Modern Physics and Cosmology

Paper II

Dr. Nidhi Thakur

2021-22 1
 Syllabus
UNIT I: Light and matter waves
Light absorbed as Photons, The Photoelectric
Effect, Light Emitted as Photons, X-Ray
Production, Light Scattered as Photons: Compton
Scattering and Pair Production Wave–Particle
Duality, Probability and Uncertainty.

TSB: Electron Waves, Davisson-Germer experiment,

G. P. Thompson experiment, The Nuclear Atom and
Atomic Spectra, Energy Levels and the Bohr Model
of the Atom.
References:
1. University Physics, Sears &Zemansky, Young and
Freedman, Pearson. Chapter 38.
 Chapter 38
Wave-Particle duality:
Light acts sometimes like waves and sometimes like
particles.

Wave behavior:
 Chapter 38
Wave-Particle duality:
Particle behavior
Chapter 38
Chapter 38

The illuminated cathode emits photoelectrons

with various kinetic energies.
If the electric field points toward the cathode,
all the electrons are accelerated toward the
anode and contribute to the photocurrent.
Chapter 38

1. Reverse the field: less

energetic electrons will not
reach anode.
2. Vac is made negative
enough so that current
stops.
3. Vac=-V0, (stopping
potential)
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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 Chapter 38
Photocurrent: Dependence on frequency, intensity, potential

Wave Model Prediction Experimental

Intensity of an electromagnetic Photocurrent depends on
wave: depends on its frequency.
amplitude but not on its
frequency. ➢ For a given material,
monochromatic light
➢ photoelectric effect should with a frequency below a
occur for light of any minimum threshold
frequency frequency produces no
➢ photocurrent should not photocurrent
depend on the frequency of
the light.
 Chapter 38
Photocurrent: Dependence on frequency, intensity, potential

Wave Model Prediction Experimental

It takes a certain minimum amount There is no measurable
of energy, called the work time delay between when
function, to eject a single electron
the light is turned on and
from a particular surface.
If the light falling on the surface is when the cathode emits
very faint, some time may elapse photoelectrons (assuming
before the total energy absorbed by the frequency of the
the surface equals the work light exceeds the threshold
function. frequency).
Hence, for faint illumination, we
expect a time delay between when
we switch on the light and when This is true no matter how
photoelectrons faint the light is.
 Chapter 38
Photocurrent: Dependence on frequency, intensity, potential

Wave Model Prediction Experimental

➢ Because the energy delivered to the The stopping potential
cathode surface depends on the does not depend on
intensity of illumination, we expect
the stopping potential to increase
intensity, but does
with increasing light intensity. depend on frequency.

➢ Since intensity does not depend on

frequency, stopping potential
should not depend on the frequency
of the light.
Chapter 38

A beam of light consists of small packages of energy

called photons or quanta
 Chapter 38

➢An individual photon arriving at the surface is absorbed by

a single electron. the electron gets all of the photon’s energy
or none at all.

➢ photoelectrons will be ejected only if hf>ϕ (ϕ is

workfunction. The photoelectric effect occurs only for
frequencies greater than a minimum threshold frequency.

➢ Greater intensity at a particular frequency means a greater

number of photons per second absorbed, and thus a greater
number of electrons emitted per second and a greater
photocurrent.
Chapter 38

Einstein’s postulate also explains why there is

no delay between illumination and the emission
of photoelectrons. As soon as photons of
sufficient energy strike the surface, electrons
can absorb them and be ejected.
Chapter 38

Einstein’s postulate explains why the

stopping potential for a given surface
depends only on the light frequency.
Chapter 38

The intensity
doesn’t appear in
above eq, so is V0
independent of
intensity.
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
 Chapter 38

A photon of any electromagnetic radiation with

frequency ƒ and wavelength λ has energy E given by

every particle that has energy must also have momentum,

even if it has no rest mass. Photons have zero rest mass.
a particle with zero rest mass and energy E has momentum
with magnitude p given by
Chapter 38
Numericals

A photon of green light has a wavelength of 520 nm. Find

the photon’s frequency, magnitude of momentum, and
energy. Express the energy in both joules and electron
volts.
Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38

