LECTURE NOTES

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING-II
COURSE CODE-PCCI5304
CREDIT: 3-0-0
Branch- Civil Engineering
Semester:- 6th

Mr. PRAMOD KUMAR BEHERA

( M. Tech. in Transportation Engg., IIT KGP )
Assistant Professor
Civil Engineering Department
CET, Bhubaneswar
Email ID- [email protected]
1
 DISCLAIMER
This document does not claim any originality and cannot be used as a substitute for
prescribed textbooks. The information presented here is merely a collection by the
committee members for their respective teaching assignments. We would like to
acknowledge various sources like reference books, Standard Codes and freely available
materials from internet from which the lecture note was prepared. The ownership of the
information lies with the respective authors or institutions. Further, this document is not
intended to be used for commercial purpose and the committee members are not
accountable for any issues , legal or otherwise, arising out of use of this document. The
committee members make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy
or completeness of the contents of this document and specifically disclaim any implied
warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.

2
 PREAMBLE
• Ability to design the Railway Geometric Elements for
different conditions

• Ability to design the Railway Track using standard codes

• Ability to design the Railway Turnout and signals

• Ability to select feasible airport site, decide runway

orientation,

• Ability to design geometric elements of runway and taxiway,

decide runway length and airport lighting

3
 SYLLABUS
Module-I
History of Indian railways, component parts of railway track, problems of multi gauge
system, coning of wheels, alignments and survey, permanent way track components ,
Type of rail sections ,creep of rails, wear and failure in rails , Ballast requirements,
sleeper requirements, types of sleepers, various train resistances
Module-II
Geometric design: Gradients and grade compensation, various speeds on a railway track,
super-elevation, horizontal and vertical curves,
Points and crossings, Design of simple turn-out, Signaling and interlocking,
Module-III
Airport site selection, Air craft characteristics, various surface of an airport, Wind rose
diagram, Geometric elements of run way and taxiway , holding apron, parking
configuration , terminal building , visual aids, air traffic control, airport marking and
lighting.
Reference Books:
1. A text book of railway engineering , By S.C.Saxena and M.G.Arora
2. Air-port Engineering by S.K.Khanna and M.G.Arora
3. Railway Engineering by Satish Chandra & MM Agrawal, Oxford University Press.
4
 LESSON PLAN
• Lecture-1: Introduction
• Lecture-2: History of Indian Railways
• Lecture-3:alignment & Surveys
• Lecture-4: Permanent Way
• Lecture-5: Gauges In Railway Track, Conning of Wheel
• Lecture-6: Rails
• Lecture-7: Selection of Rail, Wear on Rails
• Lecture-8: Tractive Resistances
• Lecture-9: Rail Joints
• Lecture-10: Welding of Rails, Creep of Rail
• Lecture-11: Sleeper
• Lecture-12: Ballast
• Lecture-13: Stress in the Railway Track
• Lecture-1 4: Track Fittings & Fastenings
• Lecture-15: Introduction to Geometric Design, Gradient
5
 LESSON PLAN
• Lecture-16: Speed of The Train on Curve
• Lecture-17: Superelevation or Cant
• Lecture-18: Cant Deficiency, Negative Superelevation
• Lecture-19: Curves, Widening of Gauge on Curve
• Lecture-20: Transition Curve
• Lecture-21: Introduction to Point and Crossing, Turnout
• Lecture-22:Crossings
• Lecture-23:Signaling and Interlocking
• Lecture-24:Aircraft characteristics and Airport site selection
• Lecture-25:Airport obstruction
• Lecture-26:Wind rose diagram
• Lecture-27:Runway design
• Lecture-28:Taxiway design
• Lecture-29:Visual Aids 6
*Under Revision
 Lecture-1
INTRODUCTION
• Transportation engineering is the application of technology and
scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation and
management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to
provide for the safe, efficient, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people and
goods from one place to other.
• Basic mode of transportation are:
 Land
• Roadway
• railway
 Water
 Air
7
*Under Revision
Airways

• Fastest among all other modes

• More comfortable
• Time saving
• Uneconomical

Waterways
• slowest among all other modes
• It needs minimum energy to haul unit load through unit distance.
• This can be possible between ports on the sea routes or along the
river
• economical
8
*Under Revision
 Railways
• The transportation along the railways track could be advantageous by railways
between the stations both for the passengers and goods, particularly for long
distance.
• It depends upon the road transport i.e. road could serve as a feeder system.
• Energy require to haul a unit load through unit distance by the railway is only ¼
to 1/5 of that required by road.
• Safety
Highways
• It gives the maximum service to one and all
• It gives maximum flexibility for travel with reference to route, direction, time
and speed of travel
• It provide door to door service
• Other modes are depend on it
• It requires small investment for the government
• Motor vehicles are cheaper than other carriers like rail locomotive and wagons
• It saves the time for short distance
• High degree of accident due to flexibility of movement
9
*Under Revision
 Classification according to means of communication
• Road transport

• Animal transport

• Rail transport

• Air transport

• Water transport

• Pipeline transport

• Conveyor transport

• Cable and ropeway transport

• Human porter
10
*Under Revision
Classification based on the freedom to move laterally and vertically
• One degree of freedom: (vehicles are vertically and laterally
restrained), Ex- railway , pipeline , conveyor, cableways.
• Two degree freedom: (restrained only vertically), Ex- highway , ships
and boat.
• Three degree freedom: (to move in any plane), Ex- Aeroplane and
underwater vehicle.
Classification according to energy used for movement:
• Human energy
• Animal energy
• Petrol and diesel energy
• Steam energy
• Electrical energy
• Solar energy
• Atomic energy 11
*Under Revision
 Advantage of Indian railway
Political advantage
• Railway have united the people of different castes, religions customs and
traditions.
• With the adequate network of railways, the central administration has
become more easy and effective.
• During emergency it mobilising troops and war equipment very
significantly.
• Railway have helped in the mass migration of the population.
Social advantage:
• The feeling of the isolation has been removed from the inhabitants of the
Indian village.
• By travelling together into the compartment without any restriction of
caste, the feeling of the cast difference has disappeared considerably.
• Railway has made it easier to reach places of religious importance.
• It provide a convenient and safe mode of transport for the country. 12
*Under Revision
Economic advantage
• Mobility of people has increased, thereby the congested area can be
relieved of congestion.
• During the famines , railway have played vital role in transportation of
raw materials.
• Growth of industry due to transportation of raw materials through
railway.
• It provide employment to millions of people thus solving the
unemployment problem.
• Land value has been increase due to industrial development.
Techno- Economic advantage
• Cost saving in transportation of long haul bulk traffic.
• Energy efficiency (railway consume one-seventh of fuel used by the
road sector).
• Environment friendliness.
• Higher safety
13
*Under Revision
 Lecture-2
HISTORY OF INDIAN RAILWAYS
• Indian Railways is an Indian state owned enterprise, owned and
operated by the Government of India through the Ministry of Railways.
It is one of the world's largest railway networks comprising 115,000 km
(71,000 mi) of track over a route of 65,436 km (40,660 mi) and 7,172
stations In 2014-15.
• The first public railway in the world was opened to traffic on 27
September 1825 between Stockton and Darlington in the UK.
• In 1844, The first proposal for the construction of railways, in India
were submitted to East India Company by Mr. R. M. Stephenson.
• In 16th April 1853, the first railway line between Bombay to Thana(32
km stretch) was opened, it had 14 coaches and was driven by three
engines.
• 1905, railway board was established with one president and two member
under the department of commerce and industry.
14
*Under Revision
 Organization of Indian Railway
Name or Railways Date of Headquarters Divisions
Establishment
Central Railway (CR) 05 November 1951 Mumbai Mumbai CST, Bhusawal, Pune, Solapur and Nagpur

Eastern Railway (ER) 14 April 1952 Kolkata Howrah, Sealdah, Asansol and Malda
East Central (ECR) 01 October 2002 Hajipur Danapur, Dhanbad, Mughalsarai, Samastipur and Sonpur

East Cost (ECoR) 01 April 2003 Bhubaneswar Khurda Road, Sambalpur and Waltair
Northern Railway (NR) 14 April 1952 Delhi Delhi, Ambala, Firozpur, Lucknow, Moradabad and Udhampur

North Central (NCR) 01 April 2003 Allahabaad Allahabad, Agra and Jhansi
North – Eastern Railway (NER) 14 April 1952 Gorakhpur Izzatnagar, Lucknow and Varanasi
Northeast Frontier Railway (NFR) 15 January 1958 Guwahati Alipurduar, Katihar, Rangia, Lumding and Tinsukia

North Western (NWR) 01 October 2002 Jaipur Jaipur, Ajmer, Bikaner and Jodhpur
Southern Railway (SR) 14 April 1951 Chennai Chennai, Tiruchirappalli, Madurai and Salem, Palakkad,
Thiruvananthapuram
South – Central Railway (SCR) 02 October 1966 Secunderabad Vijayawada, Secunderabad,Guntakal, Guntur, Hyderabad,
Parbhani and Nanded
South – Eastern Railway (SER) 1955 Howrah Adra, Chakradharpur, Kharagpur and Ranchi
South East Central (SECR) 01 April 2003 Bilaspur Bilaspur, Raipur and Nagpur
South Western Railway (SWR) 01 April 2003 Hubli Hubli, Bangalore and Mysore

Western Railway (WR) 05 November 1951 Mumbai Mumbai Central, Ratlam, Ahmedabad, Rajkot, Bhavnagar
and Vadodara
West Central (WCR) 01 April 2003 Jabalpur Jabalpur, Bhopal and Kota
15
*Under Revision
 Classification of Indian Railways
Trunk route
• Maximum permissible speed 120 kmph for BG and 80 kmph for MG, rail
section 52 kg/m and 37.2 kg/m for BG and MG respectivelly.

Main line
• Maximum permissible speed 100 kmph for BG and 75 kmph for MG, rail
section 52 kg/m and 37.2 kg/m for BG and MG respectivelly.

Branch line
• Maximum permissible speed less than100 kmph for BG and less than 75
kmph for MG, rail section 52 kg/m and 37.2 kg/m for BG and MG
respectivelly.
16
*Under Revision
 Classification of Indian railway based on speed
criteria
• Group „A‟ line: speed 160 kmph or more, Ex- new Delhi to
Howrah by Rajdhani route.
• Group „B‟ line: maximum sanction speed is 130 kmph, Ex-
Kharagpur to Vijayaward
• Group „C‟ line: all suburban routes of Mumbai, Calcutta and Delhi
• Group „D‟ line: all other routes of the country where maximum
permissible speed is 100 kmph
• Group „E‟ line: all other routes and branch line where the
permissible speed limit is less than 100 kmph.
17
*Under Revision
 Lecture-3
ALIGNMENT & SURVEYS
• In a railway project from beginning till its construction, four

different surveys are required to be conducted.

• Traffic survey & Map study

• Reconnaissance survey

• Preliminary survey

• Detail survey or final location

18
*Under Revision
 Traffic survey & Map study
• The object of traffic survey is to make accurate determination of the
potential of available traffic. this is essential both for existing and new
line. For conducting the traffic survey the fallowing factors should be
considered.
 Census of population, their density and distribution.
 General resources of production like agricultural and industrial
goods.
 General character of lands.
 General information of fairs, business, religious festivals….etc
should be collected which can attract the traffic.
 The nature and volume of export and import, with centre of their
original destination.
 Maps are needed i.e. topographical maps, agricultural map and
Industrial maps
19
*Under Revision
 Reconnaissance survey
• This is a rough and rapid inspection, both visual and instrumental of
various physical characteristics of the area to determine the suitability of
different alignment from the map study. The objectives of this survey are:

 To acquire the knowledge of physical features of the country like the

river, valley, cultivated land, forest, hills, existing roads..etc

 To collect the geological information like nature of soil, surface

formation of the ground and hill slope.

 Information regarding the availability of construction material, labour

and source of water.

 To locate various control point or obligatory points.

20
*Under Revision
 Cont…
 The instruments used for conducting this survey are,
 Prismatic compass
 Abney level
 Barometer
 Thermometer
 Powerful binoculars or a telescope
 Pedometer
 To prepare rough estimates for different proposed alignments to know
most economical, safe and efficient alignment on the basis of
preliminary survey.
21
*Under Revision
 Preliminary survey
• The object of this survey is to determine the details of different
alternative routs as found and drawn in reconnaissance survey and
at the same time economies of different routs are studied. Working
of preliminary survey are,

 First of all a traverse survey in a belt of about 100 to 150 m

width on either side of the centre line.

 A tachometer is used for plotting the main, a chain, prismatic

compass and levelling instrument are used for fixing the
details.
22
*Under Revision
 Cont…
 Finally drawing and details are prepared for each alignment w.r.t fallowing
information:
 Length of the alternative routs.
 Various possible gradients along the alignment.
 Quantity of earthwork
 Maximum height and length of embankment or cutting.
 H.F.L., L.W.L., flow direction and cost of boring.
 Geological information.
 Details of existing structure like bridge, culverts and tunnels.
 Availability of materials, labour, drinking water.
 Climatic condition of the routs traverse.
• Instrument used in this survey are theodolite, tachometer, dumpy level, plane
table, prismatic compass. 23
*Under Revision
 Detailed survey
The object of final location survey is to transfer the final location of alignment from paper to
the ground. The survey work is carried out as,
 The centre line of the alignment is marked on the ground by means of fixing about 15
cm pegs at every 30 m interval and about 60 cm pegs at every 300 m long.
 A number of bench marks are established at chainage less than 800 m for checking of
levels and to provide gradients.
 Levelling is done along the alignment with the help of precise levels at 30 m and cross
section are taken at 90 m interval.
The fallowing data is collected for the detailed survey:
 The longitudinal section of the bed of the stream are taken upto the two extremes of
cross section on upstream and down stream of the water curse.
 The record of floods in the past.
 The current velocities and depth of scour of the river should be measured.
 Sub-soil boring is carried out along the alignment.
 The properties of materials, at bed and bank of the river should be recorded to assess
their erosition characteristics. 24
*Under Revision
 Lecture-4
PERMANENT WAY
• The combination of rails, fitted on sleepers and resting on
ballast and subgrade is called the railway track or permanent
way.

25
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 26
*Under Revision 27
 Requirements of an ideal permanent way
• The gauge should be correct and uniform.
• The rails should be in proper level. In a straight track two rails must be
at the same level. On curves the outer rail should have proper super
elevation .
• The alignment should be correct, i.e., it should be free from
irregularities.
• The gradient should be uniform as gentle as possible. Any change of
gradient should be followed by a smooth vertical curve, to give smooth
riding quality.
• The track should be resilient and elastic in order to absorb shocks and
vibrations of running track.
• The track should have enough lateral strength.
28
*Under Revision
 Cont…
• The radii and super elevation on curves should be properly designed and
maintained.

• Drainage system must be perfect for enhancing safety and durability of track.

• Joints, including points and crossing which are regarded to be weakest point of
the railway track, should be properly designed and maintained.

• There should be adequate provision for easy renewals and replacements.

• The various components of the track, i.e. , the rails, fittings, sleepers, ballast and
formation must fully satisfy the requirements for which they have been
provided.

• The track structure should be strong, low in initial cost as well as maintenance
cost.
29
*Under Revision
 Lecture-5
GAUGES IN RAILWAY TRACK
• It is define as the clear distance between inner or running faces of
two rails.

• In India, the East India Company adopted gauge as standard gauge.

The different gauges are,
Types of gauge Gauge length(m)
Broad gauge/standard gauge(BG) 1.676 (1.435 other
countries)
Metre gauge(MG) 1.0

Narrow gauge(NG) 0.762

Light gauge(LG)/ feeder track gauge 0.610

30
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 31
 Selection of gauge
• Cost of construction

• Volume and nature of traffic: for heavier loads and high speed, the
wider gauge are required.

• Development of the area: NG can be used to develop the thinly

populated areas.

• Physical features of the country: NG is warranted in hilly regions where

BG and MG are not possible due to steep gradient and sharp curve.

• Speed of movement: speed of train is proportional to the gauge, wheel

diameter is 0.75 times the gauge, maintaining the high speed BG is
preferred.
32
*Under Revision
 Problem caused by multi-gauge system
• The need for uniformity of gauge has been recognized by all the
advanced countries of the world. A number of problem have cropped
up in the operation of the Indian Railways because of the multi-
gauge system(use of three gauges).The ill effects are:
• Inconvenience to passanger
• Difficulty in trains-shipment of goods
• Inefficient use of rolling stock
• Hindrance to fast movement of goods and passenger traffic
• Additional facilities at stations and yards
• Difficulty in balanced economic growth
• Difficuties in future gauge conversion projects.
33
*Under Revision
Cross-Section of Railway track

*Under Revision 34
 Conning of wheel
• The distance between the inside edges of wheel flanges is
generally kept less than the gauge of the track. So there is a gap
between the wheel flanges and running edges of the rails, nearly
equal to 1cm.(3/8”) on either side. Normally, the tread of wheels
is absolutely dead centre of the head of the rail, as the wheels
coned to keep in this central position automatically. These wheels
are coned at a slope of 1 in 20.

35
*Under Revision
 Cont…
• The advantages of conning the wheels are:
 To reduce the wear and tear of the wheel flanges and rails, which
in due to rubbing action of flanges with inside faces of the rail
head.
 To prevent possibility of lateral movement of the axle with its
wheels.
 To prevent the wheels from slipping to some extent.
• The disadvantages of coning the wheels t the curve are:
 Pressure on outer rail is more while on inner rail it is less, this
result in wear of outer rail.
 Due to centrifugal force, the horizontal components tend to turn
the rail out and gauge has widening tendency.
• In order to eliminate or minimise the above demerits “tilting of rails”
is done, in tilting of rails, the base plate or sleeper is not horizontal
but at a slope of 1in 20 inwards. This is known as adzing of sleepers.
36
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 37
 Lecture-6
RAILS
• The rails on the track can be considered as steel girders for the
purpose of carrying axle loads. They are made of high carbon
steel to withstand wear and tear.

38
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 39
 Functions Of Rails
• Rails provide a hard, smooth and unchanging surface for passage
of heavy moving loads with a minimum friction between the steel
rails and steel wheels.

• Rails bear the stresses developed due to heavy vertical loads,

lateral and braking forces and thermal stresses.

• The rail material used is such that it gives minimum wear to avoid
replacement charges and failures of rails due to wear.

• Rails transmit the loads to sleepers and consequently reduce

pressure on ballast and formation below.
40
*Under Revision
 Composition Of Rail Steel
• For ordinary rails: high carbon steel with following
composition is used:
Carbon( C )- 0.55 to 0.68 per cent
Manganese ( Mn )- 0.65 to 0.90 per cent
Silicon (Si ) – 0.05 to 0.3 per cent
Sulphur (S) – 0.05 per cent or below
Phosphorus ( P )- 0.06 per cent or below
• For rails on points and crossings: Medium carbon
steel with following composition is used
Carbon ( C ) – 0.5 to 0.6 percent
manganese ( Mn )- 0.95 to 1.25 per cent
Silicon ( Si )- 0.05 to 0.20 per cent
Sulphur (S) – 0.06 per cent or below
Phosphorus (P) – 0.06 per cent or below 41
*Under Revision
 Requirements Of Rails
• They should be of proper composition of steel as given above.

• The vertical stiffness should be high enough to transmit the load to

several sleepers underneath.

• Rails should be capable of withstanding lateral forces. Large width of

head and foot endows the rails with high lateral stiffness.

• The head must be sufficiently deep to allow for an adequate margin of

vertical wear. the wearing surface should be hard.

• Web of rails should be sufficiently thick to bear the load coming on it

and should provide adequate flexural rigidity in horizontal plane.

• Foot should be wide enough so that rails are stable against overturning
especially on curves. 42
*Under Revision
 Cont…
• Bottom of the head and top of the foot of rails should be so shaped as to
enable the fish plates to transmit the vertical load efficiently from the
head to the foot at rail joints.

• Relative distribution of material of rail in head, web and foot must be

balanced, for smooth transmission of loads.

• The centre of gravity of the rail section must lie approximately at mid-
height so that maximum tensile and compressive stresses are equal.

• The fillet radii must be large to reduce the concentration of stresses.

• The tensile strength of the rail piece should not be less than 72 kg/m²

• The rails specimen should withstand the blow of “falling weight test or
tup test” as specified by Indian railway standards without fracture. 43
*Under Revision
 Types Of Rail Sections
• Double headed rails ( D.H Rails )

• Bull headed rails (B.H. Rails )

• Flat footed rails (F.F Rails )

Double headed rails ( D.H Rails ):

• The shape of the rail was double headed. When the head was worn
out in coarse of time, the rail can be inverted and reused. But
experience showed that smooth running over that surface at the
top was impossible.
44
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 45
*Under Revision 46
*Under Revision 47
*Under Revision 48
Bull headed rails (B.H. Rails)
• The head was made a little thicker and stronger than the lower part.

• Merits:

 They keep better alignment and give more solid and smoother track.

 The rails are easily disconnected from the sleepers.

 The heavy chairs with larger bearing on sleepers give longer life to
wooden sleepers and greater stability to the track.

• Demerits:

 They require additional cost of iron chairs.

 Less strength and stiffness.

 Require heavy maintenance cost.

49
*Under Revision
Flat footed rails (F.F Rails)
• It is also called Vignole‟s rails after the name of the inventor, were
developed. in India FF rails are most commonly used.

• Merits:

 More strength and stiffness, both vertically and laterally.

 No chairs and keys are required.

 In point and crossing, the arrangement are simpler than B. H. rail.

• Demerits:

 The fitting get loosened more frequently than in case of B. H. rail.

 The strengthening of bent rails, replacing of rails and dehogging of

battered rails are difficult.
50
*Under Revision
 Comparison of Rail Types
Flat- Footed Rail Bull- Headed & Double Headed Rails
1. These have more strength and stiffness for 1. These are less strength and stiffness for the
the same cross sectional area and weight. same cross sectional area and weight.
2. Bearing plates for fixing these rails on 2. Bearing plates for fixing these rails on wooden
sleepers are not required.
wooden sleepers are required.
3. Fastening of rails to sleepers is more costly on
3. Fastening of rails to sleepers is less costly on wooden sleepers.
wooden sleepers. 4. Arrangement and maintenance of points and
4. Arrangement and maintenance of points and crossing is complicated and costlier.
crossing is simple and cheaper. 5. The rolling wheels do not affect the rail fittings
5. The rolling wheels affect the rail fittings and quickly. These maintain good alignment.
thus disturb the alignment. 6. Daily inspection of these rails for the wooden
keys, is required.
6. Daily inspection of the track with these rails,
7. Initial cost of these rails is high.
is not required.
8. Replacement procedure for these rails is
7. Initial cost of these rails is low. complicated.
8. Replacement procedure for these rails is 9. These rails provide less rigidity to the vertical
easy. load.
9. These rails provide more rigidity to the 10. The maintenance cost is more.
vertical load. 11. These are more suitable where lateral loads are
10. The maintenance cost is less. more important than vertical load.

11. These are more suitable due to stability, 51

economy and strength. *Under Revision
 Lecture-7
SELECTION OF RAIL
• The various factor to be considered in deciding the weight of rail to
be used are,

 Speed of the train

 Gauge of the track

 Axle load and nature of traffic

 Type of rail

 Spacing of the sleeper

• Weight of the rail in tones / locomotive axle load in tones = (1/510)

52

*Under Revision
 Details of standard rail section
• 52 MR (i.e. 52 kg/m) rails are suitable for used upto a speed of 130
kmph and traffic density of 20-25 GMT(gross metric tone).

• 60 MR (i.e. 60 kg/m) rails are suitable for used upto a speed of 160
kmph and traffic density of about 30 GMT(gross metric tone).

• For MG: 45, 37,30 MR rail section are used.

• For NG, 25MR rail section is used.

• In Indian Railways the standard lengths are,

 For BG = 12.8 m (42ft) say 13m

 For MG & NG = 11.89 m (39ft) say 12m

 In U.S.A. and U.K., length of 30 m is commonly used.

53
*Under Revision
Corrugated or roaring of rail
• In certain places, the head of rails are found to be corrugated rather than
smooth and straight, when the vehicles pass over such rails, a roaring
sound is created which is intense enough to be unpleasant.
Hogged rails:
• Due to the battering action of wheels over the end of the rails, the rails
get bent down and get deflected at the ends. These rails are called
hogged rails.
• Remedial measures:
 Cropping
 Replacing
 Welding
 Dehogging (Jim Crow or dehogging machine)
54
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 55
 Buckling of rails:
• The track has gone out of its original position or alignment due to
prevention of expansion of rails in hot weather on account of
temperature variation. The causes are,
 Expansion gap is not sufficient
 The fish plate being bolted so tight that the rail are not allowed
to slip or expand.
 Due to presence of longer rail.
Kinks of rail:
• When the end of the adjoining rails moves slightly out of position.
This is caused by loose packing at the joints, defect in gauge and
uneven wear of rail head. 56
*Under Revision
 Wear on rails
• When the axle load are abnormally heavy and the train moves with very
fast speed then the concentrated stress exceed the elastic limit
resulting in metal flow.
• Classification of wear:
 On the basis of location:
 On sharp curve
 On gradient
 On approaches to station
 In costal area, corrosion of metal
 On weak foundation
• On the basis of position:
 Wear on the top or head of rail.
 Wear at the end of the rail.
 Wear on the sides of the head.
Allowable limit of wear is 5% of wait of rail
57
*Under Revision
 Method to reduce the wear
• When the wear exceeds the prescribed limit i.e. 5%, the rail must be
replaced.
• Regular tightening of fish bolts and packing of ballast.
• Reduction in number of joints by welding.
• Welding and dehogging of battered ends in time.
• Maintenance of track, with special attention to the joints, will reduces
the wear.
• Maintenance of correct gauge.
• Correct adzing of sleeper or use of bearing plate.
• Lubricating the gauge face of outer rail on curve.
• Interchanging of inner and outer rail and changing faces at the curve.
• At the curve the check rails parallel to the inner rails can be introduce to
control wear.
• Application of heavy mineral oil to prevent the corrosion of rail.
58
*Under Revision
 Lecture-8
TRACTIVE RESISTANCES
• The train consist of two units the locomotive(or engine) which provides
power for propulsion and the trailing unit which consist of passenger
compartments or goods wagons.
• The number of forces which resist the movement and speed of the train
is known as tractive resistance.
• Classification of tractive resistance:
 Train resistance(RT1)
 Resistance due to track profile(RT2)
 Resistance due to starting and acceleration(RTSA)
 Wind resistance(RTW)
59
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 60
 Train resistance(RT1)
Resistance independent of speed(Rt1):

 Resistance to the motion of train, running at a constant speed.

 Friction of locomotive, wagons and compartment itself. Types

of bearing and lubricant used.

 Wave action of rail

Rt1  0.0016w
• Where „w‟ weight in tones.

61
*Under Revision
Resistance dependent on speed(Rt2):
• Track irregularities

• Due to vertical movement of wheel on rails.

• Due to flange friction.

Rt 2  0.00008 wv

Atmospheric resistance(Rt3):

Rt 3  0.0000006 wv 2

• Where „v‟ is the speed in kmph

62
*Under Revision
 Resistance due to track profile(RT2)
• Resistance due to gradients(Rg):

Rg  wg
• Resistance due to curve(Rc):
• For BG:
Rc  0.0004 w  D
• For MG:
Rc  0.0003w  D
• For NG:
Rc  0.0002 w  D
Where ‘g’ is the gradient*Under
in Revision
% and ‘D’ is degree of curve
63
Resistance due to starting & Acceleration (RSA)
Resistance due to starting(Rs):
Rs  0.15w1 0.005w2
W1 is the weight of locomotives in tonnes
W2 is the weight of vehicle in tonnes
Resistance due to Acceleration(Ra):
(v2  v1 )
Ra  0.028 w
t
V1= speed in kmph at the beginning of acceleration.
V2= speed in kmph at the end of acceleration.
a= acceleration
t= time taken in seconds during acceleration for achieving the
speed v2 to v1.
w= total weight of train in tonnes.
64
*Under Revision
 Wind resistance(Rw)
Rw  0.000017 av 2

• Where, a= exposed area of the train in sq metres.

• V= speed of wind in kmph.

• Total resistance:

RT  RT 1  RT 2  RSA  RW
65
*Under Revision
 Hauling Capacity
• Hauling capacity of a locomotive is define as the product
of the coefficient of friction and weight on driving wheel.
• Hauling capacity = µ x w x n
• Where,
µ= coefficient of friction
W= weight on driving axle
N= no. of pair of driving wheels
Condition of rail surface Coefficient of friction

Very wet or very dry 0.25

greasy 0.03
Average dampness 0.165

In tunnel and frosty weather 0.125

66
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 67
 Cont…
• Hauling capacity of a locomotive is usually 1/6 to 1/8
times the load on driving wheels.
• In straight track:
Hauling capacity = train resistance
• In curved track:

Hauling capacity = train resistance + curve resistance

68
*Under Revision
 Lecture-9
RAIL JOINTS
• The rail joint are necessary to hold together the adjoining end
of the rails in the correct position, both in horizontal and
vertical planes.

• Rail joints form the weakest part of the track.

• It is observed that strength of the rail joint is only 50 percent of

the strength of the rail.

69
*Under Revision
 Requirements of an ideal joint
• The two rail ends should remain true in line both laterally and
vertically to avoid wheel jumping.

• The rail joint should be as strong and stiff.

• The rail joint should provide enough space for free expansion
contraction.

• A good joint should easily disconnected so that it can be easily

taken out without disturbing the whole track.

• The ends of the rail should not battered in any case.

• The joint should full fill the above requirements with minimum of
initial and maintenance cost. 70
*Under Revision
 Types of rail joints
Supported rail joint:
• When the rail ends rest on a single sleeper called supported joint.
Suspended rail joint:
• When the rail ends are projected beyond the sleepers called
suspended joint.
Bridge joint:
• When the suspended rail joint are connected by a flat or corrugated
plate called a „bridge plate‟, it is termed as bridge joint.
Base joint:
• It is similar to bridge joint, with the difference that the inner fish
plate are of bar type and outer fish plate are of special angle type.
Welded joint:
• These are the best joint as they full fill nearly all the requirements
of an ideal joint. 71
*Under Revision
 Cont….
Staggered or broken joint:
• These joints are generally provided on curves, where the length of outer curved
track is greater than the length of inner curved track. in this type of joint, the
joints of one rail track are not directly opposite to the joint of the other rail track.
Square or even joint:
• This is generally used in straight track, in this type the joint of one rail track are
directly opposite to the joints of other rail track.
Compromise joint:
• When two different rail sections are required to be joined together, it is done by
means of fishplates. This is termed as compromise joint.
Insulated joint:
• When insulating medium is inserted in a rail joint to stop the flow of current
beyond the track circuited part.
Expansion joint:
• In bridge provision for expansion and contraction is kept for girder and rails. This
gap is 2.2 cm in case of “mitred” joint and 7.2 cm for “halved” joint
72
*Under Revision
Insulated joint Suspended joint

Supported
joint

Welded joint

*Under Revision 73
Staggered joint

*Under Revision 74
 Lecture-10
WELDING OF RAILS
Purpose of welding:

• To increase the length of rail and to reduce the number of joints.

• To repair the worn out or damaged rails.

• To build up worn out points.

• To built up the burnt portion of rail head which is caused due to

slippage of wheels over the rails.

75
*Under Revision
 Advantage of welding rails
• It satisfies the condition of a perfect joint and hence increase the
life of the rail, also reduce the maintenance cost by 20-40%.

• It reduce the creep due to increase in the length of rail.

• Long length rail being heavier, which resist the vibration due to
moving loads.

• It decrease the wear in rail at joints.

• It facilitates track circuiting on electrified track.

• The cost of track construction by welding of rails decreases due to

less number of rail joint.
76
*Under Revision
 Type of welded rails
• Short welded rail (SWR):
 These rails are welded into 3, 5 and 10 rails.
 For BG = 3 X 13 m
 For MG = 3 X 12 m
• Long welded rail (LWR):
 Minimum length more than 200 m for BG
 Minimum length more than 300 m for MG
• Continuous welded rails (CWR):
 The length of the welded rails is more than 1 km.
Method of welding of rails
• Electric Arc welding or Metal Arc welding (used for building of worn out point
and crossings, damaged rails and other small welding operations)
• Oxy-acetylene welding or gas pressure welding(repairing work and cutting of
steel on site)
• Flash butt welding(welding of rail in workshop)
• Chemical or thermal welding(renewal of rails)
77
*Under Revision
 Creep Of Rail
• It is defined as the longitudinal movement of rail with respect to the
sleepers in a track.

Indications of creep:
• Closing of successive expansion spaces at rail joints in the direction of
creep and opening out of joints at the point where the creep is starts.

• Marks on flanges and web on the rail made by spike heads, by scratching
as the rail slide.

Theories of creep:
• Wave theory

• Percussion theory
78
*Under Revision
 Wave theory
• The wheels push the wave with a tendency to force the rail in the direction of
traffic
• The wave action can be reduced by
 Use of angular heavy ballast
 Lesser sleeper spacing
 Bigger section of rail
Percussion theory:
• it states that the creep is due to impact of wheels at the rail end ahead at joints.
The creep by this theory increases due to,
• Weak and loose fish bolts
• Loose packing of joints
• Wide expansion gap
• Heavy axle load moving at high speed
79
*Under Revision
 Effect of creep
• Sleeper moves out of position, this affect the gauge and alignment of track.
• Rail joints are opened out of their limit and also battered at the ends due to excessive gap
at the joint.
• The point and crossing get disturbed and affect the gauge and alignment.
Measurement of creep:
• Creep indicator
• As per Indian Railway creep should be measured at an interval of 3-months.
• Creep should not be more than 150 mm.
Remedies or prevention of creep
• Pulling back the rails
• Provision of anchors or anticreepers:
 Creep anchore should be strong enough to resist the movement of rails due
to creep
 The anchore should be uniformly distrubuted over the entire rail length
• Use of steel sleeper
80
*Under Revision
 81
*Under Revision
ANCHORS

82
*Under Revision
 Lecture-11
SLEEPER
• Sleeper are members generally laid transverse to the rails on
which the rails are supported and fixed, to transfer the loads
from rails to the ballast and subgrade below.

*Under Revision 83
 Functions of sleepers
• To hold the rails to correct gauge .

• To hold the rails in proper level or transverse tilt i.e., level in turnouts,
cross-overs, etc., and at 1 in 20 tilt in straight tracks, so as to provide a
firm and even support to rails.

• To act an elastic medium in between the ballast and rails to absorb the
blows and vibrations of moving loads.

• To distribute the load from the rails to the area of ballast underlying it or
to the girders in case of bridges.

• To support the rails at a proper level in straight tracks and at proper

superelevation on curves.

• It provide both longitudinal and lateral stability of the permanent track.

84
*Under Revision
 Requirements of sleepers
• The sleepers to be used should be economical, i.e., they should have minimum
possible initial and maintenance costs.
• The fittings of the sleepers should be such that they can be easily adjusted during
maintenance operations such as easy lifting, packing, removal and replacement.
• The weight of sleepers should not be too heavy or excessively light, i.e, they should
have moderate weight, for ease handling.
• The design of sleepers should be such that the gauge, alignment of the track and
levels of the rails can be easily adjusted and maintained.
• The bearing area of sleepers below the rail seat and over the ballast should be enough
to resist the crushing due to rail seat and crushing of the ballast underneath the
sleeper.
• The sleeper design and spacing should be such as to facilitate easy removal and
replacement of ballast.
• The sleepers should be capable of resisting shocks and vibrations due to passage of
heavy loads of high-speed trains.
• The design of the sleepers should be such that they are not damaged during packing
processes.
• The design of sleepers should be such that they are not pushed out easily due to
moving trains especially with steel sleepers with rounded ends. 85
*Under Revision
Classification of sleepers
• Wooden sleepers.
• Metal sleepers
i) cast iron sleepers
ii) steel sleepers
• Concrete sleepers
a) Reinforced concrete sleepers
b) Prestressed concrete sleepers
Sleeper density:
• it is defined as the number of sleepers per rail length, it is specified as “M +
x”. Where „M‟ is the length of rail in „m‟ and „x‟ is the number depend upon
the following factors,
 Axle load
 Type and section of rail
 Type of ballast
 Strength of sleeper
86
 Nature of foundation *Under Revision
 Sleeper density (Cont…)
• The spacing of the sleeper depend on axle load and lateral thrust.

• More no. of sleeper more is the lateral stability.

• Minimum space between the sleeper is required for packing of

ballast. i.e. 30.5 to 35.5 cm.

• In India sleeper density varies from M+4 to M+7 and in America

M+9 to M+11.

• The spacing of sleeper is not uniform, near the joint 30 to 45 cm

and for the intermediate sleepers 75 to 90 cm is kept.

• If joints on curve are staggered, one additional sleeper is provided

for each joint, to make each joint a suspended joint. 87
*Under Revision
 Lecture-12
BALLAST
• Ballast is the granular material usually broken stone packed below
and around the sleeper to transmit the load from sleeper to the
formation and at the same time allowing drainage of the track.

• It holds the sleepers in their correct level and position, preventing

their displacement by lateral and longitudinal thrust.

*Under Revision 88
*Under Revision 89
 Functions of ballast
• It transfers the load from the sleeper to the subgrade and then
distributes it uniformly over a larger area of the formation.
• It holds the sleepers in position and prevents the lateral and
longitudinal movement, due to dynamic loads and vibrations of
moving trains.
• It imparts some degree of elasticity to the track.
• It provides easy means of maintaining the correct levels of the two
levels of the track (i.e., level in straight portions and correct super-
elevation on curves) and for correcting track alignment.
• It provides good drained foundation immediately below the sleepers
and helps to protect the top surface of the formation. This is
achieved by providing coarse and rough aggregates with plenty of
90
voids. *Under Revision
 Requirements of the good ballast
• It should be able to withstand hard-packing

• it should resist crushing under dynamic loads.

• It should not make the track dusty or muddy due to powder under
dynamic wheel loads .

• It should allow for easy drainage with minimum soakage and the voids
should be large enough to prevent capillary action.

• It should offer resistance to abrasion and weathering. Abrasion means

wear due to rubbing action of particles with each other and weathering
means cracking of the material due to variation in temperature, moisture
and freezing. Non-porous particles of ballast are usually more durable due
to better resistance against abrasion and weathering.
91
*Under Revision
 Cont…
• It should retain its position laterally and longitudinally under all
conditions of traffic, particularly on curves, where it should be able to
prevent transverse displacement of sleepers.

• It should not produce any chemical action with rail and metal sleepers.

• The size of stone ballast should be 5 cm for wooden sleepers, 4 cm for

metal sleepers and 2.5 cm for turnouts and crossings.

• The materials should be easily workable by means of the implements in

use.

• The ballast should be available in nearby quarries so that it reduces the

cost of supply.
92
*Under Revision
 Size and section of ballast
• The size of the ballast varies from 1.9 to 5.1 cm
• Size of ballast for wooden sleeper = 5.1 cm
• Size of ballast for steel sleeper = 3.8 cm
• Size of the ballast for switches and crossing = 2.54 cm.
• Spacing of sleeper = width of sleeper+2x depth of ballast.

Dimensions BG MG NG

Width of ballast 3.35 m 2.25 m 1.83 m

Depth of ballast 20 to 25 cm 15 to 20 cm 15 cm

Quantity of stone 1.036 m³ 0.71 m³ 0.53 m³

ballast/ meter length
93
*Under Revision
 Lecture-13
STRESS IN THE RAILWAY TRACK
• The effect of various stress is calculated by considering the track as
an elastic member as a whole. The overall elastic property of the
track is represent by track modulus.

Track modulus:
• It is defined as the load per unit length of the rail required to
produce a unit depression in the track.
• It depends upon gauge, type of rail, sleeper density, type and
section of ballast and subgrade.
• It is used in the various equation for finding track stress.
94
*Under Revision
Track stress
Stress in the railway track are produced due to the following,
• The wheel load
• The dynamic effect of wheel load
• The hammer blow
• The horizontal thrust
• Pressure exerted by flanges of wheels on sides of the rail.
• Stress due to the irregularities in the track.
Stress in Sleeper:
• End bound sleeper & centre bound sleeper
• Follow the fig 4.3 and fig 4.4 of Saxena & Arora Book of Railway
Engg.
Stress in Ballast:
• Follow the fig 4.3 and fig 4.4 of Saxena & Arora Book of Railway
Engg. 95
*Under Revision
 Stress in Rail
• The rails are continuous beam carried on the sleepers which provide elastic
support. The rail distributes the wheel load to a number of sleepers.
• Bending moment due to single wheel load, follow the fig. 4.1 of Saxena & Arora
Book of Railway Engg.

EI I
M max  x  42.34 4
4
4.5 
9.25W
d 
M max  0.318Wx 4
I 3
• Where, x= Distance from the load to the point of contraflecture in cm.
• d = Deflection of track in cm.
• W= Isolated wheel load in tonnes.
• µ= Modulus of subgrade reaction.
• I= Moment of inertia in cm⁴. 96
*Under Revision
 Lecture-14
TRACK FITTINGS & FASTENINGS
• Track fittings and rail fastenings are used to keep the rails in
the proper position and to set the points and crossings
properly. Important fittings commonly used in permanent way
are,
• Fish plate:
• Spikes:
Dog spikes
Screw spikes
Round spikes
Standard spikes
Elastic spikes
• Plates:
Bearing plate
Saddle plate 97
*Under Revision
 Cont…
• Keys: • Blocks:
 Wooden keys for C.I. chairs  Heel blocks

 M.S. keys  Distance block

 Stuart keys  Check blocks

 Margan keys • Bolts:

 Cotter and tie bar  Dog or hook bolt
 Fish bolt
• Chairs:
 Rag bolt
 Cast steel chairs
 Fang nut bolt
 Mild steel and cast iron slide
98
chairs
*Under Revision
 99
*Under Revision
SPIKES

*Under Revision 100

CHAIRS

*Under Revision 101

 BEARING PLATE
PANDROL E-CLIP

*Under Revision 102

*Under Revision 103
 Lecture-15
GEOMETRIC DESIGN
• The main objective of geometric design is to provide optimum
efficiency in traffic operation with maximum safety at reasonable cost.
Necessity of geometric design:
• Most of the train derailments are due to the following reasons,
Track defects
Vehicular defects
Operational defects
• The Civil Engineer is mainly concerned with track defect.
Track defect on straight track:
 Defective cross-levels
 Defective alignment
 Defective gauge
 Low joint
104

*Under Revision
Track defect on Curve track:
 Improper super elevation
 Improper radius of the curve
 Improper speed
 Unequal distribution of loads on two rails
• If all the above elements are properly designed, the possibility
of derailments due to defect in track can be avoided.
Elements of railway track:
• