtrufm (10.14) px uas px

fi 10.2
 Pi

t! 10.2

10.2

(compression wave) I

ni* n 10.3 m

, fc^ Hugoniot f?1V! fll q > o

10.3 Hugoniot

mflti — c fw c -
 ftt A-B

I viflfl 00

(10.14) #10 p,

1 1
I

Y-l °i Px Pi )

1 1 1 1
I
* 0
Y-l p2 2
^1 Pi)
1 1 1 1

y-l lpl 2 p,

Ei
^ « 2
Px Y-l 2

27
-1

2y—

(10.15)
Y-l

nite
V , V t

(10.11)
4
 oo
(10.16)

(10.13)

M2 (a) <1 (10.17)

1
(10.18)
Pi

(10.14)

y~l

Pi" Pi
px

0/ OS

MM \l

(10.19)

(10.11)

(10.20)

(10.13) I&mui!/3vn^«itiiJtn«vn4 (trans 2) ifl

l

00 (10.21)
—= —

Pi Pi

uvrwi

1 1

(10.10)

U«.2) = <1 (10.22)

-5 »i9s;Yi?iii'iin8ijn?
 c-D

P2 (10.23)

(io.li)

= 0 (10.24)

(10.13)

M2(C) = 0 (10.25)

p2 —>

(io.il)

M{(d) -> 0 (10.26)

(10.13)

M2(/)) -> oo (10.27)

(a/, =o)

A-B

snn B

y M (10.28)

snn c ->

(10.29)

=1

3JimJH«tniJfl'nvl Hugoniot

10.5 ^ y lia Chapman-Jouguet points l$\lt(MT(mftmYi J

k iiofrh Rayleigh lines n<i y4-
 <wnzmAC-Dm?wiif\m\imA'u?Mfl'i'\ l

|dfi 10.5 mChapman-JougaetJlit\ti KMM Hugoniot

o q V
mini
a dd1? a/

>i

A A
agwvi

tnuHtnji
 r = 291 = 1 lmenmrr

tnejvn<j712= 3,583 K =i8.O5iii?oifnffni?

Hvuiih

flTUtNUnff (equilibrium dissociation) lufmfhWQl&O

N2 0 luvmnaiifvufmimj H

Lewis and von Elbe (1961)

= 1 bar, px ■
M
= 3kg/m3
= 1.4
1

.14))

1.166 0.666

r 1 1 1 1 r
I —+—

(y P\ Pi P\ Pi) (r-0

0.5) = 6.349 xl06-(-2.833)xl0!

p2 =1.337xlO7 N/m2
= 132.7 bar I
 .2llfiaiJ«vl5im<?Un9flS<UllJt1'3i'rfYlfl'31lll5'3fl1?lT1t1(U9'3tr'3l4

YiflS'uSivii'umjimiJsisiii^'umj^tijn'ausnn
^<iiJinint4nii^5iin'3\4S)infiitiii9n«s;sji?iinQiu1^<m4i9'3

pf

r —

/ "—

o ^^^^
Pf
Y.J
°f

X - 0

10.6

10.6

S^
tpirni (10.30)

'l 1^
(10.30)
Kpt P°J
riifmmflnfliw93fmajmjviflnfni9Nfmu^
v d I A
11
V
v tl I v d

u « 300 cm/s,
V

p » 0.0015 gm/cm3, (P^ «15 psia) tins; r /r « 10 P-P * 0.2 psi

10.7

I «9
a?)

• d
nufi if14^94-3
^943 tt^fi v3 ijjTnivit) sj
 |Un 10.7

mnvtw"iinn

A rnolw

thuwiru

io.8

u )ufis «)
P

(
 SL = u + ug (10.31)

mm (mimwu wf9im) gtutifjSim

unnmjfm (10.

n. niSiilfn1vlu<i9dmjfiMf9« = 0
" p Li

in?q^wjitiiilwij'jnufrfi^'iinJa'3W

5 = w + u m9 5 > «
L p i L s

(flash-back) >fJQ1Ul?-3m?1iifl<U0^ffTUHinj)

(product)

s L p s
t " 1
(u s - up) lias \sL \< \us
s p
(blow-off)

o Bunsen mil aft.

10.9 (n)

y
 nozuu

(n)

10.9 (n) Pi

iilaQiyMmmf&filwnaiQNii^ JJIVI91H1
y

ifw

10.

&

l*
 m

)^

yi1Mforfj8mifusiSiuipiuiimjuuu (flat flame

yffSfinjjl&uTjfiogfiilaioidsnlvlfiSfiilnmno^ f

3<)Ynfn^^

(I030)&tfum5l>imafla9flmimdi3mo^^ j
f

isfnfdno<i9t4JJi?t3Ji«in<m?T9<ifstnu
f V
 H

«*«

rlr.

10.10

(«) fiud?idseiw«i3jfffSiJ9<ivi9iJi'3^1u|iJilifj'3n<u^i|i]fi 10.1

io.i l

innb^c sn
<s
L

ab

10.11
 SHT13 S lias u
. L s,

10,11

i 'Us

I
 <m«r « u i<J<

10.4.1 IfflSlfieH (burner methods) llli<J99n1#lita

10.4.1.1 ifflsmfl^UMfU (Bunsen-burner method)
10.4.1.2 TtiflSina^lta'go (slot-burner method)
10.4.1.3 ifflsmwiltalUlJU (flat-flame burner method)
10.4.2 ifmolllialtf (transparent-tube method)
10.4.3 QSvle^trij (soap bubble method)
10.4.4 TOimlwftnuWl]?in««l<rii (constant-volume bomb method)

(stationary flame)

(propagating flame) l«amVllSTBVl9<itr<yuU«1lli\4^9^14fmflflfini?tiiejniWfl'31lJl!'3^

lf9^vi?iii^^

irect photograph) UH

lYlflWflfn??l?l^llJ9<4fnfl (particle tracking technique)

Jll

uminous zone)

10.

VI
v

ntnt

x= s; 10.12
 iiftunuintnini
fl9 Ql low graph) iSirtalSVl (schUeren) uas^mjivmwtalsfmyl (interferograph)
m?n9 lhsm?fmi« ififlfmu
hw9$9wnf|Sims93mbsn9iJ
«<imim9iitT^ifia9vifiwiu
jejsvn^enQfiQin^filiJmimiii

ient) l
(second derivative of

density) (p°c

l/T) dTldx

(inflexion point) JXx)) ll4<Uftl2jfimvlditjl«tJQisKlaiI14«2JlltfPl<iU?nailna 1 fifh

 idjl d
JJ'UQ^

tuiif€<ifnim?iH^^

-t 10.4.1.1 unsen-burner method)

FSr

j..ifi

nuu
 —i

10.13 (n) finiiifiiilini'Wifil'uiilpnufrumf |

k
ft
A ■ |
SL = Vt~J~ (10.32) i

S
L

A
i

visible cone) (nfo luminous zone) ilfntU^in«l)§n?tJ1 (reaction zone)

fl 10.13 (n)

n?Qi1jjli

(wall-quenching effect) vhli1091<H$}5n'mW"lW

^nti^^2i^wm^gi4on?n<iDui?ifi9w<ilf^l>idlfl

/ .*J

10.4.1.2 1iiflSinemili83 (slot-burner method)

[Lewis and von Elbe, 1961] i

MQ1<1^1\4Ol^
 \W\ «(local flame angle) 1^9di<nmi46im9
y\ 10.14UOS 10.15
4

I
it tracks are interrupted at
436 msec

I2

1.5 1 0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5

fi 10.14
[Lewis and von Elbe, 1961]

10.15 a

u (r
 »,
L
= u sin
s (10.33)

me SL

u local flow velocity)

s

(local flame angle)

VlQ^l?IOni?Vl?lf19<il5^3Jfllfl^Vlin91J^?l9^flQlJjnQ1<inJ9<lVlQimfl<iU^<l
S m?lJVl 10.16 l?ltlW
(x=o

(quenching effect) 5
d
n mnufnuwttu

0.2 0.4
x, cm

10.16

[Lewis and von Elbe, 1961 ]

10.4.1.3 at-flame burner method)

tfatiNtru

10,17

10.18

W"iiWfliiwijfiiinnfitj« [Powiing,
^
$9 ivmfifiviaww iiasuuuffwiif

^^ plug metal
59ij *i 'MiiwiSfn^iJtiociimtTmQCJ (inert gas) nkilulflirou ifimu 'nxmtpimmftwifammMfo
m-nifa* V'Joliim^mTiufinjoiiiiJaQWiflwiilodi^isjw mawiMfnn^R
ifi0iiifi<i^im'3^iJfiia?i0Vi?ini?lMti'U0<iff'jwHtfji
(«=0)

do.34)

ivm<iuraTYi8fh s1 ^i «i lu'inw 15 cm/sivhtfu

d Botha,

extrapolate) viQifiisjvi'ii^fii s nurii&wifmwtiQiHu a

L
iiJfi ^
Mater water
=0 m
10.18

edjet)

VM (stagnationplane) im stretcheffect)

ame stretch)

[Williams,

3u?r?fQuwtw^

i'tifnWl<y1
 Transparent-tube methods)

2 u.

JQiati{i4i]fi^

(10.3f
P s t f

ii« W[Gerstein etal.,1951]

NiSwniufi^^

i^
10.4.3 -bubble method)

V 1

nimej^^

Ala j; 1 0/ I

SAp = uAp (10.36)

L u r b

S = uplp = m TIT (10.36a)

L fbru rub

r/r

^^
 10.4.4 lBJm1tt&na1mJ1l41fl1flW (Constant-volume bomb method)

unnmsjiJYitt

m«Yi^guon?ii<i<ii9<im^wsvi?<ina3Jvl^iila'3ivlio2;fmj99n

in^m?9«niolfeniQsit9i?lmmSn9qtuv!gfiim2;fi'3ijjm4v1m3j^
fmstfuqa (equilibrium) 9ti"umj<ystuuast
hs m3Ji?cmtf«<iW<itnjfn^ (10.37) [Flock, 1940]

2 I
3py r dr J dt

3 3
dr R —r

if

TV

I (10.37) flit
Yi«nniJ

i iiJtnivl r iw»fl'Jiiimini«lMniw8yi«nMip eehwoiib'i

(10.37)

> ra.

(10.38)
3 r2 \p

P~ P
ido P = L

(thermochemistry) fin SL*vin

ufnow ~"

(chemical variables) Mil

Srf (additives) (physical variables) (/>)

(r) (r) (a) uti

(c) i
p

10.5.1

J 1 11' i >

/
60

A-
— —

50 —

|40 v —

ft

20 —

10 TTTn | |
2 4 6 8 10 12
. . . *>

Jfl 10.21

J>
 to 10.21 fmumfmimlntfq'
(stoichiometric)

(slightly fuel-rich mixture)

10.5.2

« 250
t
AlkynesCH^
o

200

150

~E ^Alines CNH2N
100

50
12 3 4 5 6 7 8

n
carbon

10.22 9YlS'W?1«1t4')U9^93J<U9^fjnllJ9W ncarbon Lnuix

«• A

H H H
3 8 4 10 S I2 6 14

70 cm/s

10.22 Alkenes(C H
carbon N 2N

(olefins) T^tJ9S?l93JtU9^fin?U9<u8^n<U^'3tI<W1U«SifJ (lifU (C H )

<CF< lias Alkynes (C H N 2N-2

) W?9|S)nm4<h4$9 Acetylene series
etanu (C2H2) Wbiu (C3H4) CbW (C4H6) utis muW (csHg)

carbon
mmfldfiiii ^
carbon

n tnn 10.
ct&vott

mm9 «carbon imwuiilu 4 utisiilci ncarbon

carbon
X
tn «
carbon
1 « y

* carbon

oiJVMSfiTri&^wri^
T«ciwaoijf!iiJ?suitu 40,000 cai/mole iviiuu

10.5.3 (Additives)

80 100

(n) 0*0

10.23
Lmax

!
2, N2, He uas Ar i

10.23 H2, H2O ims CH4 Aunu ^Ivi 10.24 unsjilfl 10-25
iterrcu) tniiSuiirf^uuumQtJ (31IYI 10.23) SmiSymfl9flimjij§Yn<miajrm wu ri
(A:) vif9fiifiQiaj?o\4«imis (c) vift) oi?»5itr'3tj klc wwthuHtnj rifeumnlnntu CO
p 1 p

N i^ H2/O2, CO/O2 ims CH4/O2

10.23(11)) •VQ^flTaS^lvl (flammability range) Uflim<l

10.25) «

H CH4 CO

and Le Chatelier law

fin
"Mixtures of limit mixtures are

themselves limit mixtures"

I I

250

- 80 20

- 60 40

50
0 100

1 1 1 1 1
0
0 20 40 60 80

10.24 H

W9 S
 60

40

20
ill tmwun

" CH4 100 50 30 15 10 5 4 0

0 CO , 0 i 50 . 70 i 85 90 95 ,96 100
0 20 30 40 50 60 70

10.25
4 L

10.5.4 [Lewis, 1954]

0.3 i i i i i I i i i i i r

0.2

I
-0.1

-0.2

■0.3 II I I I I ll I I I I I I I I
20 100 1000

S cm/sec

10.26
 Lewis (1954) l#$myi9Yitwa<u9<iflTUjmj
mj p vi88
N2, Ar m9

sL oc p" (10.39)

10.26

« fl9 Lewis pressure i

5 < 50 cm/s «3JfnilJT4t11J 5 Wfnm

L L

50 < 5£ < loo cm/s «jjfnmvigtjo 5

^ > 100 cm/s « unimuugn 5 ufnm v

l)<U9^ Lewis pressure index Ut18;llHlJll8^£rU«lI<UO^lJfln5tnfnin5Otr ftl

s < 50 cm/s 9iuwuu8'ai]nnitn92;u9tin'3i2 n?cun50<5, < 100 cm/s mjmjw
2 UtiSJfljfifi SL > 100 cm/s 9"U^lleU9'3lJgn?O1^3Jinn'312

10.5.5 T [Dugger etal., 1955]

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700

10.27
 ■1

Duggeretal.(1955)mrii

(10.40) I

10.27 $9 m Sfii9$i 1.5 uas 2

Tf sisj

10.5.6 S'n!maiJa^aniQ2ill?nly T [Bartholomeand Sachsse, 1949]

Bartholome and Sachsse

10.28 i

Lmax

12 16 20 24 28x100

f °C

Y\ 10.28
Laax
Mi:

10.5.7 (a) (C)

[Clingman etal, 1953]

16U i i i i i i i i i i

120 He Ar

i
T ' v
f
80

' Ar-Air •'N-Air ~

40 v a mifvu -

4/ / \
n i i i i t i i i i i

4 '8 12 16 20 24

10.29
p L

Clingman et al. (1953)

*

'9u?['an'3id9jjW ^^ 10.29 sun

ch. iilwil0m8^ii^'3wtTijpfQejtT'3<uHtTii<u9^99nSit)'uims;iintTfm9ejS9 m9

Ar 0.21:0.79

T = T He ims Ar

He

sL He SL wittimtrum Ar

aN2=

c <c >T
>Tf
PAr Pl*2 V
Ar J N

Ar I
10.6.1

(fl) Yiq^gfmul'gw (thermal theory)

-Mallard and Le Chatelier's Development

-The Damkohler theory

-The theory of Bartholom.

-The theory of Emmons, Harr, and Strong

-The theory of Bechert

(II) Ylt)tlfjfl83Jyi1l8VlSYi (comprehensive theory) vill

-The theory of Zel'dovich, Frank-Kamenetsky and Semenov

-The theory of Lewis and von Elbe

-The theory of Boys and Corner

-The theory ofHirschfelder and Curtiss

-The theory ofvon Karman and Penner

(fl) iffusion theory)

-The theory of Tanford and Pease

-The theory of Van Tiggelen

-The theory of Manson

-The theory of Gaydon and Wolfhard

Evans
10.6.1.1 Yiqvjjfmitf9«M (Thermal Theory) U04 Mallard and Le Chatelier (1883)

10.30

?ennr

•nio.

2.

3.

1 0
- X L (10.41)
 m

s, no

m = psL

T-T{
1 (10.42)

(10.43)
pC T-T 6
~ p ( 0 r

x flonaifminfMfjfrccn (reaction time) = —

r as

dt

^0 single-reaction progress variable mj

(ia44)
UVl'U

T-T RR
5 = (10.45)
L pCp T-T%

i
 RR (10.46)

T T

5t= I L RR (10.47)
pC T-T
r p i 0

RR (10.48)

UJ9 a fie

ifienJJ Mallard and Le Chatelier lJ RR fi 5viilW

p = Ae (10.49)
dt

(10.50)

•^ « n-l
oc i ke p

pc,

1 1
— oc —

P D
 (10.51)

(10.51) immidmm /i = 1

SLcc exp

ocexp

\ »

r \
E
SL ocexp (10.52) .*

d t

10.6.1.2 nq*l£|fl9»JmiH<W«UWU94 Zel'dovich, Frank Kamenetsky and Semenov

(1938, 1940, 1948)

l.

2. fhfiTHjftm<iiyns c
 n =

n = n
r P
(10.53)

"* • q
Uma 090 / Ifj«?] (general species conservation equation for i th
species) rectangular coordinates Ot,y,z)

dr dr dr ar,
h ux r uy r u%
s dt dx dy * dz ) <V*y ^—tPty* ) = ">, (10-54>

«J9w.

D dYf DdY. D dY,

(10.55)
Y. dx &

^lflwWl?113Jngni1im?3J'3f1<U€^n(Fick1slawofmassdiffusion)

—- (10.56)
P

= r

r
iilu -
V
v <x> U il I
 dp dp dp dp
r ux r u r ut

dt dx dy dz

\
d_ DdY d_ DdY d_ DdY
r
= — w (10.57)
dx Y dx dy dz Y dz
\

VI59

dp dp dp dp
r ux r u r uz

dt ' dx dy dz

dx dy\ dy\PJJ +~'PD&l^"~Wr

dz (1°'58)

<U V tl $1

= — pD—\ — w (10.59)
dx dxV dx\P,
■H19

pu w (10.60)
dx dx2\P
ex \ a.

(10.61)
P.'— Wr
A.,

iij9 a = 6.02x10 wr
1

& pr

d(aWr/pAy)
pu = pD- w (10.62)
dx dx'

= pD—\ ~ ~ (10.62a)
dx W

(io.62a)

A flintfUfn? (10.62a

■w = w (10.63)
W

d\alp) d(a/p)
pD pu w= 0 (10.64)
dx dx
A A A
IY19JJY1 1 IY19UV1 2 m93JYl 3

Dh Dp
(10.65)

Dissipation by viscous stress

li un8m?im?nfo Dufour effect

 ipation

1
dT
q = — A— , h= C T (10.66)
dx
4 •

d a , d , a , d
— = ru rv rz— (10.67)
Dt dt dx dy dz

.65) W

dT d T
pCu—=X— (10.68)
dx dx

X dT dT Q
(10.68a)
pC dx dx pC

= wQ (10.69)
i fj

*-Q* m'iV\W'U (heat ofreaction per molecule of

reactant)

X dT dT wQ
--/*— + — =0 (10.68b)
C dx dx C
p p

pu m Eigenvalue

Shvab-Zerdovich formulation ims

T-T
e s c (10.70)
 X d 0 dQ
pu hw = 0
C dx2 dx

pD pu hw = 0
dx dx

(10.77)

111
 (10.78) I
p. ' Q
mi9flinfiiiiiiyiimj<u9'3m9iJe?iaq«mjm93jnai<a<u9^tr3jnit (10.77) rc

Q (10.79) I

= C (10.80) I

i, 4
UUflf)

(10.81) 3

wilu
vti4<imv1ei<ivi9

dO
pu \~w = 0 (10.82)
C dx dx
p

I (ljiSi]gn?fnw=o)

d2T (pu)Co dT
= 0 (10.83) '
dx

(10.84) f
0", T=

(10.83) W

(P«)C
(10.85) I
 x = — oo

dT
— = 0 (10.86)
dx

dT (pu)Ct

dx
(T~To) (10.87)

?^ Yl jc = O
:JUJ

dT (pu)Cp(T, -To
(10.88)
X=:Q

'^■■-1
¥•

dO
* — « 0 (10.89)

(10.90)
dx'

vi x = =r —=o (10.91)
dx

v! x = o+. 71 = r, (10.91a)

fjfUfUJfill0141mfwa-MIU (10.90) SlV idTJdx ii

 (10.92)
dxKdxJ \dx

Tf2Qw
(10.93)

dT Tf2Qw
J dT (10.93a) I

dT dT
(10.94)
dx JX=Q- V dx Jx=c

(10.95)
x1

\wdT (10.95a)
C \T.-:

= C (10.78) 1

2 2^2 2 2 PDT/, (10.96)

no
 X
wdT (10.97)

i
L 0
T —T
f o \

c —
(10.98)

'pj T,~To

1 r 1 r
(10.99)

t(

tJ9T4f)ljgV!0 (zeroth-order reaction) ^9fl?inmn?llJgn?01 Ql

mum Ian

= k =Aexp(-E/RT) (10.100)

cal
ffo » 30,000-40,000 ru
mole
= 1.987 call/mole K

me 7y « 1,500-2,000 k

«10 »l (10.101)
 a = Tf—T (10.102) I

(10.103)

V) * = 00 a -Tf —T{ =0 (10.103a)

I
cr
T = 7} — c = (10.104) 3
T

7
E.
exp «exp

\ u

a / ^^). exp(~ EaaJRu (10.105)

(10. (lo.ioo)irfinvnifli w

Acxp(-Ea/RJf)Tf

Acxp(-Ea/RJf) u

J exp(~ EaaJRuT2f )da (10.106)

(10.107)

RuTf
 I = J exp(—p)dp
m
aO Ea 0
lit
(10.108)

°0 Ea
*
A
(10.109)

Acxp(-Ea/RJf)
/ = (10.108a)

V E* J
i
I imvifii/a VUmwrm (10.98) W
m-

2A 1 fAexv(-Ea/RuTf)^ 2

(10.110)
SL =«0 =
\ Tf~ro J
—1 *&

n E
RTf

Jf 9\49limJ'HU^ (first-order reaction Vl?9 unimolecular reaction) ^9Vl1ini?

tu nsnifu *i

= [^]^exP(-£:a/i?Hr) (lo.iii)

me [^] ^9fniuiiju<?<u tu naila n

Le = QIC )lrD lias (n In ) I
d d

r \

(Le) (10.112)
cl
Poc VfJ \nPJ

(second-order reaction VlfQ bimolecular reaction)

V V

d[A] d[B]
w =

= [A][B]AexV(-Ea/RuT) (10.113)

T
"r
(Le)2
fv/2>| exp(-Ea/RuTf)
(10.114)

c Tf
k"pJ

(10.115)

m+nh*\

-2.
 a = A/p c

-Cp(Tf-TQ)

i 1119 Q ^9fl1fniUI91U(U9^lJgn?01pi9l3Jl?iqi1U9<lfn5^Wli(kJ/molecule ofreactant

I'uttumi (10.116) W
 1 kg + v kg 99 (v+i) kg tn?wSnntu«n

fit) fimthwn uas A: 101

Q - (10.119)

(10.119a)

infHJflfififnutrijfm(io.ii9a)tMliimjfmmjmi (10.118) W

v + l)Cp(Tf-TQ) J

sl = "o =
\wdT
T —

1 1
s

\wdT (10.120)

Tf To Tt

T T
V /

\wdT « \wdT (10.121)

1 T/
jwdT = w = 91 (10.122)

Tf To

(10.123)
h= w

Po

single-step

global reaction ni9>3triWWiT3jl9i^ini?lJ9W99niiwW ^14

k
xCO (10.124)
 , gmol
W4 )f!9
3
cm .s.

d[CxRy]
AexV(-Ea/RuT)[Cxlly ]m [O2]n (10.125)
dt

111)1Isin l?iiiiafn a

l4R" 10.1

(d[CK]
w = MWt (10.126)
v
Fuel
dt average

F .

10.31

10.31
 (10.123)

w
SL =

Po

T =-1-

Tf {= 2,267 k

71 = - -(2267+ 300)+ 2267

= 1,775 K

1 l
Ta =-(27+:r0) = -(2267 + 300)
2 2

= 1,284 K

«1,300 K

a =

io.3

A 3 j kJ ^j kg
VI 1,300K= 82X10 C VI 1,300K=
,9pQ 1.189 pQ Vl300K = 1.16
m.K
K kg.K
kK m3
 82X10 W kg m
a = K—
1.189X1.16 _m.K U kg

82X10 3X10 3 kJ in

1.189X1.16 s kJ

_< m
a =5.95X10"

C*Hy+\x + -\°2

= 3 uas y = 8

C3H8 + 5O2 3CO2 + 4H2O

C3H8+5(o2+3.76N2) -» 3CO

5X4.76X29
v =

44

= 15.68

(trums (10.126))

Fuel
average

k=rate constant average

 i

flifWITTMii 10.1 W m = 0.1 n =1.65 = 15,098 Kims

1—«i—n
gmol
ll
A =8.6X10
_cm _ S

1-0.1-1.65
ll
gmol
= 8.6X10
_cm _

-0.75
gmol 1
ll
= 8.6X10
cm S

-0.75
kgmol
A = 4.836X10'

'average

AiEaJRuy T-

-0.75
15,098 kgmol
(k) =4.836X10 exp —
v 'average ri
1775

-0.75
kgmol 1
(k) average = 9.78X10'
S

/, / m c H n?9
3 8

= 1
Air ' * product

product
 Yr u + YA.
C^Hg Air

44
= 0.051
+ (6X4.76X29)

.iU

f 7O =0.233X0.949=0.221
U2

1
= -X 0.051= 0.0255
'3"8 2 x "3"8 7 2

> = ~Un +0/ = —X0.221= 0.111

2 2V 2 ; 2

'3n8
kgmol kg
Average
kg m
t C3H8

P =

MW

101,325
P =
8315
X1775
29

= 0.1991
m
 0.1991X0.0255 _4 kgmol
L.._-_
^average = =1.153X10
44 m

0.1
kgmol
(1.153X10

o.i
kgmol
0.4038
_ m

,1.65 1.65
0.1991X0.111 kgmol
*■ 2 -"average 3
32 _ m

1.65
kgmol
= 6.092X10

(*) * tC3H8 Average UflS [^average

-0.75 0.1 ni.65
kgmol kgmol kgmol
vv=44< 9.78 X10 X 0.4038 X 6.092 X10
3 3 3
_ m _ S _ m _ m

-0.75+0.1+1.65
kgmol kgmol kg
-105. 86 - =105.86
_ m S m s kgmol

kg
w-105. 86
m s

, a, v,

2 . 3
-5
105.86 m kg m
SL =12X5.95X10 X(l5.68 + l)x
1.16 s m s kg

= 0.426 m/s

= 42.6 cm/s
 miJQiriiflQ1lJl?Q1J0<ailla'3WiJ<UmJll?3J1QI<U0^lf0mS^lvitflt4NtTJJ
-* "l0i<wS^0OM?0ijinmwlilfiifi'3i3Jif'3nj0'qiiJti'3ivl«s
flsufn^qa warn?

a* £i
.1 .125)

A1 E/R (K) m

1.3-10" 24,358" -0.3 1.3

ch] 8.3-10s 15,098c -0.3 1.3

1.1 • 10" 13,098 0.1 1.65

CH 8.6-10" 15,098 0.1 1.65

3 a

CH 7.4-10" 15,098 0.15 1.6

4 10

CH 6.4 • 10" 15,098 0.25 1.5

5 12

CH 5.7-10" 15,098 0.25 1.5

6 14

it CH
7 16
5.1 • 10" 15,098 0.25 1.5

CH 4.6-10" 15,098 0.25 1.5

CH 7.2 • 1012 20,131d 0.25 1.5

8 18

CH 4.2-10" 15,098 0.25 1.5

9 20

p C H
10 22
3.8 • 10" 15,098 0.25 1.5

CH3OH 3.2-1012 15,098 0.25 1.5

ft CHOH
2 S
1.5-1012 15,098 0.15 1.6

CH 2.0-10" 15,098 -0.1 1.85

6 6

CH 1.6-10" 15,098 -0.1 1.85

7 8

CH 2.0-1012 15,098 0.1 1.65

2 4

CH 4.2 • 10" 15,098 -0.1 1.85

3 6

CH 6.5 • 1012 15,098 0.5 1.25

2 2

a fifiA?tf)?\f\%QW\i\itU'imQAf\'i-}wM'u[\it(iim'i (10.125) w gmol/cm3

iflll (gmol/ cm1)1""^.

= 48.4 kcal/gmol.; CE = 30 kcal/gmol.; d£ = 40 kcal/gmol.
 10.2

(kg/kgmoQ (kJ/kg) (kJ/kg) (°C) (kJ/kg)

CH 16.043 55,528 50,016 -164 509

26.038 49,923 48,225 -84

C2H2 del
8Y1U 28.054 50,313 47,161 -103.7

30.069 51,901 47,489 -88.6 488 370

C2H6
42.080 48,936 45,784 -47.4 437 2334 514
C,H.
CH 44.096 50368 46,357 -42.1 425 2267 500
3 8

CH 56.107 48,471 45,319 -63 391 2322 595

4 8

58.123 49,546 45,742 -0.5 386 2270 579

C4H,o
C,H,o 70.134 48,152 45,000 30 358 2314 641 §
i
CH 72.150 49,032 45,355 36.1 358 2272 626
5 12

CH 78.113 42,277 40,579 80.1 393 2342 879

6 6

CH nsmu 84.161 47,955 44,803 63.4 335 2308 673

6 12

86.177 48,696 45,105 69 335 2273 659

C7Hu i-isiJviu 98.188 47,817 44,665 93.6 2305

CH 100.203 48,456 44,926 98.4 316 2274 684

7 16

C H l-98flVlli 112.214 47,712 44,560 121.3 2302

8 16

CH
8 IB
-'■ 114.230 48,275 44,791 125.7 300 2275 703

126.241 47,631 44,478 2300

128.257 48,134 44,686 150.8 295 2276 718

2298
M
140.268 47,565 44,413 170.6
4
C H
10 20

C H 142.284 48,020 44,602 174.1 277 2277 730

10 22

C H 154.295 47,512 44,360 2296

It 22

C H 156.311 47,926 44,532 195.9 265 2277 740

11 24

C H 168.322 47,468 44,316 213.4 2295

12 24

C H 170.337 47,841 44,467 216.3 256 2277 749

12 26

uas 21 O

• vi 20

Mi
 10.3

p |l. IO7 V. IO6 X. io3 a. io4 Pr

00 (kg/m3) (kJ/kg-K) (N-s/m2) (mVs) (W/m-K) (mVs)

100 3.5562 1.032 71.1 2.00 9.34 2.54 0.786

150 2.3364 1.012 103.4 4.426 13.8 5.84 0.758

200 1.7458 1.007 132.5 7.590 18.1 10.3 0.737

250 1.3947 1.006 159.6 11.44 22.3 15.9 0.720

300 1.1614 1.007 184.6 15.89 26.3 22.5 0.707

iir-
350 0.9950 1.009 208.2 20.92 30.0 29.9 0.700

400 0.8711 1.014 230.1 26.41 33.8 38.3 0.690

450 0.7740 1.021 250.7 32.39 37.3 47.2 0.686

500 0.6964 1.030 270.1 38.79 40.7 56.7 0.684

550 0.6329 1.040 288.4 45.57 43.9 66.7 0.683

0.685
§ 600 0.5804 1.051 305.8 52.69 46.9 76.9

650 0.5356 1.063 322.5 60.21 49.7 87.3 0.690

m 700 0.4975 1.075 338.8 68.10 52.4 98.0 0.695

750 0.4643 1.087 354.6 76.37 54.9 109 0.702

W: 800 0.4354 1.099 369.8 84.93 57.3 120 0.709

850 0.4097 1.110 384.3 93.80 59.6 131 0.716

900 0.3868 1.121 398.1 102.9 62.0 143 0.720

950 0.3666 1.131 411.3 112.2 64.3 155 0.723

1000 0.3482 1.141 424.4 121.9 66.7 168 0.726

0.3166 1.159 449.0 141.8 71.5 195 0.728

1100

0.2902 1.175 473.0 162.9 76.3 224 0.728

1200

1.189 496.0 185.1 82 238 0.719

1300 0.2679
1.207 530 213 91 303 0.703
1400 0.2488
0.2322 1.230 557 240 100 350 0.685
1500
1600 0.2177 1.248 584 268 106 390 0.688

1.267 611 298 113 435 0.685

1700 0.2049

1.286 637 329 120 482 0.683

1800 0.1935

1.307 663 362 128 534 0.677

1900 0.1833
689 396 137 589 0.672
2000 0.1741 1.337

1.372 715 431 147 646 . 0.667

2100 0.1658

740 468 160 714 0.655

2200 0.1582 1.417

506 175 783 0.647

2300 0.1513 1.478 766

547 196 869 0.630

2400 0.1448 1.558 792

818 589 222 960 0.613

2500 0.1389 1.665

841 486 1570 0.536

3000 0.1135 2.726 955
 45

In

I
4
i
yr "TS
5
0-9 10 M 13

10.32

s
[Andrews and Bradley, 1972]

10.6.1.3 Yiqvjjfmiim (Diffusion Theory)

<\}m Tanford and Peace (1947)

ti <r act i

S803J 10 lfl?WWnU0tj

(10.127)

mimlill'utfQUNtfwTOljJ
 w^

(10.128)

k SefhfHfhfmin^ilfn?cn9ii<wis;<ii9<ifn?trtno<u9>39'4^?t9tf^ H vif9 oh
h uas oh

Br «Ul4niJfh D (kinetic parameter) llttSJ S

(implicit equation)

Dugger(1955)fUUflffl<lTU!lJYI 10.33

,L .-,«,,„„ ,„ ,M ,nu..,,DU ««J Zel'dovich, Frank-Kamenetsky and Semenov( 193 8,

1940,1948) UflS Y)qy§<U94 Tanford and Pease (1947) DSJ

280 /c
AB [Dugger, 1955]
B
240
//. D AC RTU1wT«tJ15 Zel'dovich, (1938,1940,1948)
200 Frank-Kamenetsky and Semenov

AD *"" filWIClljJOTl'UO'l Tanford-Pease (1947)

160

120

80

40
80 160 240 320 400

r,°c
ilJti 10.33
10.6.2

fnimf™9^ilaVlvJuiJijm9?fiQmu^

unfll&iulu94fltnvifm3Jfl'i<3 ^ iilufTviinn fnnfmviflTWufii^uJtniYl

i?nNitfl99nuuiJ5s^

Re< 2300

Re> 2300
#
■I
I
- 'V'
ent reacting flow)
■•i
io.4

10.4 iili
nfarcliiwummftuii daiMiiiiJftviaffoia'Ufl
n^ 1. ifttiAfa
"m
2. T4-1 IMU 2. mfim5n?j;ivi8jj<u8'jnJa'j1vla(Ji«55'3Pii5Q
3. viuwmeuiJa'alvJniTiu^imiasjuii'uati 3. wuwi'iia^ila'jlvl'S'u'DeviJJinuiiiiilaouwaafinailu1
4. fmuqpiiJfni Hum
5. ufnaunniJgf
6. SL timtrciifa unu Re (Re < 2,300)
5. u?nfuinfnlgn9crmui
0. o (jNllcivila/lnJJilurmJ rvc

(phenomenological approach)

i
(comprehensive approach) Wl

10.6.2.1 wam51!fl11S<mJ84Damkdhler (1940,1947)

0
8 12.
ReX 10'

10.34

[DamkOhler, 1940,1947]

10.34

f L

(fi)n?tu Re<2,300

(«U)n?S 2,300 < Re < 6,000

Re
(fl)nifl Re > 6,000

jfniuii'3millMa<u9<iiintn3u<H^ni!ejflfniui?'3
lJlV195inif1Ufl (turbulent flame speed) St m

DamkOhler (1940,1947) 1«9BintJlJiingm?W(U9>3nifi (U) ims (f\)

 ,300 < Re < 6,000 fmililuihuSwiflian (small scale turbulence) UUIflUgNiQflg

transport processes) l
io.35(nj
% V

£> (wf9 a) mfi8iawlum*lnnuuuumhm snntrumi (10.123) im

(10.

\l/2
.1/2 .1/2
8
(10.129)
D.

mninfo 9.2 tnuivoiJisuifulXJi fi*/v « o.oiRe

— «0.1Re '/2 (10.130)

(10.130) DamkOhler

(1940,1947) lura 2,300 < Re< 6,000

Re> 6,ooo §
y f t

istort) nas;wuiTnli]inliJi9wuHu5oimii!€Ti
fiinilfe io.35(n) na

DamkOhler(1940,1947) Wll
 cut it d
'W^'U Re

£r/v/*0.01Re

oc •u<uip)fn?ms;m9u<«9'3fi'3iui?'3oc£> oc Re (10.131)

(10.132)

fi*- Jf
ifls /i im m<ull^iitnjfn? (10
DamkOhler (1940,1947) ita^Q^ Re > 6,000 l

(n)

10.35

10.6.2.2 wamiiiflilS'H'UQ^ Schelkin (1947)

Scheikin (1947

2m
1+ (10.133)
r £

/
 1036

ifie u n9fii?in^tT9^(U9<lflifniJJlf'3n5SJm93JWnma<itTf9«9m?ltJ (root mean square of the

fluctuation velocity) STIJJ|llfi 10.36 IKISUJBk^ 0 (ffl?liimi)uimiJU?ahm)1# iSr= S^

10.6.2.3 Namillfins;<H<U9<i Bowditch (1953)

1.15m
(10.134)
J

10.6.2.4 Nafmilfms<mJ64 Kozachenko (1959)

STT =3.9S,+u
L rms
(10.135)

10.6.2.5 Summerfield et al. (1955)

— = -^L-L«10 (10.136)

mo 8 f!?)fmiJ1H<U"UlJ?nlW
f! (flamethickness)

w
10.7

(Flame Stabilization)

vruvi

(blow-offvelocity)

10.7.1 ni1ltra£l11fa<lliJt)l1^^s;ino>)1jUlctf<U (Stability of a Bunsen flame)

tJfiQiii5^

u >s 10.

« < s nas « > £

sn L sn L

ow-o ff) imsSgwnmj (flash-back)

10.37 mo u

10.37
sn L

Si u < S
-back) IW9 u
 '■1

uou 1101

moot

'UOU ■9,

10J7 mi

■^

■■1
 10.38

YithuwtruiJio (lean mixture) unfarnhjaromvifijtii fmwrcm?liimiihiilfitMi£lii)nn

(rich mixture)
<f et

8 10.7.2 tabilization of flame)

I
i u (blow-offvelocity) \iSl Sft
V If
Ji

I
(pilot flame) (bluff body) (recirculation)

»s
BO L BO *

Ik 10.7.2.1 llnlaiivlfSo (Pilot flame)

10.39
 *i

2 v v
10.39

snnpj 10.39 1

m
Apua < VWf (10.137) I

ftf
VW. (10.138)

= w (10.139)

(10.140)

(10.141)

(10.142)

1 F
(10.143)
u bo 2 A

uBO > SL (10.144)

 utis

BO

. 10.7.2.2 itflPl^Hlll^n'U (Bluff body)

urmmmemtu

uomai

itlmlrlfimotrj

10.40 10.41
*ua d

10.40) un

(opposing jet) 10.41

umi 10.

(stabilizing gas)

B0
10.7.2.3 iSniVhtfrnquiicmfoiinfij (Recirculation)

10.8

(Heat-recirculating combustion)

comutisn

il]?nlvl^mf)<y'U91fllliwill?lQHtnJinn0<U (premixed flame)

 iffusion flame

I eat-recirculating combustion

einberg(i97i, 1986,

i^ifi (wiooimfftwilnif)

10.8.1

10.43

iuni9S (nf99inifO t)di^l9ifl9^wiiJYn^9iJn?9l'

iijnnm9moiJfliJ^0^1^^^^ni^

flPI?2Jl1Jflri9t4 (pre-ignition)
 Heat recirculating combustion

Heat to be
Heat of recycled
u

combustion
u
o
Gk
S Combustion without
heat recirculation

i.
X

10.43

[Weinberg, 1996] ■ ■».

■H'i

nu

h o ims; co
2 2
tr^

Jugjai (2001)

(Cyclic Flow Reversal Combustion, CFRC) iflonoWw

af . vi_ _a» i <f \4 y &

Ctf
yi 10.44 u itrqviq[u (porous medium)

(four-way valve)

*| 90 (half period) (/ )
hp
 (porous medium)

T. T2 T, T4 Ts T6 T7 T, T,

Bolts and nuts

(4 sets)

Rang

Inlet or outlet

Porous
medium B

'Porous medium A Porous medium B

Exhaust gas

Alternating valve Alternating valve

housing
Alternating valve"
rotor Flow direction
(Rotor at position A)

f Flow direction
(Rotor at position B)
Rotor at
Hi position A
in*

IAir+LPG mixture

AC motor with reciprocating

cam mechanism,
time switch and limit switch

Fig. 1. Experimental apparatus for

the CFRC system and the OWFC system.

|i]fl 10.44 Cyclic Flow Reversal Combustion (CFRC) (UfuSouUWfl) [Jugjai,2001]

600

500 -

400 -

% 300 -

200 -

100 -

0.040 0.045 0.050 0.055 0.060 0.065 0.070

<D

pf\ 10.45 (cfrc) (umfiauufin) [Jugjai,2ooi]

1«"|ThJJ (porous medium A) WfU (forward flow)

4 d A *u
mitrnw.
m 1

jJ (combined mode ofheat transfer) ?

10.45

jim O ^mqfimimj.o.046 imsjfi 140 kJ/kg iviimi

10.8.

10.46

(regenerative bumer

Enthalpy

Conventional burner Regenerative burner (I) Regenerative burner (2)

Flow direction

10.46

[Jugjai etal., 2002]

 conventional burner

—Q +Qt (10.145)

;■ v

Q =Qf-Q,M, kw (10.145a)

WTTCOn Regenerative burner (1) Q

Q +Q, =Q,+Q (10.146)

(10.146a)

>fi.+efW kw (10.146b)

d i a i i

(10. .145a)

(10.147)

M
Qf 1131 Regenerative burner (2) Iv

€14 (heat input) llfl

e;=fi/.e./(ea+c|W) kW (10.148)

(energy saving, ES)

^Wy —m"f)lmf (10.149)

4 . M
ma m

mf=Qf/LHV (10.150)

mf=Q"fiLHV (10.151)
HJ9

(10.152) $

1 — Q1' I Qf

=I

(10.152a) 4

-Q

(10. ^

(10.152) fa q =
v V if

50

Q M19 77
10.8.2.1

(Q ) TtfaqwiiqijfmqiJfnfnfflmW (r ) enumifmvi (10.152) ufofl

Jugjai et al.,

(2002 lpg

rex enmilvi
*•
10.47 <w9?i?itf'3'utnj3J«
"
O = 1.0 talr.pre
m?9 r S
ex

3<i r Tif9 r
cat air,pre

70
0 = 1.0
60 ^ = 800 °C
TBX=700°C

£ 50 = 600°C

T_ = 500 °C
.S 40
CO

& 30

W 20

10

0
0 100 200 300 400 500

Tair, pre* °C

s^
10.47
CV

Wr air,prc

[Jugjaietal., 2002]
10.8.3
s
10.8.3.1 Porous Radian Redrculated Burner (PRRB) .1

'U (radiative absorption coefficient) %

10.48

(solid wal

(cold gas) qj «u\

inQiijf9wt)inQfT^^0,tuMgfl^i1tjnifr^vi^m4^
medium (AP) ll4V11>a?l?<lfllini13Jlfl9Slin?f?91J091Vifjfi^^ (hot gas) i'iu UfffffQ14Snfl

Absorbing Emitting
porous medium porous medium

' »;■?

■4
I

Cold gas

10.48

[Jugjaietal.,2002]

'-'if
 Dp = 450

Vessel containig water

Emitting Porous
Medium (EP) Exhaust gas
analyser

EP.ii \f

Primary Air

Absorbing
-LPG
Porous Orifice
, Medium (AP) ^—Outer
Housing
Inner Housing
Secondary Air Tair.pre

650

fl 10.49 Porous Radian Recirculated Burner (PRRB) tfimUlfliUflm^&J

[Jugjaietal., 2002]

400

PRRB(CB)[tfp=1.5,xap=3]

300

\ 200

100

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

CL,kW

10.50 prrb [Jugjai et ai., 2002]

air.prt
 I

oini^
emitting porous medium (EP)

il«9n5fnw triiiiiQ
■M

10.49 EP iicis; AP

(primary air) LPG

lliYI9Wmj (mixing tube) fi ll4UfMS^91fnffVjSof|3 (secondary air)

ivtaluimifffS (conventional burner, CB)

35 kw ii9iSiJi2;Sii5fn<wi5<ifj'3i3Ji9ijfi9wtui^mljJmiu 30

300°c

vi 10.50 il?sSvj?ni<wmfni3j!l9vimy^uuT«om§oiJis;jjifu 12 uloi

fi 10.51 u^sjl^nm^ilfsJM^^^iwlfimflaciiJisjjitu 30
iilvi 10.52 cb (TfiEJ€i9Pi EP uas ap

.;/!

m
 PRRB(CB)[x = 1.5, 1^=

10 15 20 25 30 35

prrb(cb) nu cb

[Jugjaietal.,2002]

60

50

°. 40
bO

I 30

I20 PRRB(CB)[xPP=1.5,xAP=3]

10

10 15 20 5 30 35

CL,kW

fl 10.52
[Jugjaietal.,2002]
10.8.3.2 Self-recuperative burner

furnace waEI exhaust

two gas valves

for flame and
FLOXmode
recuperator

common valve for

tt
combustion and eductor air
gas
air

10.53 #30013 self-recuperative burner [Milani and Saponaro, 2001]

10.53

(eductor air) qs

(recuperator) rW0fl"lrJiYI
I
fnim

10.8.3.3 egenerative burner)

2;fl^lfjf^N^ (ceramic honeycom

10.54
fl8
V

a/ I

10.55 §3 10.58
Ma^v*^<iiiJt49^

«j ?n3J1?t)^1^'0inHa^1'U1«U iiu Katsuki and Hasegawa (1998), Blasiak et al.

(2000), Gupta (2000), Jugjai et al. (2001,2002), Kawai et ai. (2002), Milani and Saponaro (2001),

Shinoda et al. (2002) l

., 2000]
 [Milani and Saponaro, 2001]

dose
pilot burner A pilot burner B
air

insulation

ceramic honeycomb

10.56

(slab reheating furnace) [Katsuki and Hasegawa, 1998]

 Bume< file

fcxkawst

Ceramic Honeycomb

,2001]

recirculating
non recirculating
(n) (*u)

10.58 (radiant tubes burner) [Milani and Saponaro, 2001]

(n) tfuflldSmiM3Junm4fmjjf'9<u
10.9 no

(Low NO Combustion Techniques and Burners)

A.

(>i,400oc) t i
air.pre >|
1,000 °c

no no nas no no 92j

Ii4uviviil) thermal NO s
X

«eiw5<i thermal no tnjjnt)i

2,600 °c

m/

y\%a m ua m

ron °) viu Amu fl-uvtsno6! iJismff rf'u il

&^99nfig«JJItl Clean Air Code
no 1,400 mg/m3

Sll 8 no

thermal no

thermal

(fl) m

(fl)
 10.9.1 lame cooling technique)

10.59 [Wunning,J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997]

thermal NO

>1W911liSi!'9T4'yiK(pnJjtfllJ (domestic water heater) h (boiler)

h^<U0^mfiIwlfiSvi0iflfe/Tianni5'ij0'3mnfifini?<Ha9ioiiiilfi'3l^m9
\ BflllflJlfU thermal NO
10.

co

:tru

ermal no
 COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

POROUS
MATRIX

EMBEDDED
TUBES

COOLED
DISTRIBUTION
GRATE

4
NATURAL
GAS/AIR
MIXTURE

10.60 ice combusion). [Xiong etal., 1995]

thermal no
t d

?^^9^9i^oni?fr<im?ijni?difiT9wniiJjl'0wu?i§jni?iNi1lwiri?ianiiiiN?'9S
[Xiong et al., 1995] luqilftfQI&fuhiU
y

tniifmjjuwnqijvioih
bed of porous matrix)

10.

if da i

«H W1 (surface)

(combustion augmentation)

co

thermal NO
 Mill JBTJ (heat transfer enhancement) ?Sn^3Jvi9WTniW1^l]i2;SviSfn'Wl5<innUfWU%*M 70
nlainhiArih &tninimJnfiiJtiBenJ?infu co imsj no fi<iiJ?8inm 15 ppmv (ilfmiji«l(ii<fii
JpOlllowhwuCN O2) iviilTti [Xiong et al., 1995] lftjQ1liluiyifllljlllolMli?IWJtrjJOUtl«8jlli

boiler) liicwmflftiWiJ 9ioasi8ofi^a?ntjfsiJijm7iNiWTfiJN'3triiJi7tiiiiQiul^in

\e?>
inaftQIJJQBO wiu Jasionowski et al. (1987); Khinkis et al. (1989); Mohamad et al. (1994); Xiong et al.
(1992); Xiong etal. (1995); Jugjai et al. (2001) l

thermal no

ermal NO

W 10.9.2 «M«ffugi8'M (Staged-combustion technique)

w^
^

^
I
I

3> •

I'l- ffu
u

wluifownW un thermal NO iflulilBeh«liI

"«■■■!■

flij (secondary combustion) ^UfffliTflO

io thermal NO Vtuhtnn
« recirculated exhaust gas N UfIS CO
2 2
 oooUngof cooling of
combustion coirtbuition
products products

a)

b)

io.6i

(b)

[ Wlinning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997 ]

io.65

(non-staged combustion burner) Qllvi 10.65(a))

io.65(b)) <w<u?i^1ij«0^uii>39imff€9nt8i4tti
SlSW95Mli^nT4ii^i0i^o9ini^

^fri«
 ba

bf imWmjmjm^ f mo Qiniff a ba bf

1^ F nu A

Yi 10.66 ufTfl3miiiJiMjmmjd?3JifumiiJaflild9u no
(conventional burner) numimillJinnwr PnJJY1UBf fl 10.63 flJJr
** ««"»• •«'•«««-••«• ■«• •«> •"» •' ••«• •A ■*»«• • Staged-combustion burner) llflfllJfioCJ NO

foroooftngof
oon^buttion products

|lJS 10.62

[Wunning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997]

 "Si
M':

preheated air

«)

primary combustion
-■%

fuel gas

■Jy

secondary combustion

fl 10.63 QOO'Mi
[Flamme, 2001]

Zone C, coarse porous mej

Water-cooled wall staged methane Spark

Insulation I plug
Flue
Lean or rich
premixed
fuel/air
Quasi-continuous stage
mixture

Zone A,
flame Insulation
arrestor Thermocouples Water-cooled wail
First stage

%i}i\ 10.64
 10.65 (a nonstaged burner) llttt

(b)ifoimimilUlMliJllVUWfM(staged-combustionburner) [KatsukiandHasegawa, 1998]

^ 5(0 / Saa'SflS/GB7/e(H

burners: Ofl/21/23
a 20/30 m^nytv (group H natural gaa)

1800

air ratio = 1.05

T, =1200 »C

air temperature T

|ilfi 10.66 nJfoumcju no (conventional (nonstaged) burner)

staged-combustion burner) [Flamme, 2001]

 .'Mi

10.9.3

(Flue m9 Exhaust gas recirculation combustion technique) (FGR 1119 EGR)

thermal NO

10.67

thermal NO

lYi 10.68 ^9
(1) swirling flow with recirculation gi&Jfmv^UQlum mnmJ W

(2) in-flame FGR

llllillltnWttfTn (main flame) lli^jufnaiflflWW8VQ«m?SflWlffl

^
well-stirred combustion)

(3) internal fgr

10.65 internal FGR 4

internal FGR 10.69

internal FGR internal FGR (with disk)

(without disk) ffauflreuluilJYi 10.72

 (4) external FGR

external FGR WiJ

JJJinnW 10.73 external FGR llJ

—7

It 4

combustion
coofingcf
oombus&on
a* fid* products

I
10.67 Mnnfni«U94 FGR [Wunning, J.A. and Wimning, J.G., 1997]

I
■it?.
<D 8**tno flew

,_ _._ .mm MM* for

10.68 mfl<3fim?<HJ|lintJwl9mtJnauiniW1tllHtfl<Hji [ShinkawaandArai, 2001]

 i

Nozzle

Inlet Aperture 1

Fin

s?afl

Disk

10.69 WQ8fii4iTQlN1?rd5m§9mS^m?1'3Vll<HfJtuany«12;ni1lNll1HWU1JljS internal FGR

^
[Shinkawa and Arai, 2001 ]

EGR Gas (Recirlating Flow)

Di
Inlet, aperture

Nozzle

Primary Air (Swirling Flow)

10.70 internal FGR [Shinkawa and Arai, 2001]

Is,
ft

550 mm

Fuel
i

Swirler

Primary air

(a) 2 internal FGR

550 mm

Fuel

(b) Id8 internal FGR

10.71 internal FGR (b) iliS internal FGR

[Shinkawa and Arai, 2001]
 ■i

100
450
.= 0.7
nodsk

-40-20 0 20 40

Radial distance r mm

S internal FGR
[Shinkawa and Arai, 2001 ]

EGR pathway

10. JUU external FGR 1lJlJi2;f|nnl^l

 10.9,

(Lean premixed combustion technique)

air* access air

combustion

10.74

[Wunning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997]

a/ <v CV
i

mjitrSojniyiiio^iJfnlvl^ifi^uas

10.9.5 IHfli]fkfl17IN1<ih (Reburning technique)

air

oombmSon
coofinoof —y
oomfautOon rabumina
fuel products ofrabumi

n 10.75 mni}fim«m*[WuniiinglJ.A.and Wunning, J.G., 1997]

&ei no
^ 10.75 ufrfi4Tinnni?Vli4iijiio4mnun
fuel NO i (rebuming fuel)
-. inftBi ™on (main fuel) n no Wnmeiiilw n
 ■m

mm

?nin?flfifl NO WS^ 60 owman, 1993; '3

Chen et al., 1986; Lanier et al., 1989; U.S. EPA Source book, 1991]

10.9.

no la na
V

tfif%u04nisfiAmsikifliJii9a NO mtmvm

ivuJfintuum l -14

(100 O2)

Ox i 10.76

(oxidant ratio) ?T93fh N2=14

wuflWf no ^S^ 3,400mg/m3

<HinqsW90n<5w<uy?q<nif (100 iilafrau^ o)

N lltJ9^nliJfn?W99n5lSlWll5JJ^i3 (primary oxygen) Tif09diinJ^00n5w\499nt8tJtT'3<U

10.77

Q^

(lance
-31 lance position (I) mi 1 = 0

iltn^^

«? a c\ y

I \

W' 1 = 0

NO lOO mg/m3 I = 10 mm NOx

vi 960 mg/m3 lWm 10 ivh ^Utt^^l'Ulll^ 10.78

tots Not.: 707A^07B

burner. 27 (100 % O2)

(CH4/N2)

10000

oxldant ratio = 1.01/1.05

9000-
Vm s1200#C
mg/m3 >0.5mbar
8000-

7000-

oxidant ratios 1.05

N2 content of fuel gas %(by vol.)

10.76

(100 nJgllW^O ) [Flamme, 2001]

 secondary oxygen

reaction zone

«| V I V

Tl 10.77

[Flamme,2001]
lest No.: 788

Dumen34.3 {100 %O2)

20 m3 (n)/hr (group H natural gas)

NO oxidant ratio = 1.01

^"1200'C
pfUm>0.6mbar

2 4 6 8 10
lanca position I mm

pill 10.78 llfllitUNO

N

[Flamme, 2001]
 10.9.7 NlflifmijiwgS (Secondary measures)

U1Wimi<H§OQ3t3<Uni5<M1fniU?TS01fl<HfOiiujVuifltflfHfftl Qlifmwi'if lili Selective

I Catalytic Reduction (SCR) [Behrens et al., 1991; Bowman, 1993; Fujii et al., 1998; May et al.,
| 1991; Robie et al., 1991] tff© Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction (SNCR) (gtTUfm (11.28) lu
I UY1YI 11 lbsn011) [Bowman, 1993; Chen et al., 1988; Heap et al., 1988; Miller and Bowman,
| 1989; Musio et al., 1991; Sarv and Rodgers, 1989]

10.9. ameless combustion technique)

no

mfl WiW
no nn

W (kinetically controlled)
10.9.8.1

o—

Oxygen (%)

Ftamatoto mixture (26*C)

10.79 [Zebetakis, 1965]

10.79

NO

Ky <
K

.153)

&»■
(10.153)
(M

ims;
 (recirculated exhaust gas)

Wiinning(1991)

KY inntm 0.5

10.80 ufntu ab ims

im

It-
A: Sttbfefitmc

it

f
mi
A
K

I
I

10.80 (FLOX®)
[Wunning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997]
 Air flame or
Fuel FLOX*
Exhaust

Air
Exhaust FLOX*
Fuel

Fuel
Exhaust FLOX*
Air

Air FLOX*
Fuel
Exhaust

ame) uasimull?iiJ?nlyl flox®

[Wunning, J.G., 2000)

iiliJmw 0.5 (laaHfinim A)

(stable flame) luin9UyjfiqtU«Q5(U9'3milHi1<H^ (U?IQQI A) llfl
Ky 0.5 B)

700 °c *u<u1il^D2jS?iWl^iiirimiiwilvtAs;liiitrSo?ST4n (unstable flame) (ufntu b) m

(flameless TH9 colorless oxidation) nonlflBOOli "FLOX®" (Iflf

NO ws

Warmeprozesstechnik Gmbh UTMUKmSvO 10.80

iClfi^in'3i 900 °c

70 - 230 m/s «uoi8;fifniJJinfniSftoimfr?!)un^S-512 - 40 m/s

flame"
I llllUlllTJ "FLOX®" Sllfi 10.81 "flame"

uasimu "FLOX®" luuuu "FLOX

flame" UU W

200 - 300 K ivhiiu

10.154)

2000 K
ad 0
(10.154)

10.9.8.2

70 - 230 m/s 12 - 40 m/s

900 °c

10.82 utis 10.83

Combustioa
sir

10.82

(FLOX®) [Wiinning, J.A. and Wiinning, J.G.,1997]

 10.83 fowultf* "flame" iuis "FLOX®" (w«qutnnifffinwnouon)
[Wunning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G.,1997]

2500

A
2000

1500 LC— ■■■BBS

'5 I Dy
1 /
—•
1000

/
500

0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Distance from Burner nozzle [m]

A UflS B = 900 °C Furnace temp., 650 °C Air temp.; A = Flame, B = FLOX®(single nozzle)
C Ufl3 D - 1,000 °C Furnace temp., 650 °C Air temp.; C = Flame, D = FLOX®(multiple nozzle)
[Wunning, J.G., 2000]
 iviVI WwWVm "flame" UfiS "FLOX
[Wunning,J.G.,2000]

ti
10.82

ill

iJu

10.83

jiJvi 10.83 "flame" IMS "FLOX~"

V

IIUU "flame"

no

(2) rfnufumiiwiWuuu "flame" Ajoimrr (3) rfwftjfmiHiWlitjij "flox®-

 IiirmimWimii "flame" tfu mmn* (l) mjgimmJjugfl (2) inNtrijffmifwnW
Jifimn (5) (primary combustion chamber) fil

(3) vilvfawiws (6)

(2) nu9iniffyj^o(j5 (3)
niai<niilAiiwimu "flox'"'" (
(2) uasiJa'9TOi0imf(iiStJf}5 (3) 1
B viyiwwngipnD2;^|nti93j?9u^i'3ow^ii0^9imff!'0vi a
it)fmu&i^inn i'U9^9in^iww^<u0>3i^9ifnfff9V! A ggSfinulomtJ d
d ?

"flox®"
10.84 tflUJll^ 10.85(a) ff^ JlJ^ 10.85(d)
"flame" linsillJll "FLOX®" \mimif\\l lii^inemlumJlJ "flame"

flox " mm munnim iviuiJsjjfiu luu

10.85 (a) ^|llvi 10.85 (d) l9t4ill^l3J^U?f^lw|l)fi 10.81

"flame" imsj "flox®"

1,000 °c <nil<Mniin^t4m9iJ<5s<HS'fivi^<ni4ims;fiPi no gisWnmmjyi'u (pay-back time)

S (ceramic honeycomb) V1VI

<niW?njJ1?C199nUlJU
lvi 10.53 uas iilvi 10.86
 \
two gas valves
for llama and
FLOXmode
eductor air [Cyi

common valve for —* ^P^P

combustion and eductor air
gas

(R)
flame" ims'TLOX " (self-recuperative type)

[Wunning, J.A. and Wiinning, J.G., 1997]

 10.86 "flame" Ufis; "FLOX " (regenerative type)

[Wiinning, J.A. and Wunning, J.G., 1997]

10.9.8.3 s no fswrwHiifnirau "flame" nas "FLOX »

x

"FLOX ®"
d?3J19ifn5llt1?lllti9CJNO "flame"
X

10. "flame" U?13 "FLOX®" tTTU|lJfi 10.88

1,200 °C (air ratio)

X iJ^sjuifu 1.05 - l.i

10.89

air

"FLOX ®"
"flame" NO

"flame" l<uYjnffi °c fa i,ooo°c

10.66
 g<j i fnoluiiltn'W [Ryugo et al., 2002] YMfl

FLOX®"

^mfumi9W9imffvi9tu>i^5^ «) lu "FLOX " n

no m09d

fuel gas

(n)
 (II)

furnace wall
preheated air

reaction zone

fuel gas

(n)

10. amme,2001]

(fl) "flame" "flame" (air staging) (fl) "FLOX®"

R

furnace cross section

/
cooling
tubes

cooling and
heating tubes

longitudinal section

burner

|dtl 10.88 ^9t)l<il«1^Wvifl?f9<UllJ1fJlimoil5SVf'31<3<HQlHllllJll "flame'

1,200

[Flamme, 2001]
qaM»3On11(nyhr (group natural gas) T^-915'C X-1,05 burner: 09 t0ttNo.:626
2000
q-30irf(nVhr (group natural gaa) T*-920'C X-1,06 bumar.23 fast Na: 627
600
«**•
o *xV* t«**
(group natural gas) T«ir'*920*C X«1,1 burner: 25.1 test No.: 793
10.89
(n) "flame" "flame" (air staging) (fl)"FLOX
[Flamme, 2001]
 : 510 /SfiQ/66S/6B7/eQ4

burnere: 09/21/23
q =20/30 m\n)fat faioup H natural gas)
I ■ I 1 1 L.
1800
NO air ratio =1.05
1600-

1400-

1200-

1000-

800-
(n)
600- conventional burner

400-
aiaged-combuation

burner
200-
' (fi)
0
200 400 600 800 10*
Ta °C

10.

(fl) ••flame" (U1W?Sf114) («U) "flame" (air staging) (fl) "FLOX®"

[Flamme^OOl]

10.90 no

flox ®" 10.87 (fi) iirfyi^ao^fi^MdCmtiofnolwi^ng^nQi 1,200 °c

^ 10.91 tnn|ilvi
l 10.90 flsmuQ

920 °c 1.1 no 65 mg/m3 (vi 8 iilolwuw 0

v 1,200 °c iflu 410 mg/m3 1,600 °c asiiiirii no
no flox®"
 tort No. TW

turner 25.1
(Qroup H natural Qts)

1800
920»C

1600- air ratio »1.1

mg/m3 '
1400-

1200-

10C0-

800-

600-

400

200

BOO 1000 1200 1400 1600

average furnace chamber temperature ^ 'C

10.90

OTUfl O •ue^vniwi "flox

[FIamme,2001]
furnace cross-section

io.9i

l,600°C)

[Flamme, 2001]
 (Svtaiimm)

injuafiinfW^

igufmSfmijtfi^

(triim? (10.61))
HHV QIU

AH QIM

iflQll QIU

Q
K
v

k QKLTt)

k (molecule/!3)1'"//

Le

LHV QIM

M mm

MW MIN

m MI{L2t)

m,n N

P>P FIL2
Pr mf

Q
Q "H10 g/molecule

Qlt

mti QIMmQQIL2

R,Ru universal gas constant)

R L

RR MI(Llt)
Re

r L

S L/t
 molecule/(I3/) W59 W(Llt)
X L

y L

nieiuiei

a I2//

a 10.15) degree

s rum? (10.129))

e single-reaction progress variable MM lfCtitil\i\%iti

(trum? (10.44))

0 ence ratio

(heat dissipation by viscous stress)

s; (c IC)

x fiim?uifi'3iufou (trum? (10.41)) QKLTt)

x 10.79)

M/{Lt)
v fmuMifamuuNSn («mnvi 10.3 trum* (10.129)) L2/t
v eimfMraviftrotrwsoSTompil (ajjfm (10.123))
00

r fmimuiMMUtM (optical thickness) (|ll^ 10.50,10.51 UflS 10.52) -

AP l^gflfiawfaSfmiliQW (absorbing porous medium)

A>a €imflf(air)

a \%'&%%\Vi%x!\& (available) Qfllvi 10.46)

adi, ad UfUfleiUUttfl
U (adiabatic)

BO liliftU (blow-off)
b IWiWu&l (burned)
£P ^llWI^SfniWIQW (emittingporous medium)
E> e ITmQStTfJjqa (equilibrium) ttf0 m«Ulvh (equivalent)
ec IqiSo (exhaust)
F, f wmm* (fuel)

/ & Tif0 downstream) (|ll^ 10.6)

lame) (|Jfi 10.30) W?0 UQ^miiQ (Uquid)
Ififamatm (species) Ml0 trnT32;i?Jjfo (initial)
10.30)

wjmnatm (species)

max f[<3tJPI (maximum)

P mitnu (propagating) Vlf0tniH§?1J1

ph tpre fn^tjiJ (preheat)
r fifffSl^ 1 <H59?ni^PlU (reactants)
 r U?nclUf)filJgn5en
ffilJgn5 (reaction zone)

s WUYIH (start tf!9 upstream) QlJvi 10.6)

s f IqS) (supplied fluid) Qll^ 10.8))
£■• sn (normal component) 1J84 fniJJl5QS)10 (supply velosity) (u )

T.t ^QlMQfl (temperature)

t vie (tube)
T w mo flwil^ (trum? (10.129))
u (unburned)

0 (initial)

1 n

2 vi 2

enan

o
limtnniff

L fmutm

M mti

N ht\
Q
t nm

T 9QiMn5
Andrews, G.E. andBreadley, D. 1972. "The Burning Velocity of Methane-Air Mixtures". Combustion

and Flame. Vol. 1. pp. 275 - 288.

Bartholome, E. and Sachsse, H. 1949. Z Electrochem. Vol. 53. p. 183.

Behrens, E.S., Ikeda, S., Teruo, Y., Mittelbach, G. and makato, Y. 1991. "SCR Operating Experience

on Coal-Fired Boilers and Recent Progress". Proceedings: 1991 Joint Symposium on Stationary

Combustion NO Control. Vol. 2. EPRIGS-7447. Electric Power Research Institute, Palo Alto,

November, pp. 4B59 - 4B77.

Blasiak, W., Dong, W. and Lille, S. 2000. "Highly Preheated Air Combustion Research in Sweden".

The 2nd International Seminar on High Temperature Combustion. Stockholm, Sweden, Jan.

17 -18, pp. 1-18.

Bowdith, F.W. 1953. Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh,

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Bowman, C.T. 1993. "Control of Combustion-Generated Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: Technology

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Pittsburgh, pp. 859-878.

Chen, S.L. et al. 1988. "Advanced NO Reduction Processes Using -NH and -CN Compounds in

Conjunction with Staged Air Addition". Twenty-Second Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The

Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp.1135 -1145.

Chen, S.L., et al. 1986. "Bench and Pilot Scale Process Evaluation ofReburning for In-Furnace NOx

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Clingman, W.H., Jr., Brokaw, R.S. and Pease, R.N. 1953. Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion.

The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, p. 310.

DamkOhler, G. Z 1940. Electrochem. Vol. 46. p. 601.

DamkOhler, G. 1947. NACA Tech. Memo. No. 1112.

Dugger, G.L., Heimel, S. and Weast, R.C. 1955. Ind. AndEngrg. Chem. Vol. 47. p. 114.
Evans, M.W. 1952. "Current Theoretical Concepts ofSteady-State Flame Propagation". Chem. Rev.

Vol. 51. pp. 363-429.

Flamme, M. 2001. "Low NO Combustion Technologies for High Temperature Applications". Energy

Conversion and Management. Vol. 42. pp. 1919 -1935.

Flock, E.S.^ Marvin, C.S., Jr., Caldwell, F.R. and Roeder; C.H. 1940. NACA Report. No. 682.

Fujii, T., Ozawa, Y., Kikumoto, S., Sato, M., Yuasa, Y. and Inoue, tt 1998. "High Pressure Test Results

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Power. Vol. 120. pp. 509 - 513.

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July23-26,pp.l-18.

Heap, M.P., Chen, S.L., Kramlick, J.C., McCarthy, J.M. andPershing, D.W. 1988. "Advanced Selective

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Jasionowski, W.J., Kunc, W., Khinkis, M.H. andZawacki, T.S. 1987. "Combustion Systems: A Porous

Matrix Burner and Surface Combustor". Topical Report No. GRI-87/0186. Gas Research Institute.

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Combustion Science and Technology. Vol. 163. pp. 245 - 260.

Jugjai, S., Wongveera, S., Teawchaiitiporn, T. and Limbwornsin, K.2001. "The Surface

Combustor-Heater with Cyclic Flow Reversal Combustion". Experimental Thermal and Fluid

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Jugjai, S. and Rungsimuntuchart, N. 2002. "High Efficiency Heat-Recirculating Domestic Gas Burner".

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Air". Twenty-Seventh Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp.

3135-3146.
Kawai, KL, Yoshigawa, K., Kobayashi, H., Tsai, J-S., Matsuo, M. and Katsushima, H. 2002. "High

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Xiong, T.-Y., Khinkis, MJ. and Fish, F.F. 1995. "Experimental Study of a High-Efficiency, Low

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 Zel'dovich, Ya.B. and Frank-Kamenetsky, D.A. 1938. Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. USSR. Vol. 19.

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I Zel'dovich, Ya3. and Semenov, N. 1940. J. Expt. Theoret. Phys. USSR. Vol. 10. p. 1116; translation,

I N.A.C.A. Tech. Memo. 1084.

'&; Zel'dovich, Ya.B. 1948. J. Phys. Chem. USSR. Vol. 22*No. 1.
:"•■?
 3d!infumdm^

(Kyoto Protocol) UJ9ll 1995

99nW^g^lwlwiisjw (NO ) fnlti9Ujj9U9nW(co)

m
 1
4
=NO,NO)

1950 i (NO)
x

(troposphere) ^ NO

CO WJiii $U tni914<n1«Vl?SJmol^(volatile
«Vl organic compounds, VOCs) (WfM IUW§T4 flimu iifijj

no

(stratosphere)

18

NO + O ->NO +0 (11.1)
3 2 2

(112)

NO o

o3 o (11.1)
t i9iniin?fi9iScjsnn9imfftJiw^5ulu5s«u^
| (supersonic transport aircraft, SST) 14"Ul9<a

iSj' X

i v
NO^

no

m NOXS 4 l^WVn^ (route) [Bowman, 1993] iflUfi thermal route,

prompt route, N2O route Utis fuel-bound nitrogen route

11.2.1 Thermal NO (Zeldovich-NO)

Thermal NO nffnionQnethwudl Zeldovich-NO (^9enu Zeldovich, Y.B. (1946)

nox wnan) StrumimisiTj^d'tBauichetai., 1994]
.-> NO + N A =1.8X10l4exp(~318kJ.mol l/(/?r))cm3/(mol.s) (il.3)

2 -> NO + O ^=9.0X109exp(-27kJ.mol V^r^cm^mol.s) (11.4)

N + OH -► NO + H ^3=2.8X1013 cm3/(mol.s) (11.5)

"thermal" NO ITmdi NO ^iS^iiJtriini? (11.3)

^ (11.2) ■n^mns^is^Qi^
n2 ^iflwuuu Iwi^-ubsj (triple bond) i&unAiliJnfth ™zmif\umm% (11.3)
9/

no 5nutrufni(ii.3) wiwmf^i^^iQ^fniin^iJgnfoi ^ wuitewtimj l/renuiil^ 11.1

 Thompson at al.

rocommended

■ , ■ ,i: ..... I .. i . . ■ ■ tO#K

ZS 35 4^ 5.5 ftS

n.i fliflw™e*msinm]()nttn k «iutnjfm(ii.3) wuiJ^mjnu l/r [Riedeietai., 1992]

uiijn^

trwm: (n.3) - (ii.5) i 11.2 MUQ

(11.3) - (11.5)

, -(11.5)

.3) -(11.5) no W
d[NO]
(11.6)
dt
 ppmNO

1<X>0

Equilibrium NO

100

10

0.25 0,30

n.2

[Warnatz, 1981b]

l 1.3) - (l 1.5) &)

d[N]
= ^[O][N2]-^[N][O2]-A:3[N][OH] « 0 (11.7)

(n.4) uns (n.5)

(n.6) imz (l 1.7) l

(l 1.3) - (l 1.5) R9

d[NO]
(11.8)
dt

JflfllJfjJISU thermal N01# [NJ Vl?9«fl A:

 [N2] uas [o] (probe)

tu

Tilmb [o]

10 mi fttfuftuu fifhwtu
(11.9) UY114 [Wamatz, 1981b]

[0] = (11.9)
k j_ -k j_ -[H O]
OH+O H+HjO 2 J

(n.9

i,80b K

i
H+O o OH + 0 (li.io)
2 *
3
O+H *> OH + H (11.11)
2
5
OH + H <■> H O+H (11.12)
2 k*6 2

*2[OH][O] (11.13)

*3[O][Ha] = *4[OH][H] (11.14)

[ohichj =

(n.9) sis

[O] [O2],[H2] uas

[O] miUftrunii (11.9) m9Hi [0]

 1,600 k

= —(«lmrn/lm.s ! » 0.001 s.

11.2.2 Prompt NO (Fenimore - NO)

prompt NO Fenimore, C.P. (1979)

(probe) m0% no n/
[NO]

Zeidovich [no]

i thermal NO Vmhvmsni prompt NO s CH

v v

ch fi infi
ch

(HCN) wus^iilgnfcnrfoiiJsiwma NQ
k

CH + N ~> HCN + N (11-16)

2

HCN + O -> NCO + H (11.17)

NCO + H -> NH + CO (11.18)

NH + H (11.19)

I N + OH -> NO + H (11.20)

I 13J0 k = 4.4 X1012exp(—11,060 ¥JT) cm3mol. 's [Dean et al, 1990]

fmilisdnjiiloiniJnntu prompt no
ns;&fl(u0u?iinjj')nu0«Ji5ifn no
it V V

prompt NO ijninfil\4tTJmajm?iHitlii5i9«'H\4imiuu s; ch si

prompt NO
wmui(c2H2)

thermal NO m?ls;iJgn?01?l1JJtr3Jfn5 (11.16) 75 kJ/mol

 1,000 k miilw \mtaA thermal no
1,700 K

11.3 tmfl^«'39£n'3W?ini5nitJ'3tUUasJHtim?V1Pli19^M1f!i thermal NO lias prompt NO

(well-stirred reactor) Nf)ni?AimfUn7sVhlutfCM
lermal WS9 Zeldovich mechanism) 9ti"Hl§tn lias
JMTM Zeldovich+Fenimore TOmiil^Tlflf'njffl'NTCiri'N thermal+prompt
NO fill thermal NO flfl9 prompt NO 14Wl9^'^fi9U<{l1^ff9flf)^9'3lTlJNafll?<MPia9>3VlUfr^^f'3o
ftynnwtlUlMt)erM?i [Bartoketal., 1972;Glarborgetal. 1986] t)3lMini?hlifl"U1s;WTI4thermal +
prompt NO mj thermal NO 9sSmilinV)fri)1/3Sm?lHl1i1^l9§<HUlMf9^fii9i?lt1?f'3aJ9iniff X <\

ppm NO

120

100 *• ♦ prompt NO

80

60

40

20

0
0.4 0.6 0,8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6

fl 11.3 W/39eJ^Wafl15flTU'3fUUI12JHafniVlflf19'3infil thermal NO ims prompt NO U941

(Bartoketal., 1972;GlarborgetalM 1986)

'& tr

11.2.3 no (n2o)

thermal l,7OOK)1l4<(JQI2Yi prompt

NO O (generated viaN2O)

mi lumsiwiin^Q^ifif9*m4flffam4un?r [Correa, 1992]

thermal NO 1JtMSJlSo'3n<UfrilT3S;fn?lHiiTI^Vl9«lll<l^{l9^niW1liJ1l?in^ CH
prompt UrSu no ftn^ n2o no

mxi n thermal no

N2O [Wolfrum, 1972] N2O

NO [Malteetal.,1974)

N +O + M-* N O+M (11.21)

N O+O -» "NO + NO E =97kJ/mol (11.22)

2

ii^mi1? no Yiin^iu^ajnii (11.21) ut& (11.22) nfisjS 'uwSiYi

uE

l NO 9nri9*liJ #nlu no wnf»muN2o

no lTj?s

11.2.4 (Fuel NO)

ifturiMmKHmhs

lu|lltnill?s;n91J (nitrogen containing compound

(NH3) (HCN) [Miller and

Bowman, 1989] no
 NH3+OH -^ NH2+H2O (U<2J)

-> NH +H2(H2O) « = 1,2 (1U4)

lilt) NH, flQ amine radical OlfllUTJ NH;

^dgnfenefolilil
di U
alai XTXJ no«Jl
Ull NH2 "a*»

NH +0 HNO + OH (11.25)
2 . . 2

NH2+HN0 NH3+NO (11.26)

HNO + OH -» NO + HO (11.27)

NH 2 +N0
.
-> N 2 +H 2 0 Wn2A (11.28)
y

no) S)s1&]gn?tnri9liilfi

NH + H -> N + H2 . (11.19)

N + OH -» NO + H WNO (11.20)

m thermal NO) 1

N + OH -> NO + H l^NQ (11.20)

N+O ~> NO + 0 WNO (11.4)

2

N + NO -» N +0 Wn2 (11.29)
2 *

(HCN)(fl^1tJlJ§nfcnm?in« prompt NO)

HCN + O -> NCO + H (11.17)

NCO + H -> NH + CO (11.18)

 HCN + O NH + CO (11.30)

NH + H N+H (11.19)

N + OH NO + H (11.20)

N + NO W N2 (11.29)

no Snainrmmfl no * thermal NO UtiS prompt NO

mi

no
Sta

113 (Carbon monoxide)

Ol <f

fmwmifiqnififtliiSvi©
ivl (ignition)

CO-

1
co co+-o (11.31)

co CO

(too short residence time)

« m co

CO (n.32)
 (n.32 co

CO + OH <=>CO + H (11.32)

(11.33)

CO «sjliJiid<iMTJiYi<y9<iiwfiiS0piufi^visisJui09nSi9wliiJmtJ«3tnj0'3

as «» q £.*a
mttmmn

miillidfinminn ^ tniniavhliii^

11.4

filulpliHilTlif (fuel molecules)

ivu Smu s5fiSij l- 1,

, m, o- 9iviu

'UG^lllcilWliJV(1S5^9V!m9'3Ulflinfn5SflU9^llla'3lv) (flame stretc

*
11.4.1 ame stretch)

11.4.2 (Gap)

V ■

1l'fUS;i§OQni4nS)2Jin«fn5ciitjl9Wint1'U0<l?n?<UWn?n<ifi'i9'3tl'3 (reactive intermediates)

(adsorption)' (desorption)
 n.4(n)i
t it V

daQW^uivimjMu«MfQ'HfaTJ'j'ifUMiM»iiijjtJvin.4('u)wui'H5islvin'5Su?n
■T-v»

(flame position

Sl^^

Traveliing flam front

vyas

I 1 Flame
riam position [mm]

0.16

H 0.12

I 0.08

! !
0.04

0
Wall Travelling flame front -0.2 0.0 0.2

= 10 bar, <P= 1, T =300K

(/ fl9ntnVlllJ?J'3l1vJl<il1U10gln^lWmiJinfitJfl)[Westbrook and Dryer, 1981]

m

ll?}J1Qifminfl trmhsneillslflSfnttlBU [Bergner et al., 1983]

11.5 ^im^lillJi (Particulates and Soot)

i^
WfU dlWWW lltaflVI ?tl?9W14Vli0S)SJ^niHiiMif (oxidized)

viw t^iffuini (bottom ash)

SS^h ionm QSJ

uon9Qn*lil roulfleifmtiijfrsifiem (shaking) iflij^u

q (empirical fonnula)^9 C8H

H 9yS<a 12 d9wu«ft?wi]?jnfl5 injj
iQll mi1S5l<Ujii3Jflinfl1<UU?niUYiSlS9lVlS>a95J9di^l<Uli'{fti (fuel-rich regions) ltttJ9 'tf

(non-homogeneous) t^fimil
wiw ilia;in'n|y9^i9'l«?fn?iJ0i4V!f9Tfi?^tf?i<iluiiiq?i liasfiim^uvi? (diffusivity)

l,300K<T<l,600K[Santoro et al., 1988]

 A

(fl) figphlfhlblfffieiflf (nucleation

polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons

(PAH) imi^ftamtf (idi) htf Jftai

inflfif)U11<W'UUlh (soot precursor) [Glassman, 1988]lu#U09uClflaUYn^fl8(cheiiiical kinetics)

it

v y

m5lSulwill\49^inf1 (soot growth) ll4<ffu«lQVl5«lIlIlt4fn5Vn>3lflUU€1SJm<5?'3U«'3<U9^

coa gulation) Plfl9?lfl<um?lSulwUWMH'3(U9<l<5'3lf1^OtT (surface growth) emitJf)Wflfm

particle) wSniWIPIlltSinfU 10 S^

50 nm simn (aggregation) S'

100^50 ms i
(f» soot oxidation)

(reaction zone) YIOJWUlJfntlllla'j'H (flame tip)

(smoke point) (m ™

1/ y

i§9mS^ww92Jin?iii<ujii«nn

1/ v v 1

il? i§9iviM<wfl2Jmfii<u3iitJiniviiiI<u^utTPi<ilTJPnn<ivi 11.1 [Ken, 1986]

(gas family)
H?lVllAf)9 alkanes, alkenes, alkynes lias aliphatic-aromatics 11.2

[Ken, 1986] iw'

«* a/ v l

11.6 (Oxide of Sulfur, SO = SO , SO )

(sulfur)

so

inm (residual oils) uns

11.1
Mllli (smoke point, mja)[Ken, 1986]
m m^Qng/s)
^

3.84

Imiwu 7.87
C4Hw 7.00
CH 222
< 12

CH 5.13
7 U

CH 2.07
t 16

CaH,i 1.57

C.oH.i 0.77

1-oonmw
CK 1.00

CiHu 1.73

C«0HM 1.77
i-ienina?
CUHJ2 1.93
1-ieriJiviw
C1H« 0.65

CtoH.i 0.80
C?H| 0.27

0.22
t «

CH 0.15
9 S

CH 0.18
9 S

C H 0!27
10 14

C H 0.17
11 10
 emuf! 11.2 uinltfu^fiiiiu fliUUnnilJWSSJQminflf (gas family) [Ken, 1986]

Alkanes Alkenes Alkynes Aliphatic-aromatics

roemlta msp
•

msp

ImHW 7.87 3.84 esjiifvlau o.5i Iw^&u 0.27

UQIY1VI 7.00 1.12 l-l8lJlviW 0.65 fflfliu 0.22

UQTUOa

Iffllivm 5.13 1.73 i-?llwi 0.80 o-'viuau 0.28

1V1V1 1.57 1.77 0.27

H«HnflilT4 1.93

unti so nliitnmi PI (sulfuric acid) &ffljmi (11.34)

so3- 0 ~> H2SO4 (11.34)

2

11 SO3 fl9141Vllfl?l N&umj so3

■ *

mu94Ufmso2vi J?uituiiinn'iiunfr so3 Ovttu so2QSQf

lfl\J SO3 iflUQI^jfi OH n9uvhiJ|)n5 tnmj H2oi3un5«!ifi?fivlQ?n h2so4 riolilmui
V

so

WS?M\|li (limestone, CaCO 3 JwfoHywn (lime, CaO) HmJl3l!IUlllwlflmJm«n (aqueous sluny)

tower so (l 1.35) uas (l 1.36)

<U (aqueous slurry of limestone)

CaCO3 +SO2 +2H2O ->CaSO3 (11.35)

\lw<\ni (aqueous slurry of lime)

CaO+SO2+2H2O—» (11.36)

(imuflltin) mm so2
t dihydrate(CaSO3-2H2O)

Caso so

agan (1988)

11.7

%»

91i (part-per-mimon, ppm (iflmHinfl?))

11.7.1 mission Index) £/

m
i.emitted
i
EI
r,r

(11.37)

m
Remitted

m
F .burned

Eit

l'? g/kg wf9 g/ib m9liifiiM'3m<u^<i<ui4^orf9m?1^iii

m9lii <ui4^orf fin Ei
 fh
A* <t

X xMW
(11.38)
X +X , MW ,
\
CO CO
2 J \ F J

11J9 X. '

x y
v

MW

\mm

CV

.i Htini?^i9iSejuiJiJVi«n9v^9<iUTi<is)iniotJ'u^1<?i3iJj\499myivi C H S

CO = 12.37

CO = 0.17

O2 = 2.3
 C H (mmjivn) 873 ppm
6 14

NO 70 ppm

uN
<«,<>
44 o

X.
(11.38)

H C H
6 14 8 18

MWi - 86.2 kg/kmol

= 114.2 kg/kmol

x = 8

(( = 873 X10"6

<r" = 0.0017

= 0.1237

-6
873X10 8X86.2
EI
C6H14 0.0017 + 0.1237 114.2

0.04204 kg/kg

42.04 g/kg flQU

CO uns CO

««„)
 1

6H14

= 0.0017 + 0.1237 + 6X873X10

V

873X10 6 ^8X86.2
H = =T
6 14 (0.0017 + 0.1237 + 6X873X10 )V 114.2

= 40.35 g/kg

d i •
.04-40.35 = 1.

11.7.2 (Corrected concentration)

mm ?i«wrf o

V V
& o/ 4 -a
^^

H , H

9imff O221 N

79
 C H +flO +3.76a N -»
x y 2 2

xCO + — H O + bO + 3.76aN + flfiSfTU°1 luil?3J1tU^W90liin (tracespecies)

2 <> 2 2 2

N N
X = (11.39)

N
(11.40)
.wet

N mix.wet
2

mix,wet

N x + b+3.76a
mix,dry

-+x+b+
2

.76a

y/2
= 1+
J6a)

o (n?tuiiuiiv»an^ii«39'aiilon) IK

la = 2x-\ hlb
2

2x + 2b = 2a
 m y
b = - 2a |-jc
2\ 2,

(x+b)

N y/2
mix,wet
1+
N if y
mix rfry - 2a | + 3.76a
2V 2

j^/2
= 1+

y/2
= 1+
4.76a -y/ 4

y
= 1+
2X4J6a-y/2

N
mix,wet __ y
= 1+ (11.41)
N 2(4J6a~y/4)
mix/iry

a Ml

,wet

x + —\-b+3J6a
2
 1
-(2a-y/2)-x
2

*( 2a y\H y
- h3.76a
2v 1 J 1

a +-
4 2

a — y/4 — x
(11.42)
4J6a + y/4

X (4.76a + ^/4) a~~x

2 4

y
X X4.76a-a = x-X
O2.wet O2.wet

a(l-AJ6X
2.Wet

2 wet
a = (11.42a)
(1-4.76 AT )
U2,wet

a (11.42b)
1-4.76^
°24ry
 X N = X N (11.43)
i,dry mix,dry i.wet mix,wet

N
mix ,wet
X = X (11.44a)
ii i .wet
i
N
mix,dry

umjfhmjfm (n.4i) n^lutrumi (11.43) W

X = X 1+ (11.44b)
i,dry i.wet
2(4J6a-y/4)_

H )

vx^ iviiim
°2,dry

N
mu,O. /eve/1
r.(Yl 02 level 2) = Z. (VI (11.45)
N
/eve/2

^ 1 >
~ +3.76a + -
2j 2

4.76a + -
 ,wet
+- (11.46a)
"I..- = 4-76 \-4J6X, 4
2,wet

(11.46b)
1-4.76X, 4

11.2 ll.i no

(11.42b)

f0 )y/4
2,dry

1-4.76 X,

"24v

8+ (1-0.023)18/4
a —

1-4.76(0.023)

13.92

(11.41)
N
mix,wet
= 1+-
N
mixjry 2(4.76a —

18

2[(4.76)13.92-18/4]

= 1.146
 no

N
mix,dry

N
mix,wet

1
- 7°PPm'
1.146

61.1 ppm

11.1

2.3 o Winejjvi 5 nWrimw o

15111

l i.46b) in JVmix,dry

)y/4
2,dry
= 4.76
1-4.76X
O

8+ (1-0.023)18/4 18

1-4.76(0.023) 4

= 61.76

8 + (l-0.05)18/4 18
= 4.76
1-4.76(0.05) 4

= 72.18
mowi

Y\23%O
A

61.76
70ppm.
72.18

59.89 ppm

14.44

11.7.3 (Mass Specific Emission) (MSE)

mass flow of pollutant)

MSE = (n.47)

VIW§PIW (brake power produced)

mse SfiiiumiwuBnu £7^trum? (l 1.48)

(MSE), = mFEIt/W (11.48)

life (mse), wfu g/kw-hr g/hp-hr

u liiw kg/hr
g/kg

F fl0 nia^imo^ourfnWfu flwtbmiiu

fl whi kw wf0 hp
11.7.4

3nfltmumfcf(mass of pollutant!') £/
= —- (g/MJW10 lb/MMBTU WS0 lb/MBTU)
na^^iliilovi (fuel energy supplied) AAe

mo Ah i?8fhfmiJ?fmmiim1iitfi»a*Hramfi* Snmunlu m* MJ/kg nf0 MMBTU/lb

c

m0MBTU/lbUJ0MMBTU = 106 BTU WtiS MBTU = 1Q3BTU

11.7.5

^ Smbtuflu rfw nfu/nlaiuwi m!0

nfu/lua
(test cycle)

lllwIitJ (Federal Register, 1970)

11.7.6

(Jones, 1978)

Tttlieill#9Yinfiil3J1 fil«t»Wfnillfi0O3JI1<S%l (emission index) El

8/

«i (probe samples)

(probe)

w9fjfiun ;w mHj
(non-probe samples
11.8.1 es)

a«4 dqy i

;uu

i fn?nqfiilgmcn(fi«ezing of die reaction)

jsSiJajvn

OH, o h

(activation energies) Sfhfh

u8n«infintnfminmJ§n!tn (reaction time)

(probe sampling)

(non-probe sampling) ?Sm?VI1<31lfY^ (optically diagnostics) nJufli

(stable species) ftalU (Ngugen et al. 1993) 88^1?

(combustion modeling)
11.8.2 on-probe samples)

11.8.2.1 ?1U1tl«rillnl<n'S«rTfill (Raman-Spectroscopy)

11.5 (light scattering)

? (laser photon) iwilfiiifU hv flSJgflfnsqu (excited)

£,(vibrational energy level) YltjWU (virtual state)

(emitted photon)

hv

Rayieigh scattering iwiaqassnaugtrcniisiSij (viu

li e2 mmm) fauu ilfanai laser photon ivi
emitted photon

hv = hv
S L

stoke Raman scattering

MM E3 emitted photon

photon

hv < hv
s l

Anti-Stokes Raman scatteringlmaqfi9S:n#Ufijflffm§;

WUE1 m\491U nm\l l^lliJJItU emitted photon WiflflQI

er photon

hv > hv
s l

h m fhfnfoilQ* Planck (Planck's constant) liaSJ v fl9 ight frequency)

 Vjrtual state Intensity Laser tight
Jh/Mfe)

ftvt ,/lVs
(Stela*) (anti^tokes)

N N2

Ei
Et

Stokes Rayteigh Anti-Stokes 1

Raman Raman

11.5

Species
eonoentmsons
V

Temperature

11.6 «Q901^^lln?tU%fl'313Jl4j>il<U<U9^untTTpl0TS Raman and Rayleigh spectroscopy

(MasrietaL, 1988)

Rayleigh scattering

lll (Raman scattered light)

(Raman scattered light)

ibration) Y1111J14O1
 rratrw

tniJfui0iN2,O2,CO,CH4,H2OUJ12; H2 lllu#U (Dibble et al., 1987)

(WU m?%lt4iiJa'3lvluil1jilwil'3tJ) jfaiimcilfaWnfumi (Long et al., 1985)

Raman (Raman scattering cross section) VI

Y)flnnfjvnjiiuaqatfu
(species) l 11.6

Raman and Rayleigh spectroscopy

11.8.2.2 (Coherent anti-Stokes Raman-spectroscopy,

CARS)

Intensity
Virtual €states 1
10*1
i

hvP 0.5-

\
zito 2315 2320 2325 2330 2335

11.7 Hanmi«U9^ CARS Spectroscopy

cars stokes light

pump laser (SflQIUfl v ) 11.7 pump laser ( v

p

jvifni}jQii0<i stokes light (v

—v ^
«i
i p s

idvi 11.7 •»4iitf«4«'jt)eii4iiO'ifm»ji<8u

» / vkunufh v CARS
r N,v1r= 1,826 k
(Farrow et al.,
 (spectral intensity) / YUlJ?10UUlJa<inU
J? VCARS

(spectral intensity

CARS &)1tfm?uejnUQ2riMiUH1JWq*
H1JW (high spatial resolution)
(high temporal resolution) mf}\$ pulsed lasers
i (cars signal)

(particle-laden flow) Tff04n«l*U3Ji1if9U^flTS;^

[Bertagnoli and Lucht, 1996]

iij cars (cars spectrum)

[Eckbreth, 1996; Throne, 1988]

11.8.2.3

Intensity
Real stales
{not virtual oi>es)

hv,.

A. /ran
225 226 227

n 11.8 M^nm?'U94mietf9?9<uS/3etfvl^99i1tri^l4etf (Laser Induced Florescence, LIF)

if lif lif

(pump laser

(laser photon) hv fiuiknJamjfmufi(i/

Li L/
0mnvil0UntTravn25 (selectively electronic state) [Woifrum, 1986

lflf (electronic state) E (i:=: 1,2,3,4...

(ground state) Ef (/ = 1,2,3,4...)

l
(fluorescence) OomnlliMtliOfmUfi V^ifimmz
(^LIF) wutffi^iKl 11.8 (jricrfJo) vufiun8;fiTiui4ai4ii
(total intensity) /

i£wwir«iM«o«llln»<pilii«iqii (pump laser) ftuirfMltijiWi 11.

l excitation spectra Vlf€Sn'31U^ll<WVIBnUfl'31iJ4<ffjJ^fni3J«l^ «] (spectral intensity)

VLIF Sonil fluorescence spectra UJQ Xt Srflfl^Vl ftac/v) IW0 C flflfnililSIVO^UfT^ ^iJfl
11.8 (HQifi8)tfui9ufoedlwe* excitation spectra U9^ NO ^fUHQJJ T* 300 K [Westblom and
Alde'n,1989]

•UO^UQ-^QB LIF flOUfmil h (sensitivity) Vl^liinYNUmfiSini fluorescence scattering

cross-section UfiiUinniitlllJJiUlviilUOlfiaiJmJ Raleigh scattering cross-section &if

LIF S^mjJis;m^T4i1iJl^tfi?^n?ii^^ijnin
tn«i5o^WifiiiwH,o,N,c,OH,CH,CN,NH,HNO,SH,so,CHO
it lif 0niJ?sni?iiw^S0tfijjiic)ll%fiiijjrfjj^lSS
iweMiwJiiloemtnnmiWiiutr^iflTiuHwutr^ (light sheet)
(calibration) Olfl

11.9 UtT^KJl? LIF-spectroscopy UUinfll#fl[0<llJ§ [Becker et al., 1990]

 JS 11.9 WIOtTH LIF-spectroscopy llUUife1^9^25 [Becker et al., 1990]

11.8.2.4 ni^iunaimoimi (Simultaneous diagnostics)

11.10 Raman scattering

LIF

^i^
 Pulsed Nd:YAG-jv ?r Dye Users- .
' Users V NdrYAQ Seams-
Doubters/Mixers PWse Stretcher-,

Pclychromator

Fute©d
N&YAG Laser

CO
Ftuorvscrnw
Detection
Data Acquisition System

JlJfi 11.10 flQ9dl4mi?fl9,llnWuinJWmn3WyM Raman scattering (wtalflQfUVfQJj) UfiS LIF

(mOQAMimiffliasiJHJICUtmiJami (species) fl9 CO, NO iffiS OH) "Ug^llJfiilvl
OJJa^UVnSJUg^ll^YlKng Raman scattered light pumped at 532 nm
\V\ 11.6), CO LIF pumped at 230 nm, NO LIF pumped at 225 nm Hits OH LIF

pumped at 287 nm [Barlow, 1998]

11.9

viijginwfmm^

ni?99n3JiPiisiviintnniJfjfuin<W9imff(air quality standards) im

(emission standards)
 f)5iJfniJfpj3Ja<fitJ (Pollution Control

Department, PCD) Illfafrcs

ity standards) Ufl

fi 11.3-11.11
(emission standards) t)1fUmMNSflrii4«)MUtrm1uffl1?14fi

11.3

1-hr 8-hr 24-hr 1- month 1 -year

average average average average average** Methods
Pollutants

mg/m8 ppm mg/m8 ppm mg/m8 ppm mg/m8 ppm mg/m8 ppm

1. 34.2 30 10.26 9 * Non - Dispersive

CarbonmonoxUle Infrared Detection
(00)

|2. Nitrogen 0.32 0.17 - • - • • • • - Chemiluminesoenoe

Dia»d«(NO2)

|3. Sulfur 0.78 0.30 - - 0.30 0.12 - - 0.10 0.04 UV - Fluorescence

[Dioxide/" (SO^

|4. Total - • - - 0.33 0.10 Gravimetric-High

Suspandad Solid Volume
IfTSP)
5. Paiteulata • — 0.12 • 0.05 Gravimetric-High

Matter (< 10)i) Volume

(PM-10)

[s. Ozon^P8) 0.20 0.10 - - - - - - - [Chemilumtnesoance

7.Uad(Pb) • - • - - 1.5 - - Atomic Absorbtion

Spectrometer

Remark: * At 1 standard pressure and 25 °C

*• geometric mean
/a 1-hr SO2 Standard

• 1.3 milligram/cubic meter for Mae Moh area

• 0.78 milligram/cubic meter, elsewhere

Source Notification of National Environmental Board No. 10 (1992) under the Enhancement and
Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act B.E.2535 (1992) published in the Royal
Government Gazette No. 112 Part 52 dated May 25. B.E.2538(1995)
 11.4

Emission Standard
Pollutants Value* Methods
Goal Oil 1 Gas
1. Suttur dioxide (SO2) ppm
Power Plant Size
US.EPA Method 6, 8
• >500MW 320 320 20 or other methods approved by
• 300-500 MW 450 450 20 PCO
• O00MW 640 640 20

2. Oxide of Nitrogen (NOX as NO^ US.EPA Method 7

350 180 120 or other methods approved by
ppm
PCO

US.EPA Method 5
3. Partfculate (mg/m3) 120 120 60 or other methods approved by
PCD

Remark: Reference Condition Is 25 degree Celsius at 1 atm or 760 mmHg

Excess Air at 50% or Bcoess O2 at 7% and dry basis.
Source: Notification of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment pubtlshed in the Royal
Government Gazette, Vol.113 Part 9 Page 220, dated January 30,2539 (1996)
 11.5
Emission Standard Value*
Existing Power Plants J NOx«sNO2 Partfculate (mg/m
(Pipot.) (ppm.)

1. Bangpakong (Thermal Plant) unit 1-4 800 320 « 250 || 200 W 320 || 120 <*>
2. Bangpakong Combine Cyde Plants
unit 1 and 2 60 ' 450 60
unit 3 and 4 230
3. Pranakomtal (Thermal Plants) 8001| 320 (2> 180 240 I 120<2>
4. Pranakomtal (Combine Cyde Plants)
unitl 60 250 60
unit 2 175
5. Pranakomnua Power Plant 500 I 180 I 150
6. Surattanl Power Plant 1,000 200 320
7. Langrabua Power Plant 1 60 | 250 60
8. Nongjok Power Plant 60 1 230 60
9. Sainoi Power Plant 60 I 230 60
10. Wangnoi Power Plant I 60 175 60
11. Nampong Power Plant 60 L 250 [ 60
6. Other Power Plants which use fuel as
follow:
A) Coal 700 400 60
B) Oil 1,000 200 200
QLJgnite 60 200 60

Remark: 1) Enforce since January 1, B.E. 2543 (2000)

2) Enforce since April 1, B.E. 2543 (2000)
, 3) Reference Coodftfon te 25 degree C^
of 7% and dry basis.

In case of an existing power plant utilizing emission stack more than one, emission average values must
be calculated base upon the ratio of each emission fkow rate and emission concentration as follow:

Emission
Average
T
Qi= Emission flow rate of stack I from existing power plant, thermal power plant, combine cyde
plant, gas turbine power plant or other existing power plant (m3/hr)
0= Emission concentration of stack I from existing power plant, thermal power plant combine
cyde plant, gas turbine power plant or other existing power plant as gas (ppm) or
participate (mg/m3)
n= Number of stack
l=l,2,3,...n
Source: Notification of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment published in the Royal
Government Gazette, Vol.116 Spedal Part D, dated December 27, B.E. 2542 (1999)
 emufi 11.6

Emission Standard Value |

Unit
SO2(ppm) No^as NO 2 (ppm)
Paniculate (mg/m8) ~~|
Unit 1-3 1.300 500 180 I
Untt4-7 320 500 180 1
UnttS-13 320 500 * 180 ~" |
Unit 1-13 Total SO2 Loading not exceed 11 tons/hour

Source: Notification of the Ministry of Sceince Technology and Environment No.3. B.E.2544 (2001) dated
January 29. B.E. 2544 (2001). published in the Royal Government Gazette. Vol. 118 Special Part 24
dated March 16. B.E.2544 (2001)

11.7 el)

In case of a power plant utilizing mixed fuel (mixture of various types of fuel) In each generating unit
emission standard values must be calcuiatBd base upon the ratio of each type of fuel as follow:

Emission Standard = AX + BY + CZ

When

A = Emission Standards for utilizing only coal as fuel

B = Emission Standards for utilizing only oil as fuel

C = Emission Standards tor utilizing only gas as fuel

X = Ratio of Heat Input from utilizing only coal as fuel

Y = Ratio of Heat Input from utilization only oil as fuel

Z = Ratio of Heat Input from utilization only gas as fuel

Source: 1. Notification of the Ministry of Sclecwe, Technotogy ard Environment published In the
Royal Government Gazette, Vol.113 Part 9D Page 220, dated January 30, 2539 (1996)
2. Notification of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment published In the
Royal Government Gazette, Vol.116 Special Part 1080 dated December 27,2542 (1999)
 flin<m 11.8 JJlPi5SlWfn?<Ll?i9OU?!<i5y'0im?niW1<U£(S;iVlfnJ1t1 (municipal waste incinerators)

Maximum
Standards1
Sbe
Pollutants Methods
more
1-50
man 50
ton/day
ton/day
1. Total Suspended Parttculate US.EPA Method 5
400 120
(mg/m3) or other methods approved by PCD
US.EPAMethod6,8
2. Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2)(ppm) 30 30
or other methods approved by PCD
3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx as US.EPA Method 7
NO2)(ppm) 250 180
or other methods approved by PCD
US.EPA Method 9
4.0padty(%) 20 10
or other methods approved by PCD
US.EPA Method 26
5. HO (ppm) 136 25
or other methods approved by PCD
US.EPA Method 23
6. Dk»dn2(ng/ma) 30 30
or other methods approved by PCD

Remark: 1. Reference Condition is 25 degree Celsius at 1 atm or 760 mmHg Excess Air at 50% or Excess
Oxygen 7% and dry basis.
2. Dioodn means Total Chlorinated Polychtorinatdd Dibenzo-p-Diaxin (PCOD) plus Polychlorinated
Dibenzofurans (PCDF)

Source: Notification of the Ministry of Science. Technology and Environment B.E2540 (1997) dated June 17.
B.E.2540. published in the Royal Government Gazette. Vol. 114 Part 63, dated August 7 B E 2540
(1997)
 11.9 U1f1?SlWfn5ll?i0OJJa<fitltnn^tn<Hni?U (industrial emission standard)

Substances Sources Standard (in mg/Nms)

1. Paniculate Boiler and Furnaoe(Fuel Oil) 300
Boiler and Fumaca (Goal) 400
Boiler and Furnace (Other Fuel) 400
Steel and Aluminum mfg. 300
Any Source 400

2. Antimony Any Source | 20

3. Arsenic Any Source | 20
4. Copper Smelting | 30
5. Lead AnySource | 30
6. Chlorine Any Source | 30
7. Hydrogen Chloride Any Source 200

8. Mercury Any Source I 3

9. Carbon Monoxide Any Source 1000 (870 ppm)
lO.SulfuricAcid Any Source 100(25ppm)
11. Hydrogen Sutfido Any Source | 140 (100 ppm)
12. Sulfur Dioxide Sulfuric Add Production | 1300 (500 ppm)
13. Oxides of Nitrogen Boiler and Furnace (Goal) 940 (500 ppm)
Boiler and Furnace (Other Fuel) 470 (250 ppm)
U.Xylene Any Source . | 870 (200 ppm)
15.Cresol Any Source 22 (5 ppm)

16. Sulfur Dioxide Fuel Oil Combustion 1.250 ppm*

Remark: Reference condition is 25 °C at 1 atm. excess air of 20 % or at O2 of 3 % and Dry Basis.

This emission standards is for industry which settled down in Bangkok. Samutprakam.Nonthaburi.
Pathumthani. Samutsakorn, Nakompathom. Cholburi. Rayong. Petchburi. Prachuabkirikan.
Songkha. Krabi and Phuket Province.

Source: 1. Notification of the Ministry of Industiy No.2. B.E.2536 (1993) dated Jury 20. B.E.2536 (1993)
published in the Royal Government Gazette. Vol. 109 Part 108. dated October 16. B.E. 2536 (1993)
2. Notification of the Ministry of Industry No.9. B.E.2538 (1995) published in the Royal Government
Gazette. Vol. 113 Part 74D. dated September 12, B.E. 2539 (1996)
3. Notification of the Ministry of Industry No.3.1997 published in the Royal Government Gazette. Vol.
113 Part 74D. dated September 12. B.E. 2539 (1996)
 11.10

(emission standard for steel industry)

Emission Standard Value <*>

Steel Industry
SO2(ppm) NoxasNO2(ppm) Particulatefmg/m8)
New Rants 800 180 120
Existing Rants 800 200 240

Remark: 1. All furnace or steel melting process such as Electric Furnace. Cupola, Roasting. Blast Coke
Oven. Basic Oxygen Furnace etc.

2. Reference condition is 25 °C at 1 atm or 760 mmHg. excess air of 50% or at O2 of 7% and

Dry Basis. Except electrical furnace, emission concentration must be calculated based upon
25 ° C at 1 atm and Dry Basis.

Source: Notification of the Ministry of Sceince Technology and Environment dated March 9, B.E. 2544 (2001).
published in the Royal Government Gazette. Vol. 118 Special Part 37 dated May 8. B.E.2544 (2001)

CT1TMflll.il 3J1<aT31Ufn?%ll?JJiaim?lJfi901l^fiu'tfflfl?11^tfl (standard methods)

Parameter Methods3
1. Total Suspended Paniculate US.EPA Method 5: Determination of ParUculate Emissions from
(mg/m3) Stationary Sources

• US.EPAMebta6:DetermiratoVxiofSutfurDta
2. Sulfur Dioxide ( SO 2) Stationary Sources or
(ppm)
• US.EPA Method 8: Determination of SuNurfc Add Mist and Sulfur
Dioxide Emissions from Stationary Sources

3. Oxide of Nitrogen (NOX

US.EPA Method 7: Determination of Nitrogen Oxide Emission from
(ppm) Stationary Sources)
4. Opacity (%)

1. Rlngtemann's Method
1. Opadty from Crematory
2. Smoke Opadty Meter
2. Opacity from Mining
and Quarry Plants

5. HO (ppm)
US.EPA Method 26: Determination of Hydrogen Chloride Emission from
Stationary Sources

6. Dtodn^ng/m*) US.EPA Method 23: Determination of Poiychtorinated Dibenzo-p-DioxIns

and Poiychtorinated Dibenzofurans from Stationary Sources

Remark: 1. Reference Condition is 25 degree Celsius at 1 atm or 760 mmHg Excess Air at 50% or Excess
Oxygen 7% and dry basis.
2. Dioxin means Total Chlorinated Polychlorinated Dibenzo-p-Dioxin (PCDD) plus
Polychlorinate Dibenzofurans (PCDF)
3. Or other methods approved by POD
n.io
J, to J ta ^ tk ** *&& at

lW(ultra low emission) lriftrtiiSlfltJ (zero emtssion

Nflni?llflfillfit)tl NO flinmflfiflfnilWllTI&linJIfillmlvl (flameless combustion
JiiifiiInliiiJdiiiwifisilil5»3ifiin^^

(uw mth

(reheating furnace) lllufti ^l8t4Swiihviltl8eilWin«OMni«ini7lNlllitfTQflflliW^lUWJUlslOtM

«i tnin«if|lfflwuvivi lOiT-aaiQ^ 10.9

11.11

nm nox,
x, co, hc, wnJi ^ uns sox

YW4

naimiliJ<H'3^SnQiJJ^ty0d^24ims

oxidization technique) nl#85uiolfcm«SlBOfluih 1l4TJnfi

11.12

c lit

El Wtfijfl'ftllfioo (emission index)

E QKNT)
a

Q
filfi^^QnJQ^ Planck (Planck's constant) Qt

QIM

k L3/(NT)

MW M/N

m M

m Mlt

SjflliJlh (smoke pobt) Mlt

N N

P>P F/L2

R,R u
gas constant) Ql{NT)

T T

t nai t

W Qlt
X

x shinulua (trjjmi (n.38)) N

3JPI

0 ivalence ratio)

X
X L

v
lit

PlliiQEJ

dry

F (fuel)

i VUfMifltn'i (species)

mix (mixture)

P pump laser

S Stokes light

s (soot)

W Wift (wall)

wet

tj 4

L fmuora

Q
t ntn
Barlow, R. Private communication, Combustion Research Facility, Sandia National Laboratories,

Livermore, 1998.

Bartok, W., Engleman, V.S., Goldstein, R., and del Valle, E.G., 1972. "Basic Kinetic Studies and Modeling

of Nitrogen Oxide Formation in Combustion Processes," AIChE, Symp Ser. Vol. 68, No. 126,

p. 30.

Baulch, D.L., Cobos, C.J., Cox, A.M., Frank, P., Hayman, G., Just, T., Kerr, J.A., Murrels, T., Pilling,

M.J., Troe, J., Walker, R.P, and Warnatz, J., 1994. "Compilation of Rate Data for Combustion

Modelling," Supplement I. JPhys ChemRefData. Vol. 23, p. 847.

Becker, H, Monkhouse, P.B., Wolfrum, J., Cant, R.S., Bray, K.N.C., Maly, R., Pfister, W., Stahl, G., and

Warnatz, J., 1990. "Investigation of Extinction in Unsteady Flames in Turbulent Combustion by

2D-LIF ofOH Radicals and Flamelet Analysis," Twenty-Third Symposium (Int.) on Combustion.

The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 817 - 823.

Bergner, P., Eberius, H., Just, T., and Pokorny, H., 1983. "Untersuchung Zurkohlenwasserstoff-Emission

Eingeschlossener Flammen im Hinblick auf die Motorische Verbrennung," VDI-Berichte,

498:233.

Bertagnolli, K.E., and Lucht, R.P., 1996. "Temperature Profile Measurements in Stagnation-Flow

Diamond-Forming Flames using Hydrogen CARS Spectroscopy," Twenty-Sixth Symposium (Int.)

on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 1825 -1833.

Bowman, C.T., 1993. "Control of Combustion-Generated Nitrogen Oxide Emissions: Technology

Driven by Regulation," Twenty-Fourth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, pp. 859-878.

Correa, S.M., 1992. "A Review of NO Formation under Gas-Turbine Combustion Conditions,"

Combustion Science and Technology. Vol. 87, pp. 329 - 362.

Dean A.J., Hanson, R.K., and Bowman, C.T.,1990. "High Temperature Shock Tube Study ofReactions

of CH and C-atoms with N," Twenty-Third Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion

Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 259 - 265.

Dibble, R.W., Masri, A.R., and Bilger, R.W., 1987. "The Spontaneous Raman Scattering Technique

Applied to Non-Premixed Flames ofMethane," Combustion andFlame. Vol. 67, p. 189.

Eckbreth, A.C. LaserDiagnosticsfor Combustion Temperature andSpecies. 2nd edition, In: Sirignano,

W.A. (Ed), Combustion Science and Technology Book Series, Vol. 3, Gordon and Breach, 1996.

Farrow, R.L., Mattern, P.L., and Rahn, L.A., 1982. "Comparison Between CARS and Corrected

Thermocouple Temperature Measurements in a Diffusion Flame," Applied Optics. Vol. 21,

p. 3119.

Federal Register, 1970. "Control ofAir Pollution from New Motor Vehicles and New Motor Vehicle

Engines," U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Vol. 35, No. 2, Part II, July.

Fenimore, C.P., 1979. "Studies ofFuel-Nitrogen Species in Rich Flame Gases," Seventeenth Symposium

(Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 661 - 670.

Flagan, R.C., and Seinfeld, J.H. Fundamentals ofAir Pollution Engineering. Prentice Hall, Englewood

Cliffs, NJ, 1988.

Glarborg, P., Miller, J.A., and Kee, R.J.,1986. "Kinetic Modeling and Sensitivity Analysis ofNitrogen

Oxide Formation in Well-Stirred Reactors," Combustion and Flame. Vol. 65, p. 177.

Glassman, I., 1988. "Soot Formation in Combustion Processes," Twenty-Second Symposium (Int.) on

Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 295 -311.

Jones, R.E., 1978. "Gas Turbine Engine Emissions-Problems: Progress and Future," Progress in Energy

and Combustion Science. Vol. 4, pp. 73 -113.

Ken, J.H., 1986. "A Quantitative Relationship between Soot Yield and Smoke Point Measurements,"

Combustion and Flame. Vol. 63, pp. 349 - 358.

Long, M.B., Levin, P.S., and Fourguette, D.C., 1985. "Simultaneous Two-Dimensional Mapping of

Species Concentration and Temperature in Turbulent Flames," Opt. Lett Vol. 10, p. 267.

Malte, P.C., and Pratt, D.T., 1974. "Measurement of Atomic Oxygen and Nitrogen Oxides in Jet-

Stirred Combustion," Fifteenth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute,

Pittsburgh, pp. 1061 - 1070.

Masri, A.R., Bilger, R.W., and Dibble, R. W., 1988. •Turbulent Non-Premixed Flames ofMethane near

Extinction: Probability Density Functions," Combustion and Flame. Vol. 73, p. 261.
Miller, JA., and Bowman, C.T., 1989. "Mechanism and Modeling ofNitrogen Chemistry in Combustion,"

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science. Vol. 15, pp. 287 - 338.

Nguyen, Q.V., Dibble, R.W. Hofmann, D., and Kampmann, S., 1993, "Tomographic Measurements of

Carbon Monoxide Temperature and Concentration in a Bunsen Flame using Diode Laser

Absorption," Ber Bunsenges Phys Chem. Vol. 97, p. 1634.

Riedel, U., Schmidt, R., and Waraatz, J., 1992. "Different Levels ofAir Dissociation Chemistry and its

Coupling with Flow Models," In: Bertin, J.J., Periaux, J. and Ballmann, J. (Eds), Advances in

Hypersonics-Vol. 2: Modeling Hypersonic Flow. Birkhauser Boston.

Santoro, R.J., Yeh, T.T., Horvath, J.J., and Semerjian, H.H., 1988. "The Transport and Growth of Soot

Particles in Laminar Diffusion Flames," Combustion Science and Technology. Vol. 53, pp.

89-115.

Thorne, A.P. Spectrophysics. 2nd ed, Chapman and Hall, London/New York, 1988.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1986. "Nitrogen Oxide Control of Stationary

Combustion Sources," EPA-652/5-86/020, July.

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 1991. "Sourcebook: NO Control Technology Data,"

EPA-600/2-91/029, Control Technology Center, July.

Warnatz, J., 1981b. "Concentration-, Pressure - and Temperature Dependence of the Flame Velocity

in the Hydrogen-Oxygen-Nitrogen Mixtures," Combustion Science and Technology. Vol. 26,

p. 203.

Westblom, U., and Aide n, M., 1989. "Simultaneous Multiple Species Detection in a Flame using

Laser-Induced Fluorescence, Applied Optics. Vol. 28, p. 2592.

Westbrook, C.K., and Dryer, F.L., 1981. "Chemical Kinetics and Modeling ofCombustion Process,"

Eighteenth Symposium (Int.) on Combustion. The Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, pp. 749 - 767.

Wolfrum, J., 1972. "Bildung von Stickstoffoxiden bei der Verbrennung," Chemie-Ingenieur-Tecnik.

Vol. 44, p. 656.

Wolfrum, J., 1986. Einsatz von Excimer-und Farbstofflasern zur Analyse von Verbrennungs-prozessen

VDIBerichte,617:301.
Zeldovich, Y.B., 1946. "The Oxidation ofNitrogen in Combustion and Explosions," Ada Physicochim.

USSR, Vol. 21, p. 577.

2.1 SNmuQtuiiifhfmii?9mn<wi uasfhfiriiJ?0UYn$flW93unfr^4fli3J lpg

v it

2.2 l&mHodiwfiMWtTJjiSn (coal-waterslurry) i

v

ih 30
2,700 kcal/kg

3.1
C298

CH3OH->CO+2H2

CO+H 0->C0 +H
2 22

{Ah0 ) = -201 kJ/mole

V /298 CH,OH(g)

(A/j° ) = -110 kJ/mole

V /298 CO(g)

) = -394 kJ/mole
/298 CO,(g)

o ) = -242 kJ/mole
/ 298^,0(8)

) = 0 kJ/mole
/298 H,(fi)

3.2 mU3QiV91JmllU9^mlHi1«^ D//

C298

CH +H0-»C0+3H
4 2 2

CO+H O->CO +H
2 2 2

3.3

CO =10.5%,O =5.3%,N =84.2% (Vol.)

2 '2 '2 v '
 n.

(%ta)

3,4 Methanol-Steam Reformer fl0 Methanol

(choh) 3.2

fVUfliwaifll Methanol Conversion Efficiency vi 900 °C 1 atm

VI?03J<lJ?si3<U<Hlf!i Degree of dissociation Methanol

Conversion Efficiency =(f +Y )I{Y +Y +Y )13J0

3 V CO, CO CH,OH CO, CO

Plate heater

Gaseous phase
H2+CO2+CO
2+CO2

Evaporation
surface Liquid phase

Methanol-water
solution

CH3OH+H2O

Methanol-Steam Reformer

3.5 miijSnij0<iifii4Wtfwunff^4PiiJ lpg

40% uasinirm 60% laeiilfinfls) o = 0.8

IfU

3.6 AH0 CH = 80.4%,

C298

C H = 9.6%, C H = 6.6% i-C H = 1.4 UfiS n-C H = 2.0%

2 6 3 8 4 10 4 10
4.1 fuih2uiwni™iQfmm?infldjJn?cnw4d^
ihS 3 % lfl«ffu^§'hiJgn?uitfiS8m4mj « = l iitauuutfuflouwScn
ctant (R) -> Product (P) + Heat mwlifi1i1lfolbsn01JflQlljfi A = 108 s"1
l'U EIR = 15,098 K

5.1 «^il?siiifum5Mivlan^ftQiiil0ijmi4fiQijjMwiiilaQWimiiu?i2wil^0^n^^
da/ d a/ i ens j/ 4 <4 V 1

umTjnu0imffvi0«?iftQiufrjJ3j?i o= 1 trinj^ln^tu^jjiiuwwijQ^tnwNefij r =25°c

IJYlfU

6.1 fl^fl1W1QiVnfniJJ^QnqSPc<U0^ti'3WH?f3J Propane/0 vi Stoichiometry niHW?lli10Qi11f|5

6.2 MfllinwinnfnHli'MWflWft««Ql8^1l8^ Ethanol/Air mixture ^ Stoichiometry niMUfllw

r=4oo°c
o

7.1 IVOmS^mtntro^^flfl^nYlflttOUfnilHilM^lllJlJffllJiO (spray combustion) ll4V10|lJ

il0
fl0 Heavy diesel iliiiiji

UlUJSauterriufVulflO Yl?lS00W0<a Heavy diesel Sliinfliflfriiasoo^UJI^iiuoninaQi.sivii

v

m^lWilTiyl^fJUQa (Mass burning rate) U04l?0lW

7.2

Swirling air

Top view

Swirling air

Swirling air

Front view

Combustion chamber wall

Swirling air

at30°C
Liquid kerosene
level Liquid kerosene

Porous medium burner

rosene, C (H
V

f a/ i i p a v

d p
(T =1,3OO°C) (stabilization)

'l<HaU9«901fnff (swirling air)

0.12m3/min

8.1 6 cm

tru
 25 °c uasjviwiwgnuQovi^^niiuS^fuviQSmjjg^iiiw 525 °c
250 °c hi
3Jiai 4 mn

9,1

mgt l

unriio

10.1 miroidaiMiiJiiuaihmSiiKiwiM^^
llfjJIPIiiliflinfl (infiniteunburned mixture) MIVM
(«-Octane) mQ^snnwuIw^^ijg^h^natJwijJW Thai Oil fi
2542

nu9imfnj?nfu?9ii «| ims;infimf8«1vl (ignition) ii

i?S Flame front (Propagating velocity)
S = Laminar burning velocity = 40 cm/s VI

stoichiometry; T = unburned mixture temperature = 300 K; T = burned mixture

temperature = 2,250 K

10.2 Mfhuifumoihsuiwnisinfh Laminar burning velocity KB4 Ethanol (CH OH nfo C H O)

H?TUniJ9imPf W Stoichiometry VISTP filWliflW f = 2,285 K

10.3 nanm?iiiW

10.4

tTijnii
10.5 MQl§9JJlintr Propane/Air (Reaction zone) VI Stoichiometric A/F ratio

5 mm tj^z=45 mm tHih
n.

•U. fn Turndown ratio <U0<IM11

10.6 Turbulent burning velocity *UQ-3 Ethanol (C H OH vtfo

C 2H6O) NflmmJOiniff fi Stoichiometry fi STP mMW^lif radl = 2,285 K, Re = 6,000

10.7

fuel gas

prehoatod sir

fuel jafl
 furnace wall
preheated air

reaction zone

fuel gas

(c)

imfi 11

11.1 WltasJJI&lfmtniJfjJ'ttU Calcium carbonate mQfnUfjJJ Sulfur dioxide "hJltflfhi 500 ppm
vi 3 % O^UIfigim^ Environment Protection Agency (EPA) v11?^lvlvl
nai 3,000 mw iflumumjviHS
V V

C = 52.0 %; H = 6.5 %; 0 = 38.5 %; N = 1.11 %; S = 1.89 % i

11.6MJ/kg

11.2 o

no

(Primary oxygen) v1Srft)ll!jJ1fUfn?in?l NO

ims

(Lance)

Lance position (I) I1(UI =

 X * A

I flfhinnim
Jf

jnjQfn? (100% op

(100 % o)
 ttmitot: rert/ma

burner. 27 (100 KO,)

q^-ISm^nVhr

10000
NO,
oxWarrt ratio-1.01/1.05
9000-
mgAn* •
Ptum >0.5mbar
8000-

oxidant ratio «1.05

10 20 30 40 50
N2 content of fuel gas %(byvol.)

tettNo.:798

burmn 34.3 (100 %O2)

qgMa20m*(n)/hr (group H natural gas)

1800H < f i i

oxidant ratio = 1.01 .

ieoo-
mg/m3 pfam>0.5mbar
4A(\f\m

1200- -

1000-

800-

600- -

400-
/ -

200-

0-
Y -

2 4 6 8 10
lanca position I mm

UfM
n.3
 mmuwn

n.

11.
 ansitasncu

frmiQuuouon'hrfl CO g -26.42 25
co2 g -94.05 25

finiu CH g -17.89 25

g 54.23 25

C2H22 4
g 12.56 25
CH g 19.82 25
6 6
1 11.72 25
-49.82 25
©enmu
CBH18 g
CH 1 -59.74 25
8 18
CH g -49.82 25
8 IB

CaO . -151.80 25
CaCO3 wan -289.50 25

o2 g 0 25
0 25
N2 g
c2 Nan 0 25

c wan 0.45 25

HO g -57.80 25

H2O l -68.32 25
oivm CH g -20.24 25
2 6

g -24.82 25
cV A 10
g -29.81 25

g -31.45 25

cV° g -35.00 25

CSH12 g -39.96 25

CH g -44.89 25
7 16
4.88 25
C,HS g

g -27.70 25

g -39.76 25

1 -57.02 25

CHO l -66.36 25

CHO2 l -97.80 25

i -116.40 25

cVo2 s -197.60 25

ca2 1 -33.30 25

CHON s -126.33 25
252

g -11.00 18
HBr g -8.60 18
HI g 6.00 18
 n.2

1i;
ueimfrinfovi 298 K.)
[■

C298
(iWiltttf (muonm^iion
J/kg ffJJ^?Ol) Tinas*
j;

I fll?li8041J8W8nl«Kff(CO) 4.83 xlO7 2615

| isTfrcrou (H2) 12.0 xlO7 2490

| filYW (CH^) 5.0 xlO7 2285 2191 2158

| 81Y114 (C Hfi) 4.74 xlO7 2338 2222 2175

I Imimi (c H^) 4.64 xlO7 2629 2240 2203

Ii ufiniemhtmi
.
(c4H 10) 4.56 xlO7 2357 2246 2178

*■ li8iJJ8fllM\4lYll4 (C H ) 4.53 x 107 2360

[ 18&(C2H) 4.72 xlO7 2523 2345 2253

t Tw?wai4 (C3Hfi) 4.57 xlO7 2453 2323 2213

[- intfau (c H) 4.53 xlO7 2431 2306 2208

f eifimUCH^ 4.50 xlO7 2477

I fiz^mxi (C2H2) 4.82 xlO7 2859

i ww (c6h; 4.06 xlO7 2484

Jt T>ia8U(CHCH)
6 5 3
4.09 xlO7 2460

emu ru ntrum?

S03 9. H20

2. NO 10. C02

3. O 11. C02 2C0

4. 2^*2 H 12. CO. ± co+io2

5. NH, 13. 2C + H2 ±C2H2
2N2
6. 2 2 N 14. H2 + C H2O

7. NO N+0 15. C + 2H. CH.

8. H2O 16. CO + 2R, ^ CH3OH

17. CO + 3H2 , CH4+H2O

 with 17 trum?

LogoutNiijjnftn

T°K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
298.2 1.91 -15.04 3.70
400 7.68 -11.07 1.07
500 5.21 -8.74 -0.45
600 3.57 -7.20 -1.41
700 2.37 -6.07 ' -2.11 -15.75
800 1.47 -5.11 -2.63 -20.40 -13.26
900 0.78 -4.58 -11.06 -9.95 -3.05 -17.70 -11.45
1000 0.22 -4.06 -9.67 -8.65 -3.39 -15.59 -21.15 -10.01
1100 -0.23 -3.62 -8.45 -7.55 -3.64 -13.80 -18.60 -8.82
1200 -0.59 -3.29 -7.46 -6.66 -3.86 -12.49 -16.52 -7.85
1300 -0.92 -2.99 -6.60 -5.90 -4.05 -11.10 -14.75 -6.98
1400 -1.19 -2.71 -5.91 -5.25 -4.21 -10.06 -13.29 -6.27
1500 -1.42 -2.47 -5.29 -4.69 -4.35 -9.18 -11.98 -5.68
1600 -1.61 -2.27 -4.75 -4.19 -4.47 -8.37 -10.81 -5.14
1700 -1.81 -2.09 -4.25 -3.75 -4.59 -7.67 -9.79 -4.67
1800 -1.98 -1.94 -3.83 -3.37 -4.68 -7.06 -8.93 -4.25
1900 -2.11 -1.82 -3.44 -3.02 -4.76 -6.49 -8.11 -3.87
2000 -2.25 -1.70 -3.10 -2.74 -4.83 -5.98 -7.40 -3.52
2100 -2.37 -1.58 -2.78 -2.44 -4.89 -5.52 -6.73 -3.20
2200 -2.48 -1.47 -2.53 -2.20 -4.95 -5.10 -6.12 -2.92
2300 -2.57 -1.38 -2.29 -1.97 -5.01 -4.72 -5.57 -2.67
2400 -2.66 -1.29 -2.06 -1.75 -5.07 -4.38 -5.07 -2.45
2500 -2.75 -1.21 -1.84 -1.55 -5.12 -4.06 -4.62 -2.25
2600 -2.83 -1.14 -1.63 -1.36 -5.17 -3.77 -4.19 -2.06
2700 -2.90 -1.07 -1.44 -1.19 -5.21 -3.49 -3.79 -1.87
2800 -2.97 -1.01 -1.26 -1.03 -5.25 -3.23 -3.42 -1.70
2900 -3.03 -0.95 -1.09 -0.89 -5.29 -3.00 -3.08 -1.54
3000 -3.09 -0.90 -0.93 -0.76 -5.32 -2.79 -2.77 1.39
3100 -3.14 -0.85 -0.78 -0.63 -5.36 -2.60 -2.47 -1.25
3200 -3.19 -0.80 -0.63 -0.51 -5.39 -2.41 -2.19 -1.12
3300 -3.24 -0.76 -0.50 -0.40 -5.42 -2.22 -1.93 -1.00
3400 -3.28 -0.71 -0.38 -0.30 -5.45 -2.04 -1.69 -0.89
3500 -3.32 -0.67 -0.26 -0.21 -5.47 1.86 -1.46 -0.78
3600 -3.36 -0.63 -0.15 -0.11 -5.49 -
.69 -1.24 -0.68
3700 -3.40 -0.59 -0.05 -0.02 -5.51 -■ .53 -1.03 -0.58
3800 -3.44 -0.56 0.05 0.07 -5.53 -; .39 -0.83 -0.49
3900 -3;47 -0.53 0.14 0.15 -5.55 -; .26 -0.63 -0.41
4000 -3.50 -0.50 0.23 0.23 -5.57 -; .14 -0.44 -0.33
4100 -3.53 -0.47 0.32 0.31 -5.59 -; .03 -0.26 -0.25
4200 -3.56 -0.44 0.40 0.38 -5.61 -0.92 -0.09 -0.17
4300 -3.59 -0.41 0.47 0.44 -5.62 -0.82 0.07 -0.10
4400 -3.62 -0.39 0.54 0.50 -5.63 -0.72 0.22 -0.03
4500 -3.65 -0.37 0.61 0.56 -5.64 -0.63 0.36 0.03
4600 -3.67 -0.35 0.67 0.62 -5.66 -0.54 0.49 0.09
4700 -3.69 ■0.33 0.72 0.67 -5.68 -0.46 0.61 0.15
4800 -3.71 -0.31 0.77 0.72 -5.69 -0.38 0.72 0.21
4900 -3.73 -0.29 0.82 0.77 -5.70 -0.30 0.82 0.27
5000 -3.75 -0.28 0.86 0.81 -5.71 -0.22 0.91 0.33
 i
f:
i!
t

fllTtf fl.3( ria)fhfN fcmjqfii OwNfrufmifiih 7tr«fm

i. tudgfrnn
I T°K 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17
i 298.2 -4.50 -20.52 16.02 11.00 4.62 27.02
400 -2.90 -13.02 10.12 6.65 0.35 16.77
500 -2.02 -8.64 6.62 4.08 -2.15 10.70
600 -1.43 -5.69 -20.11 4.26 2.36 -3.81 6.60
700 -16.60 -1.00 -3.59 -16.59 -13.73 2.59 1.12 -5.02 3.71
800 -14.06 -0.67 -1.98 -13.93 -11.63 1.31 0.20 -5.92 1.51
f 900 -12.07 -0.41 -0.74 -11.86 -10.02 0.33 -0.53 -6.63 -0.20
1000 -10.50 -0.22 0.26 -10.23 -8.72 -0.48 -1.05 -7.20 -1.53
r

1100 -9.22 -0.07 1.08 -8.89 -7.67 -1.15 1.49 -7.63 -2.64
1200 -8.14 0.06 1.74 -7.79 -6.78 -1.68 -1.91 -8.02 -3.59
!■ 1300 -7.22 0.17 2.30 -6.81 -6.02 -2.13 -2.24 -8.37 -4.37
i
1400 -6.45 0.27 2.77 -6.01 -5.40 -2.50 -2.54 -8.64 -5.06
1500 -5.78 0.35 3.18 -5.33 -4.84 -2.83 -2.79 -8.87 -5.64
[. 1600 -5.20 0.42 3.56 -4.73 -4.35 -3.14 -3.01 -9.08 -6.15
1700 -4.66 0.48 3.89 -4.19 -3.94 -3.41 -3.20 -9.27 -6.61
1800 -4.21 0.54 ,4.18 -3.71 -3.56 -3.64 -3.36 -9.44 -7.00
1' 1900 -3.79 0.59 4.45 -3.27 -3.20 -3.86 -3.51 -9.59 -7.37
i; 2000 -3.49 0.64 4.69 -2.88 -2.88 -4.05 -3.64 -9.72 -7.69
I 2100 -3.07 0.69 4.91 -2.54 -2.61 -4.22 -3.75 -9.84 -7.97
I 2200 -2.79 0.73 5.10 -2.24 -2.37 -4.37 -3.68 -9.95 -8.23
I 2300 -2.52 0.76 5.27 -1.96 -2.14 -4.51 -3.96 -10.05 -8.47
2400 -2.27 0.79 5.43 -1.69 -1.92 -4.64 -4.06 -10.14 -8.70
\
2500 -2.03 0.72 5.58 -1.43 -1.72 -4.76 -4.15 -10.22 -8.91
2600 -1.81 0.85 5.72 -1.21 -1.53 -4.87 -4.23 -10.30 -9.10
2700 -1.60 0.87 5.84 -1.00 -1.35 -4.97 -4.30 -10.47 -9.27
t
2800 -1.41 0.89 5.95 -0.81 -1.18 -5.06 -4.37 -10.44 -9.43
2900 -1.24 0.91 6.05 -0.63 -1.04 -5.14 -4.43 -10.50 -9.57
3000 -1.07 0.93 6.16 -0.46 -0.91 -5.23 -4.49 -10.56 -9.72
3100 -0.92 0.95 6.25 -0.30 -0.79 -5.30 -4.55 -10.61 -9.85
3200 -0.78 0.97 6.33 -0.15 -0.68 -5.37 -4.61 -10.66 -9.98
3300 -0.64 0.99 6.41 -0.01 -0.57 -5.44 -4.66 -10.71 -10.10
3400 -0.51 1.01 6.49 0.12 -0.47 -5.50 -4.71 -10.76 -10.21
3500 -0.28 1.02 6.56 0.24 -0.37 -5.56 -4.75 -10.81 -10.31
3600 -0.26 1.03 6.63 0.35 -0.28 -5.62 -4.78 -10.85 -10.40
3700 -0.13 1.04 6.71 0.36 -0.19 -5.67 -4.81 -10.89 -10.48
3800 -0.04 1.05 6.78 0.56 -0.11 -5.72 -4.84 -10.93 -10.56
3900 0.05 1.06 6.85 0.65 -0.03 -5.78 -4.87 -10.96 -10.65
4000 0.13 1.07 6.91 0.74 0.05 -5.83 -4.90 -10.99 -10.73
4100 0.21 1.08 6.97 0.83 0.12 -5.88 -4.93 -11.02 -10.81
4200 0.29 1.09 7.03 0.92 0.19 -5.93 -4.96 -11.05 -10.89
4300 0.37 1.10 7.08 1.00 0.25 -5.97 -4.99 -11.08 -10.96
4400 0.44 1.11 7.13 1.08 0.31 -6.01 -5.02 -11.11 -11.03
4500 0.51 1.12 7.17 1.15 0.37 -6.05 -5.05 -11.14 -11.10
4600 0.58 1.13 7.21 1.22 0.43 -6.08 -5.08 -11.16 -11.16
4700 0.64 1.14 7.25 1.29 0.48 -6.11 -5.11 -11.18 -11.22
4800 0.70 1.15 7.28 1.36 0.53 -6.13 -5.14 -11.20 -11.27
4900 0.76 1.16 7.31 1.43 0.58 -6.15 -5.17 -11.22 -11.32
5000 0.82 1.17 7.34 1.50 0.63 -6.17 -5.19 -11.24 -11.36
 jnnmnn u

mm ui #Q8di3fmuMi?fl<U9*unmia
TABLE D.I

Viscosity (x 10"*) of Gates and Vapors

(in gnu/crn/icc) *

r c 1 2 3 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 17 18

0 171 94 139 166 83 85 91 102

10 180 72 140 170 84 87 92 103 170 81 76
20 183 76 148 173 87 91 101 ' 109 178 84 80
JO 186 79 IS3 175 90 94 104 113 184 88 84
40 190 82 157 177 92 98 108 117 188 90 87
50 68 194 85 168 ISO 94 101 110 120 192 94 90
73 82 210 91 180 188 98 100 108 120 129 127 203 100 63 96
100 10S 93 218 97 190 196 108 105 114 126 133 125 211 108 68 102 126
ISO no 242 108 211 218 124 113 127 140 " 148 136 229 120 77 114 144
200 I2S 2SS 120 232 240 138 122 141 154 160 152 245 134 85 125 164
250 1)6 27S 132 250 266 153 130 155 167 170 170 253 151 92 137 183
300 147 295 14S 268 294 166 139 171 180 181 188 280 170 too 202
350 158 313 1SB 286 180 148 193 211 295 221
400 166 332 174 304 194 IS6 205 311 241
500 360 333 171 226 340
600 390 361 IIS 256 369
700 420 389 198 285 381
800 442 415 211 419
900 470 440 224 440
1,000 500 470 235 460

Legend: I. Acetic Acid Vapor, 2. Acetone Vapor, 3. Air, 4. Acetylene, 5. Benzene Vapor. 6. Carbon Dioxide. 7. Carbon Monoxide. 8. Ethyl Alcohol Vapor.
9. Hydrogen. 10. Ethane. II. Ethytene, 12. Methane, 13. Methyl Alcohol Vapor. 14. Nitrogen. IS. Propytene. 16. n-Octane Vapor. 17. Propane.
18. Water Vapor.
Units: I gm/cm/sec - I poise - I dyne sec/cm1 - 10* centipoise - 10* mkropoise.

U2

Wo-273 < K)
Gas cal/cra/tec/°K Gas cal/cm/tcc/6K

•Air 5.83 x 10- 1 •Helium 32.40 x 10-

•Argon 3.90 x 10" 1 Heptane 156 x 10-
Acetone 132 x 10- 1 Hexane 2.68 x 10-
Ammonia 5.02 x 10" 1 'Hydrogen 40.40 x 10-
Amyt alcohol 2.58 x 10- 1 Methane 7.33 x 10-
Benzene 120 x !0H1 Methanol 3.05 x 10"'
Butane 3.17 x 10" 1 Methyl bromide 1.50 x 10"'
Butyl alcohol 164 x IOH1 Methyl chloride 2.20 x IOf-J
•Carbon dioxide 3.60 x 10"i •Nitrogen 5.50 x IO-J
•Carbon monoxide 5.30 x 10"' Octane 133 x 10"!
Carbon tet 1.43 x 10-' •Oxygen 6.25 x I0"J
Chloroform 1.52 x 10"1 Pentane 2.94 x 10"i
Cydohexane 132 x I0-1 Propane 3.64 x 10"1
Ether 3.11 x 10"J Steam 3.61 x 10"3
Ethane 4.52 x 10"' •Sulfur dioxide 2.00 x 10"J
Ethanol 3.08 x 10"' Toluene 3.08 x IO"S

n at 0.94 for permanent gases (asterisked), Tma < 1,000 °C

it » 1.83 for condensible gases, Tmtx < 600 "C
1 cal/cra/sec/°K - 134.5 BTU/ft/hr/°F
U3

xt M K xt H K

H,+CO, H,+0,
0.000 13.69 x 10" 3.60 x 10-' 0.000 20.45 x 10* 6.25x 10*
0.100 13.86 x 10** S.IO x 10" 0.034 20.44 x 10- 6.51 x 10"
0.142 13.92 x 10" 5.70 x 10" 0.250 19.94 x 10" 11.12 x 10"
0.250 14.06 x 10"* 7.70 x 10"' 0.500 18.55 x 10" 18.27 x 10"
0.355 14.15 x 10-' 10.00 x 10" 0.750 15.88 x 10" 27.49x 10*
0.500 14.17 x 10" 13.50 x 10** 0.947 10.88 x 10" ».44x io-
0.750 13.41 K 10"' 22.70 x 10"' 1.000 * 8.87 K 10" 41.80 k 10*
0.901 11.63 x 10"' 31 JO x 10"
1.000 8.54 x 10"' 40.40 x 10''

H,+ CO H, + A*
0.000 17.06 x 10"' 5.30 x 10*' 0.000 21.35 x 10" 3.90 x 10"
0.163 17.15 x 10" 8.00 x 10" 0.090 21.26 x 10- 5.50 x 10*
0.272 16.49 x 10*' 10.30 x 10*' 0.180 2;..l « I0"1 7.30 k 10"
0.566 15.38 x 10" 18.00 x 10" 0.400 20.20 « 10"*i 1160 x 10"
0.634 14.88 x 10-' 20.90 x 10*' 0.600 18.63 < io-1 18.70 k
0.794 13.03 x 10-' 27.00 x 10" 0.802 14.80 * lO'1 27.00 k 10*4
1.000 8.53 x 10-' 40.40 x 10*' 1.000 8.54iK IO-1 40.40 x

H, + N, H,+ At
0.000 16.88 x 10" 5.50 x 10"' 0.000 2049)< 10*' 3.85 x 10"
0.159 16.70 x 10" 8.00 x 10" 0.204 29.37 >c 10" 4.17 x io- •
OJ90 16.00 x 10" 12.70 x JO'* 0.359 30.64)c 10" 4.44 x
0.652 14.49 x 10" 19.40 x 10" 0.611 30.43)c 10" 4.90 x 10"
0.795 1185 x (0" 25.20 x 10" 0.780 28.63 »( 10"' 5.24x 10"
0.803 1174 x 10"' 25.70 x 10" 1.000 16.59 >i 10"' 5.66 k 10"'
1.000 8.53 x30" 40.40 x 10"»

X, is the mole fnetion of Ibe tigher eompooent

p it in fai/crn/tec.
K istnesl/cm/MerC
(All mlxturei it T - 273 *K except H, + O, which it at 295 *K.)

ii.4«no ETNfnni 19141193

x, K K x, K

He + Ar(-73*K) H, + COt(273-K) H,O + Air(353-K)

0.000 3.89 x 10- 1 0.000 3.39 x 10* ' 0.000 6.86 x 10"
0.270 7.41 x IO* ' 0.170 «.oa x io- » 0.197 7.15 x 10"
0.454 10.76 x 10* 1 0.3*0 I0J5 x tO* 1 0.306 7.08 x W
0.847 23.18 x 10" ' 0.607 17J4 x 10' 1 0.444 6.89 x 10"
0.946 29.40 x 10- ' 0.834 2758 x 10- 1 0.519 6.73 x 10"'
1.000 33.89 x 10- ' 1.000 41.66 x 10- 1 1.000 5.23 x 10"'

NH , + Air(293*K) H, + CO(273'K) C,H, t-Air(293~K)

0.000 6.00 x 10* 1 0.000 SJO x 10- 1 0.000 6.00 x tO'1
0.246 6JI x 10" 1 0.163 8.00 x 10* 1 0.141 5.96 x 10-'
0.3M 6.2S k 10* • 0.272 10.30 x 10- 1 0.320 5.84 x 10"'
0.608 6.09 x 10- ' 0.566 18.02 x 10" 1 0.536 5.66 x 10*'
0.805 5.75 x 10* 1 0.634 20.91 x 10* ' 0.630 S.SS x 10"'
1400 5.49 x 10* 1 0.794 26.99 x 10- 1 0.900 5.30 x 10"
1.000 40.43 x 10* ' 1.000 5.22 x 10"

NH, + CO(29J-K) H,+C,H4(278*K) CD+Air(29l*K)

0.000 5.74 x 10* 1 0.000 SM x 10" 0.000 5.97 x 10*'

0120 5.97 x lO*11 0.170 161 x 10" 0.103 5.95 x 10-'
0.338 6.03 x 10" 1 0.314 11.48 x 10*' a*2i 5.90 x 10"'
0.630 5.94 x IQ-1 0.514 16.91 x 1O*< a562 5.83 x 10"
0.790 5.82 x 10"1 0.611 20.61 x 10* 0.978 5.69 x 10"
1.900 5JS x 10"1 0J<5. 32.90 x 10-' 1.000 5.68 x JO"'
1.000 43.73 x 10"

CH4 + Alr(295<-K)
0.000 6.04 x 10-'
0.076 «.I3 x 10-'
0.190 6.49 x tO'1
0.700 6.17 x 10-J
0.180 7.08 x 10"
1.000 5.98 x 10''

X, b mole frt£tiaa of the 6m fu.

 r =298Kims;/> =1

Do Do
Oas pair cmV<ec Oas pair ctn'/sec

Na-He 0.71 Ha-nC«H,o 0.38

Na-Ar 0.20 H,-O, 0.81
Na—Ha 0.78 Ha-CO 0.75
Na-Oa 0.22 Ha-CO, 0.65
N,-CO 0.22 H,-CH4 O.73
N,-CO, 0.16 Hj- Ca*H« 0.60
Na-H,O 0.24 Ha-CaH« O.54
Na—CaH« 0.16 Ha-HaO 0.99
Na—CaH» 0.15 H,-Br, 0.58
Na—nC4H,o 0.10 0.34

CO,-O, O.I8 Air-H, 0.63

CO,-CO 0.14 Air-O, 0.18
COj-C,H4 0.15 Air-CO, 0.14 -
COr-CH. O.I5 Air-HjO 0.23
CO,-H,O O.19 Air-CS, 0.10
COj-CjH, O.O9 Air-Ether 0.08
_C<>ar<?HsOH O.O9 Air-CHjOH 0.11 -
COa^C»H» O.O6 Air-C»Htt 0.08

Oa-C»H, 0.07 H,O-CH4 0.28

O*-CO * O.21 H.O-C.H^ O.2O
CO-C,H4 0.13 HjO-O, 0.27

D - DQ(1~JTo)m{Po(P>
m aa 1.75 for permanent gases
m so 2.OO for condensible gases
1 cm'/see ■m 3.875 fta/hr

Compare values of D with a ■> O.I87 cm'/MC and v - 0.133

cm*/scc for air at 298 ' K and 1 atm.

Liquid It gm/ctn/tec •tr°c

Acettldchyde 120 x 10- 1 20

Acetic tdd 11.55 x 10- 1 25
Acetone 3.16 x 10"-1 25
Anttnte 37.10 x 10" 1 25
Beossoc 6.52 x 10" 1 20
Buuool (n) 29.48 x 10- 1 20
Carbon tetracbloride 9.69 x 10- » 20
Cuter oil 9.860.00 x 10- » 20
Chloroform 5.42 x 10" 25
Cydohexane 10.20 x 10- 17
D«dectne 13.50 x IO"J 25
Ethyl mute 4.41 x 10-' 25
Etbtnol 1100 x 10-' 20
Ethykoeilyco) 199.00 x I0-11 20
Formic tcid 18.04 x 10-: 20
Heptane 3.86 x 10-! 25
Hexaoe 194 x 10"1 25
Methanol 5.47 x IO"J 25
OcUoe(iso) 5.40 x 10"s 20
Octane (a) 5.42 x 10"! 20
Phenol 127.00 x 1O'J 18
Proptnol 2156 x 10"J 20
Propyl acetate 5.90 x* I0"1 20
Toluene 5.90 x 10"5 20
Water 10.02 x 10'1 20
Xyfeoe(o) 8.10 x I0-' 20
 II. 7

to Range
Liquid cal/cm/sec/°C . ( C"1 °C

Acetic acid 40.56 x 10- • 1.20 x 10" * 15-90

Acetaldehyde 44,30 x 10* 9 2.60 x 10" 1 12-31
Acetone 37.50 x 10- '. 2.20 x 10" 1 15-50
Aniline 41.25 x 10- ' 0.45 x 10* 1 15-90
Benzene 34.58 x 10" ' 1.80 x 10" 1 15-71
Butanol (n) 36.11 x 10- 1 1.40 x 10* 1 15-90
. Carbon tetrachloride 24.31 x 10- » 1.65 x 10" * 15-90
Caster oil 42.78 x 10- 9 0.45 x 10" 1 15-90
Chloroform 27.36 x 10" 1 1.80 x 10- 1 15-70
Cyclohexane 29.31 x 10" 1 1.80 x 10" 1 12-38
Dodecanc 31.25 x 10- _

Ethyl acetate 34.30 x 10"'1 2.10 x 10"J1 .16-50

Ethanol 39.72 x 10"-' 1.40 x 10"J 16-91
Ethylene glycol 61.11 x UTa -0.75 x IO"J 15-90
Formic add 63.89 x 10"'1 <U0 x 10"1 15-90
Glycerol 68.05 x 10-5 -1.20 x 10"a 15-90
Heptane (n) 30.00 x 10"3 1.80 x I0*3 13-90
Hexane(n) 29.44 x 10"1 2.00 x I0-3 16-60
Kerosene 35.72 x I0-1 _

Lube oil 32.50 x IO"J 0.45 x 10"1 15-90

Methanol 47.78 x 10'3 1.20 x 10"1 13-51
Octane (iso) 23.61 x 10-J 1.80 x 10"3 16-90
Octane (n) 30.56 x 10"J _

Pentanol 32.64 x 10"' 0.90 x 10"3 15-90

Phenol 38.33 x 10"s __

Propanol(n) 37.50 x 10"' 1.40 x 10"3 15-70

Propyl acetate 33.05 x 10-' _

Toluene 31.72 x 10"' _

Water 146.50 x 10"' 2.48 x 10° 0-60

Xylene(o) 31.25 x 10"' —

>)1, Tin °C
 mfimnn fi.

emu n.

0.31 % ljja)9,oiviq2tT'3wwfr3jmimj 25°c uasfmumi 1

0, JJja (equivalence ratio), 0
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 $& S
Saturated hydrocarbons
omu (caHp 30.6, 36.0, 40.6, 44.5, 47.3, 47J, 44.4, 37.4, 47.6 1.14
22.0L 29.0L 36.5L 42.5L 43.0L 42.5L 40.0L 27.5L
Immu (c H) - - 42.3, 45.6, 46.2, 42.4, 34.3, - 46.4 1.06
24.0L, 32.0L, 39.5L, 44.0L, 45.0L, 43.5L, 37.0L, 28.0L,
23.0L2 30.0L2 37.0L2 39.0L2 41.0L2 40.5L2 33.5L2 25.0L2
uofooaihimi (n - C4Hio) - 38.0 42.6 44.8 44.2 41.2 34.4 25.0 44.9 1.03
fllYHI (CH4) - 30.0, .38.3, 43.4, 44.7, 39.8, 31.2, - 44.8 1.08
20.5L, 28.0L, 36.0L, 40.5L, 42.0L, 37.0L, 27.0L, 17.5L,
17L2 2S.0L2 33.0L2 38L2 38.5L2 34.0L2 24.0L2 13.5L2

uo«ioainwmw («- C5Hti) - 35.0 40.5 42.7 42.7 39.3 33.9 - 43.0 1.05
uoniomsiJimi («-ch ) - 37.0 39.8 42.2 42.0 35.5 29.4 - 42.8 1.05
2, 2,4 - Trimethylpentane - 37.5 40.2 41.0 37.2 31.0 23.5 - 41.0 0.98
2, 2,3 - Trimethylpentane - 37.8 39.5 40.1 39.5 36.2 - - 40.1 1.00
2, 2 - Dimethylbutane - 33.5 38.3 39.9 37.0 33.5 - - 40.0 0.98
Isopentane - 33.0 37.6 39.8 38.4 33.4 24.8 - 39.9 1.01
2, 2 - Ditnethylpropane - - 31.0 34.8 36.0 35.2 33.5 31.2 36.0 1.10
Unsaturatcd hydrocarbons
oswiau (C H) - 107, 130 144, 151 154, 154 152, 155 1.25
- 107L - 136L - 151L - 155L
toviau (c H) 37.0, 50.0, 60.0, 68.0, 73.0, 72.0, 66.5, 60.0, 73.5 1.13
37.0L 48.0L 60.0L 66.0L 70.0L 72.0L 71.0L 65.0L
Imwau - 62.0 66.6 70.2 72.2 71.2 61.0 - 72.5 1.14
I, 3 • Butadiene - - 42.6 49.6 55.0 57.0 56.9 55.4 57.2 1.23
n -1-Heptene - 46.8 50.7 52.3 50.9 47.4 41.6 - 52.3 1.00
Irufiau - - 48.4 51.2 49.9 46.4 40.8 - 51.2 1.00
n - 2 - Pentenc - 35.1 42.6 47.8 46.9 42.6 34.9 - 48.0 1.03
2,2,4 - Trimcthyi - 3 - pcntene - 34.6 41.3 42.2 37.4 33.0 - - 42.5 0.98

finuinwnJmWmbinglu emu n. 11133.911114 n. 21&n<own'm'3imiJtnn

MJJiuS^w'3ifi<uii'uW3Jis)inwam?Sn%nviri9W<uu1>iii<u9'i Law et al. [ m

Vagelopoulos, Egolfopoulous, and Law, Twenty-fifth Symposium {International) on

Combustion,. The Combustion Institute, 1994, pp. 1341 -1347]

 emu fl.i (rie)

)5f?09'miff (8
0.31%'Iwa)qiEUMQ3J? iminu 25°Cim Iff

[equivalence ratio), 0
ivomn* 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 l.i 1.2 1.3 1.4 s 0i s
Substiuted alkyls
unrmoa 34.5, 42.0, 48.0, 50.2, 47.5, 44.4.
-
4Z2, 50.4. 1.08
2I.5L 31.0L 37.5L 48.0L 54.0L 53.5L 48.0L 42.0L tt 45°C
Isopropyl alcohol - 34.4 39.2 4U 40.6 38.2 36.0 34.2 41.4 1.04
Triethylamine - . . 32.5 36.7 38.5 38.7 36.2 28.6 38.8 1.06
n - Butyl chloride 24.0 30.7 33.8 34.5 32.5 26.9 20.0 -
34.5 1.00
Allyl chloride 30.6 33.0 33.7 32.4 29.6 - - -
33.8 0.89
Isopropyl mercaptan - 30.0 33.5 33.0 26.6 - -
33.8 0.94
Ethylamine - 28.7 31.4 32.4 31.8 29.4 25.3 32.4 1.00
Isopropylamine - 27.0 29.5 30.6 29.8 27.7 -
30.6 1.01
«- Propyl chloride - 24.7 28.3 27.5 24.1 - - -
28.5 0.93
Isopropyl chloride -
24.8 27.0 27.4 253 27.6 0.97
n - Propyl bromide Iliftflivl (no ignition)
Silanes

Tetramethylsilane 39.5 49.5 57.3 58.2 57.7 54.5 47.5 58.2 1.01
Trimethylethoxysilane 34.7 41.0 47.4 50.3 46.5 41.0 35.0 -
503 1.00
Aldehydes
Acrolein 47.0 58.0 66.6 65.9 56.5 - -
67.2 0.95
Propionaldehyde - 37.5 44.3 49.0 49.5 46.0 41.6 37.2 50.0 1.06
Acetaldehyde - 26.6 35.0 41.4 41.4 36.0 30.0 -
42.2 1.05
Ketones
Acetone - 40.4 44.2 42.6 38.2 - - -
44.4 0.93
Methyl ethyl ketone - 36.0 42.0 433 41.5 37.7 33.2 -
43.4 0.99
Esters
Vinyl acetate 29.0 36.6 39.8 41.4 42.1 41.6 35.2 -
42.2 1.13
Ethyl acetate - 30.7 35.2 37.0 35.6 30.0 - -
37.0 1.00
Ethers
Dimethyl ether - 44.8 47.6 48.4 47.5 45.4 42.6 -
48.6 0.99
Diethyl ether 30.6 37.0 43.4 48.0 47.6 40.4 32.0 -
48.2 1.05
Di me thoxymethane 32.5 38.2 43.2 46.6 48.0 46.6 43.3 -
48.0 1.10
Diisopropyl ether - 30.7 35.5 383 38.6 36.0 31.2 -
38.9 1.06
Thlo ethers
Dimethyl sulfide - 29.9 31.9 33.0 30.1 24.8 - - 33.0 1.00
 w

0.31 %

mmjjja (<equivalence ratio), 0

1 -
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 l.l 1.2 1.3 1.4 0is
Peroxides
Di-fert-butyl peroxide - 41.0 46.8 50.0 49.6 46.5 42.0 35.5 50.4 1.04
Aromatic Compouds

Furan 48.0 55.0 60.0 62.5 62.4 60.0 - - 62.9 1.05

Benzene - 39.4 45.6 47.6 44.8 40.2 35.6 - 47.6 1.00
Thiophene 33.8 37.4 40.6 43.0 42.2 37.2 24.6 -
43.2 1.03
Cyclic compounds
Ethylene oxide 57.2 70.7 83.0 88.8 89.5 87.2 81.0 73.0 89.5 1.07
Butadiene monoxide - 36.6 47.4 57.8 64.0 66.9 66.8 64.5 67.1 1.24
Propylene oxide 41.6 S3.3 62.6 66.5 66.4 62.5 53.8 - 67.0 1.05
Dihydropyran 39.0 45.7 51.0 54.5 55.6 52.6 44.3 32.0 55.7 1.08
Cyclopropane - 40.6 49.0 54.2 55.6 53.5 44.0 - 55.6 1.10
Tetrahydropyran 44.8 51.0 "53.6 51.5 42.3 - - - 53.7 0.93
Tctrahydrofuran - - 43.2 48.0 50.8 51.6 49.2 44.0 51.6 1.19
Cyclopentadiene 36.0 41.8 45.7 47.2 45.5 40.6 32.0 -
47.2 1.00
Ethylenimine - 37.6 43.4 46.0 45.8 43.4 38.9 - 46.4 1.04
Cyclopentane 31.0 38.4 43.2 45.3 44.6 41.0 34.0 - 45.4 1.03
Cyclobexane - - 41.3 43.5 43.9 38.0 - - 44.0 1.08
Inorganic compounds
lain urn (Hp 102, 120, 145, 170, 204, 245, 213 290 325 1.80
124L 150L 187L 210L 23OL 245L - -

Carbon disulfidc (CS}) 50.6 58.0 59.4 58.8 57.0 55.0 52.8 51.6 59.4 0.91
Carbon monoxide (CO) - - - - 28.5 32.0 34.8 38.0 52.0 2.0S
Hydrogen sulfidc (H}S) 34.8 39.2 40.9 39.1 32.3 - - - 40.9 0.90
 fl.2 S (cm/s)

0 *i mj

o.3i ioo°c

ennthi4fflJ\]a (equivalence ratio), 0

<Pis
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4
S,
Propargyl alcohol - "~7O 100.0 110.0 "110.5 108.8 105.0 85.0 110.5 1.08
Propylenc oxide 74.0 86.2 93.0 96.6 97.8 94.0 84.0 71.5 97.9 1.09
Hydrazinc 87.3 90.5 93.2 94.3 93.0 90.7 87.4 83.7 94.4 0.98
Furfural 62.0 73.0 . 83.3 87.0 87.0 84.0 77.0 65.5 87.3 1.05
Ethyl nitrate 70.2 77J 84.0 86.4 83.0 72.3 86.4 1.00
Butadiene monoxide 51.4 57.0 64.5 73.0 79.3 81.0 80.4 76.7 81.1 1.23
Carbon disulfide 64.0 72.5 76.8 78.4 75.5 71.0 66.0 62.2 78.4 1.00
n - Butyl ether - 67.0 72.6 70.3 65.0 - - -
72.7 0.91
imnuon 50.0, 58.5, 66.9, 71.2, 72.0, 66.4, 58.0, 48.8, 72.2, 1.08
31.5L 43.0L 59.5L 63.5L 66.0L 65.0L 61.5L 51.0L Y)95°C
Diethyl cellosolve 49.5 56.0 63.0 69.0 69.7 65.2 -
70.4 1.05
Cyclohexane monoxide 54.5 59.0 63.5 67.7 70.0 64.0 .
70.0 1.10
Epichlorohydrin 53.0 59.5" 65.0 68.6 70.0 66.0 58.2 70.0 1.10
n • Pentane - 50.0 55.0 61.0 62.0 57.0 49.3 42.4 62.9 1.05
n • Propyl alcohol 49.0 56.6 62.0 64.6 63.0 50.0 37.4 -
64.8 1.03
n - Heptane 41.5 50.0 58.5 63.8 59.5 53.8 46.2 38.8 63.8 1.00
Ethyl nitrite 54.0 58.8 62.6 63.5 59.0 49.5 42.0 36.7 63.5 1.00
Pinene 48.5 58.3 62.5 62.1 56.6 50.0 - -
63.0 0.95
51.5 57.8 61.4 57.2 46.0 28.0 - -
61.4 0.92
leteoonmu - 50.2 56.8 57.8 53.3 50.5 - -
58.2 0.98
Pyrrole - 52.0 55.6 56.6 56.1 52.8 48.0 43.1 56.7 1.00
Aniline - 41.5 45.4 46.6 42.9 37.7 32.0 -
46.8 0.98
Dimethylformamide - 40.0 43.6 45.8 45.5 40.7 36.7 - 46.1 1.04

n.3 (cm/s) Mvmfuvrawn «i

I*

25°c

uas onrWT = i

women ir \jwJrj u# 4fj hi in 0.5 1.0 2.0 3.0

Sm«(CH4) 59L SOL 40.5L 29L 22L

DIHU (CjH^ 54L 48L 42.5L 36.5L 30L
Immu (CjHj) 59L 51L 44.0L 35.5L 31L

9m-i? l fifimnuftwa'fflQifl'uiumfi') ft. 3

•U03 Law et al. [f)0 Vagelopoulos, Egolfopoulous, and Law, Twenty-fifth Symposium

{International) on Combustion,. The Combustion Institute, 1994, pp. 1341 -1347]

n

law ofmass action

Fourier's law ofheat conduction

Fick's law ofspecies diffusion

Hess's law ofsummation

law ofconservation ofmass

square law

Gibbs-Daltonlaw

gas law

second law ofthermodynamics

first law ofthermodynamics

Newton's law ofviscosity

Arrhenius'law ofreaction rate constant

thermochemical laws

Lavosier-laplace law

Gulberg and Waage's law ofchemical

equilibrium

formic acid

oxalic acid

acetic acid

free stream

glycine

glycerol

size distribution

drop size distribution

 light scattering

fractional distillation

corrosion

soot formation

thermal ignition

auto-ignition, self-ignition, spontaneous

ignition

forced ignition

ignition

fmwnh entrainment

extinction

flame extinction

atomization

heat transfer

flame stabilization

energy saving

ni?ilfieci emission

blow-off

mixing

reburning

combustion

combustion ofcloud ofpulverized carbon

char combustion

combustion ofmetal

volatiles combustion

lean premixed combustion

pulverized coal combustion

I

i
\

[
1 fmiwiW%ifnuf |iJ iflCJnimvil dinusionally controlled combustion

| msimWviqnfniJf jll tmtlt)fl<Uni'3lfl3J

** ** ...
kineucally controlled combustion

\ fmimiutfmjfrmii, I'UnOWfinjJfQ'U heat-recirculating combustion

901^?) well-stirred combustion

1 *, * IIU'UWWOW staged combustion
1

UlWQl^tnmJ heterogeneous combustion

I fmtmltttfrnjuifiiJ'HQm
U 1

flameless combustion

ti spray combustion

[ fmiHllwiJVI'UHQ surface combustion

fuel-rich combustion, rich combustion

convection

free convection

diffusion

wake

*W flash-back
| nirimraWM flame stretch

; miittifwino . dissociation

JiQU charring, pyrolysis, thermal decomposition

! rrnnuNtm cogeneration

explosion

j m«»ttMinnimilwlcI vaporization

i rmreiwi sublimation

flame propagation

Hfli
1 1 eH

fl^iU^I proximate analysis

lift ultimate analysis

ffliffaitf decomposition

me calibration

erosion

vortex

flue or exhaust gas recirculation

(FGRorEGR)

flame cooling

subsonic flow

supersonic flow

particle-laden flow

compressible flow

incompressible flow

recirculation

gasification

gasoline

potential core

natural gas

liquefied petroleum gas

green-house gas

city gas
« A
monatomc gas

velocity fluctuation

WZ refuse

lean limit
 cold boundary

hot boundary

rich limit

ttlih soot

half-lifetime

Shockwave

combustion wave

detonation wave

defragation wave

combustion intensity

concentration

corrected concentration

turbulence intensity

partial pressure

total pressure

critical pressure

vapor pressure

specific gravity

light frequency

small scale turbulence

large scale turbulence

turbulence

mixing length

flame length

heat of combustion
 fluctuation velocity

propagation velocity

flow velocity

flame speed, burning velocity (speed)

turbulent flame speed

laminar flame speed

injection velocity

entrainment velocity

blow-offvelocity

mmmu® slope, Gradient

fmimwuuu density

number density

flame thickness

flTOWWI viscosity

kinematic viscosity

dynamic viscosity

conductivity, thermal conductivity

fiifmuvi? diffusivity

molecular diffusivity

eddy diffusivity, turbulent eddy diffusivity

thermal diffusivity

volatility

burning constant

vaporation constant

equilibrium constant

universal gas constant

 rate constant

lower heating value

higher heating value

tramu cetane number

carcinogen

fixed carbon

carbon disulfide

carbon dioxide

carbon tetrachloride

iijQvivimaQ m carbon residue, carbonaceous residue,

char

pulverized carbon

carbon monoxide

octane number

kerosene

internal combustion engine

electrostatic precipitator

heat exchanger

unnivlm camphor

cracking

calcium

apex round-off

coherent anti-Stokes Raman-spectroscopy

(CARS)

boundary condition
 kinetic

chemical kinetics

smoke point

stagnation point

fire point

auto-ignition temperature

cloud point

flashpoint

ymntnmitn melting point

pour point

confined jet

particle-ladenjet

cylindricaljet

turbulentjet

laminarjet

flamejet

plane jet

opposedjet

WflSfft! free jet

species

flammability limit, flammability range,

ignition range

slit
 gap

WHTMflitl dead space

IJU'UQUl'Ufl boundary layer

biomass

jetfoel

biomass fuels
x
fossil fuels

hydrocarbon fuels

subbituminous

xylene

silicon

cetane

pseudocumene

semianthracite

ceramic

zirconium

sodium

preheating zone

cyclo-butane

cyclo-propane

cyclo-octane
«/ •
cyclo-alkanes

cyclo-hexene

cyclo-hexane
 emission index

decene

flW decyne
• *

iflfliSll decalin
dodecene

diethyl ether

upstream

sediment

bunsen burner

chain carrier

frequency factor, Arrhenius factor

conserved variable

tetralin

stirred reactor

triple bond

triethyllamine

pulverized coal

bituminous coal

lignite coal

anthracite coal

ash
 bottom ash

) tuiaQO fly ash

slag

\ VliiUfflflfliau /ra/w-Decalin

tar sand

Semenov theory ofspontaneous ignition

diffusion theory
I
\. MM.s«.M..-......... i-— theory of alchemy

thermal theory

comprehensive theory

kinetic theory

phlogiston theory

atomic theory of chemical reaction

thorium

wf particle tracking technique

rebuming technique

tertiary-Butylbenzene

tertiary-Amylbenzene

SlfolfiUfl Mfail'Ulbu turbulent

turpentine

thermochemistry

thermodynamics

probe

. toluene

lviVnm«JJ titanium
 n-cetane

n-deodane

uoniotuftifm n-decane

n-dodecane

«-nonane

/i-butylbenzene

«-butylalcohol

/?-butane

uoniomrmmu n-pentane

«-propanol

«-octane

n-undecane

n-hexane

«-heptane

kerosene

tars

crude oil

dieseloil

lube oil

hydraulic oil

naphthene

naphthalene

pyrolysis front

uiniiWW flame front

nonene

nitrogen
 m

reaction zone

bomb calorimeter

bituminous

butadiene

butanone

butyl alcohol

butylene

butene

butane

butyne

benzyl alcohol

benzene

beryllium

regime

boron

exothermic reaction

914 endothermic reaction

over-all reaction

forward reaction

backward reaction

chain reaction

branching chain reaction

simple reaction

droplet interaction
 phase interaction

efficiency ofenergy use

combustion efficiency

thermal efficiency

greed-house effect

sulfur content

ilfl1tlYn<3 downstream
petroleum

premixed flame
i
diffusion flame

gaseous diffusion flame

flat flame

jet flame

flame sheet

flame slab

sooting flame

flash-back

nonsooting flame

pilot flame

potassium

quenching wall

phase interface

particulate
 fluid dynamics

activation energy

minimum ignition energy

Gibbs free energy

jiifrtismjlsapw Helmholtz free energy

plutonium

vnnfhitf parafins

peat

pentene

pentane

pentyne

producer gas

propanol

propylene

propene

propane

propyne

profile

velocity profile

composition profile

temperature profile

v a*
flux

heat flux

energy flux of light

vfanwaa mass flux
fluidizedbed

phenol

phynyl

furan

furfury alcohol

Irl fire

mivnnmvu thermal load

14

pollutants

species

emission standard

3JMU methane

meta-anthracite

methanol

methyl cyclohexene

methyl naphthalene

methyl formate

magnesium

IJJ wood

uranium
 ' ~* Mtn stage ofcompletion

stagnation plane

plane of symmetry
■L-

cogeneration'H19

combined heat power (CHP)

quenching distance

overhang

root mean square

Raman spectroscopy

recuperator

reduction

reforming

flame shape

thrust

shear force

surface tension

viscous force

buoyancy force

f)

droplet

single droplet

droplet spray

aniufl lignite
lithium

Grash of number
 transfer number

mass transfer number

group combustion number

wm Schmidt number

Darrikokler number

Nusselt number

raunfuwfln Prandtl number

uwmnmvi Peclet number

Mach number

umieiTuafiff Reynolds number

Lewis number

Wobbe number

Avogadro's number

laser induced fluorescence (LIF)

lanthanum

laminar

metals

water gas

combined cycle

bluffbody

porous medium

Schlieren technique

shadowgraph technique

interferograph technique

n?nm?infiiJ§nltJi m reaction time

 diffusion time

evaporation time

physical time

rnnvmiflfi chemical time

critical time

ignition delay

residence time

fl

rank of coal

mass fraction

mole fraction

stratosphere

stoichiometry

stylene

Sflliffl spark
quasi-steady state

steady state

equilibrium

partial-equilibrium

full-equilibrium

continuity equation

conservation equation

energy conservation equation

species-conservation equation
truqiunu chemical equilibrium

truunmufiivi me physical property

thermal properties

derived properties

fundamental properties

tnuwtrwnf)

eieli mixture, combustible mixture, explosive

mixture, reactant, reactant mixture, reactive

mixture

radiative absorption coefficient

diffusion coefficient

binary diffusion coefficient

intermediate species

reactive intermediates

additives

inert additives

reactive additives

precursor

metallic compound

products

volatiles

volatile organic compound

streamline

slag

photochemical smog
 boiler

cooling

wet basis

dry basis

after burner

fuel injector

atomizer

radiant tube burner

staged-combustion burner

two staged-combustion burner

continuous multistaged combustion burner

flameless combustion burner

low NO burner

regenerative burner

oil shale

imd^trstru reservoir

active radical

free radical

oxygen

primary oxygen

oxides of sulfur

oxides ofnitrogen

octene

99fHYlU octane

acrylonitrile
 Ifliiamj acrolein
acetylene

acetone

acetaldehyde

92JuW aniline
aromatic

aluminium

fimfmifiwuih rate of soot formation

rate ofreaction

chemical reaction rate

chain reaction rate

rate ofconsumption

burning rate, rate of combustion

diffusion rate

stretch rate

rate of fuel destruction

rate of depletion of reactant

" " space heating rate

rate ofsoot oxidation

compression ratio

stoichiometric ratio

equivalence ratio

air ratio

air to fuel ratio, A/F ratio

order of reaction

undecene

alkanes
 secondary air

primary air

swirling air

argon

Arrhenius

SyiSvrafmVhWilm quenching effect

quenching effect

preheating effect

indine

free electron

0YIU ethene

ethane

91V195 ether

activation temperature

ignition temperature

ignition temperature

flame temperature

adiabatic flame temperature

quenching effect

eddy

ethyl benzene

ethylamine

ethyl acetate

ethyl ether

ethyl alcohol ethanol

19VU1VI ethylene

ethylene oxide
 enthalpy

standard enthalpy of formation

1914VI fi standard enthalpy of combustion

sensible enthalpy

entropy

amy1 acetate

adiabatic

ueuvmvu anthracene

anthracite

ammonia

alcohol

asphaltene

olefin

iyo-butane

wo-propanol

/■so-propylbenzene

wo-octane

\m (mumvi) v^mmtmw lean mixture

rich mixture

If

sivlifieiu hafnium

hexadecene

hexene

hexane

heptene

heptane .
heptyne

unsaturated hydrocarbon

saturated hydrocarbon

hydrogen

hydrogen bromide

hydrogen iodide
 AIM

"■ ' 38,39

590,591
105,128
fflTflfnvlliNfmiJfOU 207
161,170,171
fl15ffl(aiVmOfl<?nifl3 207 - 210 213 216 217
162
219-222,229,239,240,242
figfmtfUHtNlSfrt? 103,104
fmflfllyluiJlJijfaflll 207,230 - 236,239,240,
6
242
272 273

tf 83
362,367,377,416,526
122
„ a +t M - * ' niffllJ 199,205,222,242 •

y fii5«iiii9'amsn m 199,205,222
84
251,252,298,302

o .^^ y m?di«l914fniu!'9W 159,162,169,170,171,

173,176-181,184,185,195-197
mwtr 153
509,511-514
102
fl'lilbs'HtjVm&N'nJ 515,518,520,524
102
^ m^lJfioCJ 575 - 577, 593, 603, 604, 612, 613,
106
614-621
265
ni?lili#LlTI9<3ll]?ntW 454,509-510
J 197,305,321,325,335,352,428,
fmWfflJ 199-201,227,229,234
566 v
milNWl 543,544
265
milWI mu 1 -17,19,23 - 25, 33 - 39
252-254,298 ,
fn?iwil'KuuQ'3figu0<4fnfJfn^ii9'u 319
252 - 254
n*mw"i*lmj<u9<3iiims 314,319,321
606,608 y-
 338 - 340, 343, 2,8,231,232,235,240,

348 434,449,463,474

199,201

92

199,200,201 wrci
I 1 1 a a ATI a lo/ fl ooJLJ JJdoCJ I 1II I rj tl a U

miimWiiiifniwsiiflatJfmiiftw II Id <*of 1 J 1V 11 Xj oi w 1 bffJr I *f^*% •^J

514-516,518,522,526,530 nntraitl 137,138,140,141,144,147,149

fmtraumuu 607,610

m^^nniQU 349
nnimWuuuliiiflwiifmfitnnw 320 miHljWTU 251,538

ni?Wilntfuuillftl]fniYl 36,547 - 549,551 fn?vr^wn«wlt)iSo 538,539

fmimiHtflllUJflllhef 294,301 frnwaoiawiilailrl 531,532
milNi'UiiJmJWQ 532,533 m^lMttfniJJifQmwoiSa^ 435
m<5iWil'H^n8^MT41 581
fmvn 172,173,180,185,191,194 fmlvfaiisnfjmnvis 609
Tl n n lUUUcJCIdv 1 / J, loU m^lwauuuoViwQW 406,408
fTOUIW 159,162 -166,180 -184,186,194 -196 milMmmuQAehlin# 406,408
msinupn 363 m^ittaW^UnOuSQWn^lJ 511,514,538
mitie'unau'UQ^iilfiiivl 451,452,454,458, niUSJOW 72,591
«»oi a/

511,543 wn'tfvlmvti 51

fmSflilWllJfnW 557,558 UnM'U56,241,250,282

fmutfflflaiO 312-319,342,346,348,350 Uflwl^m'UlSwd 363,413,427
miu£imr?n£j#'3Ufn'iijfmi 321-319,342,346, linttS??3J*tfiS 52

348,350 unflfSWmmjmjn 50
unmfown«fin 42
m5?sm« 145 -147,199,206,209,239,242 UfUfTJ<jfllJ 54,402
c* A
fmssmanmmilii'lQ 256,283,284,298
fmssiwfl 312
 89

fnuimnrniS 208
506,507
fmJJflulg 281
74,75

226,227,232,240 A
a flT»)Q<U8*UfH 606
■U8UMIWKIU 483
483 nniifluibii mmmivmm iso, 183,239,

226,227,232,240 5°6 " 5°9' ^ ^ 557' 586'

589
11I3J1 4, 5, 65, 67, 297, 360, 454, 575, 576,
fnujfiuibiwuifufin 506
590-592,609
oa ii at

506

f\ mijjjmmiwfru 182,183

390 - 394,422
134-137 . _ .
102,211,243,283,
435,439,440,434,445
388
434,435,445 d v A

ftfiiJQ llfltUWJ 4^^ 44fl AAfi*

ll bl W rl i Flo Vi v n tJJ) *rtJ) t^Uj
_.
d I It I

435,446 d n
fniJJKQm? lUfl 167,168,173,174,187,189,
"'515,532,547
436,447,449,450,452,453,460,462,463,505,
90,105,123,124,128-138,144-
509-511,514,563
156, 163 - 164, 179, 181, 189, 195, 199, 202, a i n i « « us/

228,232,242,244,246,255,257,276,281,294,
434,449-460,462,463,464-477,486-509,
303,321,385,391,404,487,490,493,499,502 ^
514,563,564
- 504, 530, 533, 544, 557, 567, 580, 594, 596, d

601,602,604,605,611,622
j 504-509
596 d , » , « •
fni3Jin^j9>3ii)tn muuiiimuwi? 449, 453,
506
458,460,466,477,493, 502,504, 505,563
89,106,108, 115, 129, 150, 163, d* X <*
fmumftfiwoiyifN 550,551
224,266,503 d * „
fniiJ^Q^nwi 370,377,382, 384,385
 509,512-513 58

meifrcwlmw 30, no, 135,136, 72,329,331

151,154,183,217,225,256,258,263,273,363, w?t)?lnwnnjow 72 - 74,76

456,462,486,510 fl241

fmiminuiiu 83,121,124 407

h 480,487,491,563 266

Jfn'W 508
55,59 319,342,350

S 60,78 319

60,78 52,62,241,402

159,162,169 M?OlJimjmfl 55,56,241,250,282,289

159,162-166,182,183,196 542

420 589,593

521
JlA
428 241

162,182,196 55

fiiinennum^swa 59 329

289 451-453,459-461
a <t £*
273,274,305

106-108, 110 608

83,124, 157,243, 305,

352,487,564

134,152,154
194, 254,257 - 260, 278, 279,

315, 319, 325, 361, 365 - 367, 371, 389, 390,

51,73
394,398,403,417,424,483,484,485

65

64,67
 264 - 267, 274, 276, 280, 284, 286, 288, 303,

335, 365, 366, 368, 374, 378, 385, 387, 389,

14, 15, 81,145, 156,159, 166, 167, 183,
407, 417, 424, 454, 478, 479, 483, 484, 496,
199 - 202, 204, 205, 251, 271, 321, 322, 342,
506,566,597,608,622
407,433,434,450,503,577

" 145,156,199,202,204,205
222,226,240,242
65
360,362,371
1ugU£J5l3
H 414,587,589
61
451-453
61
159,166 -170,172-176,179 -182,
61
185,189,193,196
61,62,68,69
S 16
314
241
^fllttam 61
49,71
WflfhmJ 360,411,413,418,421,424
16
360, 364, 378, 383, 385,
jew 133, 207, 238, 240,
390-394
d 253,287,290,298,330,393,575,577,581,594,
363,385
596,600,620

359,360,386,400,405,410 - 415,

419,420,424

73
360,361,364,383,385,421,425

513
241,250,265,282,
'591
329
iS 360,364,378,385,406,419

64,65

289

73
105,159,163,165,
516,522,526,554
186, 193, 194, 224, 244, 254, 257, 258,
 329

329 153,156,499

475 260 - 262, 274, 276, 277, 278,

241 284,288,304

241 § 289
241 582

591 468

57 241

241

57,241,265,591

319,338,343,348

71

593,603

AlflU 289 71

500,592 rtn 4

250,282 343,589

591 342,346,589

591 343

500

241
Yl

m^fna 241
fl
55

442-445,475 216

63 914 474,475,478

7,14,505,509, 510 474, 502

■

«tf 139,144,147 -149,152 4

474,478
 5,6 241
<QCl£> C|

W913J9fl99niVlW 62,241, 250,282, 500

329 500

455,458 241,250,282,500

543,544 241,250,282,289,500,591

S 289 mmhm 55,56,250,282, 289

289 55,56
V

ivi9?ihHiiJ« rifefluihu 4,14,159,180,182, wttrum 250

194, 197,200,234,238,239,385,393,394,401, 250

504 - 508,532,538,557,565,567 250

241 57,66

100 59
Of at

100,102,105,111,121,122 315

580,581,604-606 200,201,450,453,460,506,507,

58,241,250,265,282,289,591 510,565

329 500

172,407

62

241,250,282,500 434,458,547

250,282 62

500 72

241,500 241

289, 591 ibvnluu 241

' 250 265

57, 62,241,500 50

241,250,282,500 241,500
 52,591,592 1,359, 360,403

iblvm 468 461,462

590

241,250,265,282,289,500 450, 509

329 590

329 511-513

329

,111,112

100 587

127,131 -134 S 255

137

137

127,138-149,152,156
i\\l 575,576,589,591,620
145-149

127,133 -139,150,152

248
82
301
153,156
21,28-32 A
236
515,563
82,88
520,524,525
82,
142
329
63,70
umifllltf 56,62,63,66
434,435, 439 - 443,445, 475, 566
m 50,70, 72
13,250
241,500
14, 433, 451, 462,
50,467
474-476,486,493
468
 52 . 591

265,266 241

50,56,591 289

241,500 1-5

50,52,56,62,241,500,591

468,591

360 - 363, 365, 368, 369, 371 - 375,

380 - 382,385,395 - 400,403,404,410,424

lmWflTllJWI 361,363,368,369,371,373, 14

374,380 - 382,385,386,403,404,410,424
14 -17,35,575,576,593,594,596,600,
WWfitNfllbsnQll 363, 365, 385, 390,
603,604,611,612,614-620
395-397,400,424
105,159,163,165,
faiWeamflS 363,365,385,390; 395,397,
) 224j 244, 254, 257, 258,
400,403,404,424
264 - 267, 274, 276, 280, 284, 286, 288, 303,

335,365,366,368,374,378,385,387,389,407,

417,424,454,478,479,483,484,496,506,566,

162,163,166,170,171,182,184,186, 597> 608j 622

196,204,205,243,304,305,319,332,352,386, Jj 614-619
411,416,427,436,443,476,481,564,608 52> 62> 241> 407) 500

vlan^fniufQU 1152, 170, 171,182,184,196, mfl-Hl9UVmW 73

304,319,481,564 62,241,250,282

608 591

163, 182, 186, 196, 205, 243, 305, 591

352,368,386,411,416,427,436,443,476,481,
mfia<ritmiJfl 241
564 MJn£h$U3J 329
WllJfl 38, 345 - 347 \ff 71

266
II amow 329
' 176,180,264,304
329
262,270,279-282,304

262,270,279,282,304

304
107,108
165,180,182,196,330,352,427
363,367
202,204,243
34
172,179,195,243,262,264,292
236,242
165,180,182,196,262,264,304,
U 451,452
363,414,427^564
508,565
185,186,196
606 - 609
435,439,442,444,445,564
526
twaflrf 169,180,262,264,305,352,371,
576
376,400,401,427,505,564

mu§0?r 165,196,259,265,286,332,363,427,
390,410,412,424
479,564
311
53,54
160,167,168
83,153,156,480,563
252
\i4 609
175,176
329

177,178,180,181,264

63, 167, 175, 312 - 314, 321, 329, 349,

aS88* 246,249,251-258,261,262,271-274, 351

276, 278, 280, 281, 283, 284, 288 - 291, 294 -

305

248,249,254,255,294,297,303
m 51,131
254
16,33,34
73
Qflfl/UTNfVU 511,513 tttmsflW 188-194,203,231,248,254-258,

298 - 303 364,387,405,435,478,480,482,515

456-458,461 fffl'nstnjfjfl 81, 82, 88, 106, 108, 110, 111,

456 - 458,461 113,127,128,221,260,265,271,465,503,580,

456 581,585

wfonaifmimIwtf 202, flfmsmj^aijutfau 581,585

289,290,294,303,312,337 mjfmfmJJfl9liJ94 186,189,191,193

ntnfmuw 202 friifmeufhu 159,186 -191,193,194

271,273 trum^fny'w^iu 191,194
202,204,205 mjfmotjimknflfltKj 193,194
202,204,205 trwjmfiil 82,105-108,111,113,116
ntninqS 211 mjiiwfnoflTw vifetr^JiT^vn^vlSntf 49
210 - 213 truijS^i^fiJin 83,88
202 truiIS^asTU 83

3,4,7,14

95 522
72,73
139,140
imnhinno 90,288,293
90,108,110,115,150,224,476,
*^ "66,468-470

594,597,600,^00 mi*IUll«inirfBB 4®
S^1 469,470
581

tniii^fiQii'UQ^ltivis; 312
576
S7fi ^ „, ,
mwSwTtiwf 93,101 -103,127,200,274,275,
91,94,120
320,359,435
591
tn«8lMfl 72-74,312-320,346,350
?nJi?f) 207,230,236,242 « «, ^ «, y
^ A ■tn?oumovi«mol« 576
vi 272
 416,458,513

uaan 343

10ViaU 50,52,57,592

576

531,532,620

199,208,605

596-602

594 - 597,599 - 602

207

349,534,538,553 U0i§eiuu8n 82,111 -114,117 -120

518^26 :^29f%W :
55 62,250,289,^,^ :,, ..

95

95

h 502
210
139-142,207,452,503,581
180 -183,195, 361, 364,504,507
00fimw 62, 64, 265, 591
lovmiuuwi 289
575,576
62,241,250,
575,591 i
265,282,289 "ii'.' ••.('
 iPipjipp

89fl§K)U 406,544 gwSSu 500

99n*SlS)VJlJj1Jg5 544 ffalflUflf 58
88nSlfl#U 6,14,128 flimmjSuqfi 524
99mm 250,282,500 . 8ifnmJsJjg5 450,451,524
92JlcKV19a§l0?l 241 9imffH3JW3W 300

9s;Ifi5iafh4 241 tmwiilotr 152,153,203,210,487

8sT?UU§fl 57-59,63,66 91?n9il 407

MfmeiltlllUWtl 241
9S<Slvm 241,250,265,282 9Vl5<W^fn?<i1lWlcJ'U 7,460
9s€vmu 52,62,241,402,500,592 SwflW 592
osiftau 241 91V1W 50,52,57,62,241,500

92J^Slfi«3J 329 91V19? 70,289

at « • gr\/\
mu 500

90?im5inmJfjfmn 127 -134,135 -139, qamgSiilaVM 82,111 -114,117-120

142-147,149-156 qcuMQihiJfnWugificjuijSn 82, 111 -114,
oflmfminailgnftniflij 129,150 117-120

oVuifnufifiilgSSenqflW 144,147 fJfUMQ5fi8flU3JUffl 499

oOTimwnlw? 15 ^fUH^SSflTH Vff99,tU<Hfj2^T2Jl<Bfl 216,

fimrmum 200-202 221-224,227-230

6i5im?WfniiJ?oii^|iJ5iJiw7wiiJai 504
on?ini7Nflicy 201,203
U

eiiwifnTU^O'iwJinlvl 557 anvlifluw 329

8fl?in'lS98fll§lfleifl'll3h 590 i0fletfTiplc1fT4 592

Qn^itrQUfru^fl 95-98 igfflSil 500

vi 1 M « & *» •
owiitrcufnfnflfflfiMffHYifM nioofnitfiuio/ WflWU 57,58

19^1 94 l8lJ^\4 500

9WWU<U9^ll§n?en 129, 133 - 137, 139, 151, 18llmu 63,64,265
203,211,223,224
592 .

n 467

467

52,62,241,402,407

a 142

130

10857

I;.; j