Most electrons are braked by a

series of collisions and
interactions with anode atoms,
so bremsstrahlung produces a
continuous spectrum of
electromagnetic radiation.
 Chapter 38
X-rays

Wave Model Experimental

Prediction
X rays produced
by bremsstrahlung
should have a
spectrum that
includes all
frequencies and
hence all
wavelengths.
 Chapter 38

An electron e has charge and gains kinetic energy eVac

when accelerated through a potential increase Vac. The
most energetic photon (highest frequency and shortest
wavelength) is produced if the electron is braked to a stop
all at once when it hits the anode, so that all of its kinetic
energy goes to produce one photon;
Chapter 38

the maximum frequency and minimum wavelength in

the bremsstrahlung process do not depend on the
target material

the photon picture of electromagnetic radiation is valid

for the emission as well as the absorption of radiation
Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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This is the same answer as would be obtained
if electrons of this energy were used. Electron
beams are much more easily produced and
accelerated than proton beams.
Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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 Chapter 38

Wave-Model Prediction:
1. Part of the energy of the light wave would be absorbed by
the electron, which would oscillate in response to the
oscillating electric field of the wave. The oscillating
electron re-radiating its acquired energy as scattered waves
in a variety of directions.

2. The scattered light and incident light have the same

frequency and same wavelength.
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38
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Chapter 38

How can light be a wave and a

particle at the same time?

Principle of complementarity:
The wave descriptions and the particle
descriptions are complementary.
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Chapter 38

The wave description, not the particle description,

explains the single- and double-slit patterns.

But the particle description, not the wave

description, explains why the photomultiplier records
discrete packages of energy.

The two descriptions complete our understanding of

the results.
Chapter 38
Chapter 38

There will be an uncertainty in the y-component of

momentum at least as great as
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Numericals
Atellurium–sapphire laser can produce light at
a wavelength of 800 nm in ultrashort pulses
that last only (4.00 femtoseconds, or 4.00 fs).
The energy in a single pulse produced by one
such laser is 2 microjoule and the pulses
propagate in the positive x-direction. Find (a)
the frequency
of the light
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
(b) the energy and minimum energy
uncertainty of a single photon in the
pulse
Chapter 38
(c) the minimum frequency
uncertainty of the light in the pulse;
Chapter 38
(d) the spatial length of the pulse, in meters and as
a multiple of the wavelength;
Chapter 38
(e) the momentum and
minimum momentum
uncertainty of a single
photon in the pulse.
Chapter 38

(f ) the approximate number

of photons in the pulse.
Chapter 38

Correct value for del t=

1.66*10^-14 sec
Chapter 38
Chapter 38
Particle Physics and Cosmology
Paper II
Unit 3
Dr. Nidhi Thakur

2021-22 83
 Syllabus
UNIT III: Particle Physics and Cosmology
Fundamental particles: electron, proton,
photon, neutron, positron, particles as force
mediators, mesons, particles and
interactions, introduction to quarks,
leptons, hadrons.

Expanding universe: Hubble’s law, big

bang, expanding space, critical energy, dark
matter, dark energy and accelerating
universe, beginning of time.
References:
1. University Physics, Sears &Zemansky, Young and
Freedman, Pearson. Chapter 44.
 Fundamental Particles
Fundamental particles are the smallest things
in the universe.

Cosmology
Cosmology deals with the biggest thing
there is the universe itself.
History

87
History

88
History

89
History
1. 400 B.C - Democritus and Leucippus-Atom

2. 1804- John Dalton

3. 1897- J J Thomson

4. 1910-Rutherford

5. 1919-Rutherford

6. 1932-Chadwick
History
1. 400 B.C - Democritus and Leucippus- Atom

2. 1804- John Dalton –Atomic theory

3. 1897- J J Thomson – Electron

4. 1910-Rutherford- nucleus

5. 1919-Rutherford - Proton

6. 1932-Chadwick-neutron
Atomic Theory by JJ Dalton
Key points:
1. Dalton’s atomic theory proposed that
all matter was composed of atoms,
indivisible and indestructible building
blocks.

Dalton’s atom-solid sphere

Atomic Theory by J J Dalton
Key points:
2. Different elements had atoms of
differing size and mass.

1 Unit
16 Units
Atomic Theory by J J Dalton
Key points:
3. Compounds were composed of
combination of these atoms in defined ratios.
Atomic Theory by J J Dalton
Key points:
4. Chemical reactions resulted in the
rearrangement of the reacting atoms.
Further progress
Atoms are not indivisible

Discovery of electron in 1897

By J J Thomson
Cathode rays
Properties of Cathode rays
1. They travel in straight lines.
2. They are independent of the
material composition of the cathode.
3. Applying electric field in the path
of cathode ray deflects the ray towards
positively charged plate.
Hence cathode ray consists of
negatively charged particles
Properties of Cathode rays
J. J. Thomson measured the charge-
by-mass-ratio (e/m) of cathode ray
particle using deflection in both
electric and magnetic field.

e/m=−1.76×108 coulomb per gram

Discovery of proton
Rutherford gold foil experiment
Rutherford gold foil experiment:
Conclusions:
➢ Atom’s mass and its entire positive charge are
confined in a small core, called nucleus.
➢ The positively charged particle is called proton
➢Most of the volume of an atom is empty space.
➢The number of negatively charged electrons
same as number of positively charge in the
nucleus. It explains the overall electrical
neutrality of an atom.
Discovery of neutron
Chadwick
Positron
➢Positron is the antiparticle of electron.

➢Positron has an electric charge of +1 e.

➢a spin of 1/2 (same as electron)

➢same mass as an electron.

Discovery of positron
Cloud chamber track:
The track curved in the
opposite way from the track
of an electron, showing that
the particle had a positive
charge.
But the track was too faint
to come from a positively-
charged proton. Anderson
had discovered the
positively-charged electron,
or positron, predicted by
Paul Dirac in 1929.
Dirac prediction of Positron

Energy states for

a free electron
predicted by the
Dirac equation.
Dirac prediction of Positron
Raising an
electron from
E<0 to an E>0
state
corresponds to
electron–positron
pair production.
Dirac prediction of Positron
An electron
dropping from
E>0 to E<0
corresponds to
electron–positron
pair annihilation.
Dirac prediction of Positron
➢electrons can be created and
destroyed.
➢Electrons can be produced or
destroyed only in electron–
positron pairs or in association
with other particles.
Electron-positron pair production
➢Enough energy must be available
to account for the rest energy 2mec 2

of the two particles.

➢ The minimum energy for
electron–positron pair production is
Emin = 2
2mec = = 1.637  10 -13 J
= 1.022 MeV
Electron was discovered by

J J Thomson
Nucleus was discovered by

Rutherford
Positron was discovered by

Carl Anderson
Proton was discovered by

Rutherford
Neutron was discovered by

Chadwick
Existence of Antimatter was first
predicted by

Paul Dirac
Antiparticle of electron is

Positron
Antiparticle of photon is

photon
Electron and positron have same -----
And opposite ------

Mass and charge

Minimum energy for electron–
positron pair production is

2mec2
Particle as force mediators
1. Electromagnetic Force
Repulsion

The exchange particle

responsible: Photon.
Particle as force mediators
Attraction
 Energy of photon?
Uncertainty principle: A state that exists for a short
time has an uncertainty in its energy such that

A photon that can exist for a short time because of this

energy uncertainty is called a virtual photon
Particle as force mediators
1. Nuclear Force
Nuclear force between two
nucleons (neutrons or protons)

f is strength of the interaction

r0 : Range
Particle as force mediators
1. Nuclear Force
Hideki Yukawa: Meson (suggested mediator)
Range of nuclear forces, r0 : 1.5 fm
Assume that an average particle’s speed is
comparable to c and travels about half the
range, its lifetime t must be about
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
t =
𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑
𝑟0
= =2.5 × 10−24 s
2𝑐
Particle as force mediators
1. Nuclear Force
Minimum necessary uncertainty in energy E is

t =2.5 × 10 s−24

−34
h=6.6 × 10 s
ℎ
ℏ=
2𝜋
=1.05 × 10−34 s

=130 𝑀𝑒𝑉
Particle as force mediators
1. Nuclear Force
The mass equivalent of this energy is m is

About 250 times heavier than electron

Particle as force mediators
1. Nuclear Force
Pions were discovered in 1947 with properties as
predicted by Yukawa.
Their charges are +e, -e, and zero, and their masses
are about 270 times the electron mass
Particle as force mediators

Pi-plus 140
Rho-plus 776
Eta-zero 548
Omega-zero 783

Find t in each case.

Particle as force mediators

Answer: (i), (iii), (ii), (iv) The more massive the

virtual particle,
the shorter its lifetime and the shorter the
distance that it can
travel during its lifetime.
Particle as force mediators
Particle as force mediators
Particle as force mediators
 Particles and Interactions
1. Particles of all kinds, whether stable
or unstable, can be created or
destroyed in interactions between
particles.

2. Each such interaction involves the

exchange of virtual particles, which exist on
borrowed energy allowed by the uncertainty
principle.
Particles and Interactions
Fundamental interaction
Four

1. Strong interaction

2. Electromagnetic interaction
3. Weak interaction
4. Gravitational interaction
Particles and Interactions
Electromagnetic interaction
1
1. 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑟2

2. M𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑝ℎ𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛
Particles and Interactions
Gravitational interaction
1
1. 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑟2

2. M𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑜𝑛
Problems

Calculate the ratio of the gravitational

attraction to electrical repulsion
between the two stationary electrons.
Fg/Fe
(QED): Problems
 Particles and Interactions
strong interaction

1. Responsible for nuclear forces

2. M𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑔𝑙𝑢𝑜𝑛
3. The strong interaction is roughly 100 times
as strong as the electromagnetic interaction;
4. However, it drops off with distance more quickly than
1/r2
Particles and Interactions
weak interaction

1. Responsible for beta decay

2. M𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
W and Z bosons
3. Enormous masses, 80 GeV/c2 for the W’s
and 91.2 GeV/c2 for the Z.
Particles and Interactions
 Leptons
• elementary particle
• spin 1⁄2 (fermions)
• × strong interaction.
• Total No.-6
• Have antiparticles
 Leptons Antiparticle of Leptons

• Electron • Positron
• Electron neutrino • Electron
antineutrino
• muon
• Anti muon
• Muon neutrino
• Muon antineutrino
• Tau
• Antitau
• Tau neutrino
• Tau antineutrino
Lepton number
Particle Le L L

Electron +1 0 0
Positron -1 0 0

Electron +1 0 0
Neutrino
Electron -1 0 0
Antineutrino
Lepton number
Particle Le L L

muon 0 +1 0
antimuon 0 -1 0

muon 0 +1 0
Neutrino
muon 0 -1 0
Antineutrino
Lepton number
Particle Le L L

tau 0 0 +1
antitau 0 0 -1

tau Neutrino 0 0 +1
tau 0 0 -1
Antineutrino
Leptons
Conservation of Lepton number
In all interactions, each lepton number is
separately conserved.
Conservation of Lepton number
Conservation of Lepton number
Conservation of Lepton number
 Hadrons
• take part in the strong
interaction.
• Made of quarks
• 2 types: Baryons & Mesons
• Baryons: Fermions
• Mesons: Bosons
 Hadrons

Antiparticle of Baryons has baryon number -1

Conservation of Baryon number
In all interactions, Baryon number is conserved.

B 1 1 1 1 1 -1

2 2
Quarks
• Fundamental constituent of matter
• Spin ½-fermions
• Baryons: qqq (3 quarks)
• Antibaryons: 𝒒𝒒𝒒 (3 antiquarks)
• Mesons: q𝒒
ഥ (Quark antiquark)
 3 Main Quarks
• Up quark (u)
• Down quark (d)
• Strange quark (s)
Antiquarks
• Up antiquark (ഥ
𝒖)
ഥ
• Down antiquark (𝒅)
• Strange antiquark (ത𝒔)
 Up quark (u) Up antiquark (𝒖
ഥ)

𝟐
• Charge: e • Charge: -
𝟐
e
𝟑 𝟑
• Spin: ½ • Spin: ½
𝟏 𝟏
• Baryon number: • Baryon number: -
𝟑 𝟑
 Down quark (d) Down antiquark (𝐝)ҧ

𝟏
• Charge: - e • Charge:
𝟏
e
𝟑 𝟑
• Spin: ½ • Spin: ½
𝟏 𝟏
• Baryon number: • Baryon number: -
𝟑 𝟑
 strange quark (s) strange antiquark (𝐬)ҧ

𝟏
• Charge: - e • Charge:
𝟏
e
𝟑 𝟑
• Spin: ½ • Spin: ½
𝟏 𝟏
• Baryon number: • Baryon number: -
𝟑 𝟑

• Strangeness: -1 • Strangeness: +1
 3 More Quarks
• Charmed quark (c)
• Bottom quark (b)
• Top quark (t)
Antiquarks
• Charmed antiquark (ത𝒄)
ഥ
• Bottom antiquark (𝒃)
• Top antiquark (𝒕)ҧ
Proton: uud
• Charge: +e
• Baryon number: 𝟏
Neutron: udd
• Charge: Zero
• Baryon number: 𝟏
PION: u𝑑ҧ

• Charge: +e
• Baryon number: 𝟎
a)S =-1 , B=1, Q =+e

One of the quark must be s with S =-1

and charge = -1e/3 and B =1/3.
The only combination is
uus
 ഥ𝟎
b) S = 1 , B= -1, Q =zero for 𝚲
S = -1 , B= 1, Q =zero for 𝚲𝟎
Find quark content of 𝚲𝟎
One of the quark must be s with S =-1
and charge = -1e/3 and B =1/3.
The only combination is uds
ഥ𝟎 , content will be 𝒖𝒅𝒔
For antiparticle 𝚲
Is it possible to have a baryon
with charge Q = +e and strangeness
S = -2?
Grand unified theory (GUT)
Theoretical physicists have long dreamed of combining
all the interactions of nature into a single unified theory.

1. Electroweak Unification:

Unification of electromagnetic and

weak interaction above certain
energies.
Grand unified theory (GUT)

Perhaps at sufficiently high energies the strong interaction

and the electroweak interaction have a convergence similar
to that between the electromagnetic and weak interactions.

If so, they can be unified to give a comprehensive theory

of strong, weak, and electromagnetic interactions. Such
schemes, called grand unified theories (GUTs),

Finally, at sufficiently high energies and short distances,

it is assumed that gravitation becomes unified with the
other three interactions
Theory of Everything (TOE)
 COSMOLOGY

Expanding Universe
Expanding Universe
Red shift:
➢ For distant galaxies, shift in
wavelength are always toward longer
wavelength.

➢ so they appear to be receding from

us and from each other.
Red shift:

S : the wavelength measured in the rest

frame of the source when it was emitted.

0 : light measured now from a source

receding at speed v
Red shift:

Find expression of v
Red shift:
An ultraviolet line from singly ionized calcium
(S= 393 m) is observed at wavelength (0=
414 m), redshifted into the visible portion of
the spectrum.

At what speed is this galaxy receding from us?

Red shift:
An ultraviolet line from singly ionized calcium
(S= 393 m) is observed at wavelength (0=
414 m), redshifted into the visible portion of
the spectrum.

At what speed is this galaxy receding from us?

Hubble Law:

The speed of recession of a galaxy v is

proportional to its distance r from us
H0: Hubble constant=
Hubble Law:
Hubble Law:

Use the Hubble law to find the distance

from earth to the galaxy moving with
velocity
The Big Bang
The Hubble law suggests that at
some time in the past, all the matter
in the universe was far more
concentrated than it is today.
It was then blown apart in an immense
explosion called the Big Bang, giving all
observable matter more or less the velocities
that we observe today.
The Big Bang

The time needed to travel a distance r is

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑟
𝑡=
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑡=
𝑣
𝑟 1
= =
𝐻0𝑟 𝐻0

𝑡 17
=4.3×10 s 10
=1.4×10 y
A galaxy in the constellation Pisces is 5210
Mly from the earth.

(a)Use the Hubble law to calculate the speed

at which this galaxy is receding from
earth.

(b)What redshifted ratio λ0/λS is expected for

light from this galaxy?
Answer: a)1.1 × 105 km/sec
b) 1.5
Critical Density:
I If Gravitational attractions are strong
enough, the universe should expand more
and more slowly, eventually stop, and then
begin to contract.

II. If gravitational forces are much weaker,

they slow the expansion only a little, and
the universe should continue to expand
forever.
Critical Density:
Critical density is the value at which the
Universe is at balance, and expansion is
stopped
Consider a large sphere with
radius R containing many
galaxies with total mass M.

Our own galaxy has

Mass m and is located at the
surface of this sphere
Critical Density:
Gravitational potential energy:

Kinetic energy:
1 2
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣
2
Critical Density:

If E is positive, our galaxy has enough energy to escape from the

gravitational attraction of the mass inside the sphere; in this case
the universe should keep expanding forever.

If E is negative, our galaxy cannot escape and the universe

should eventually pull back together.

Balance Case: E =0
Critical Density:
Critical Density:

Prove that:
Critical Density:

If the average density is less than c the universe

should continue to expand indefinitely;

if it is greater, the universe should eventually

stop expanding and begin to contract.
Critical Density:
Calculate c

If the average density is less than c the universe

should continue to expand indefinitely;

if it is greater, the universe should eventually

stop expanding and begin to contract.
Density of the universe is 6.3 * 10-27 Kg/m3
(a) Assuming that the universe is all hydrogen, express
the critical density in the number of H atoms per
cubic meter.
(b)how many atoms, on the average, would you
expect to find in a room of dimensions 4m* 7m*
3m.
Average density of matter in
universe: 27.4% of the critical
density
The average density of luminous matter is
only 4.6% of the critical density

Dark Matter: Most of the matter in the

universe is not luminous: It does not emit
electromagnetic radiation of any kind
Rate of expansion of universe
Very distant galaxies have smaller
redshifts than predicted by the
Hubble law!
The implication is that the expansion
of the universe was slower in the
past than it is now, so the expansion
has been speeding up rather than
slowing down.
Rate of expansion of universe
E = mc2

the average energy density of matter in the universe is

E=
72.6% is the mysterious dark energy.
22.8% is the mysterious dark matter
Beginning of time:
1. Temperature:
Early universe was extremely dense and extremely hot, and the
average particle energies were extremely large
Beginning of time:
Beginning of time:
 Uncoupling of interactions
1. At sufficiently high energies and short distances, it is
assumed that gravitation becomes unified with the other
three interactions.
2. The distance at which this happens is thought to be of the
order of 10-35m.
This distance, called the Planck length lp is determined by the
speed of light and the fundamental constants of quantum
mechanics and gravitation, and respectively.
The Planck length is defined as
Uncoupling of interactions
The Planck time is the time required
for light to travel a distance

If we mentally go backward in time, we have to stop when we

reach 10-43 sec because we have no adequate theory that unifies
all four interactions.
So as yet we have no way of knowing what happened or how the
universe behaved at times earlier than the Planck time or when its
size was less than the Planck length.
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
1. In this standard model, the temperature of the
universe at time 10-43 s (the Planck time) was
about 1032 K and the average energy per particle
was approximately
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
2. In a totally unified theory this is about the
energy below which gravity begins to behave as a
separate interaction. This time therefore marked
the transition from any proposed TOE to the
GUT period.
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
3. GUT period:

The universe consisted of a soup of quarks and leptons

transforming into each other
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
4. T = 1027 K E = 1014 GeV

strong force separated from the

electroweak force.
Cosmic expansion.
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
5.

Universe is a mixture of quarks, leptons,

and the mediating bosons (gluons,
photons, and the weak bosons)
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
6.

the quarks began to bind

together to form nucleons
The Standard Model of the
History of the Universe
6. Nucleosynthesis:

The formation of deuterons starting at

about t = 225 sec marked the
beginning of the period of formation
of nuclei, or nucleosynthesis.
The 2.728-K blackbody radiation has its peak
wavelength
at 1.062 mm. What was the peak wavelength at
t = 700 000 years, when the temperature was
3000 K?

m T = Constant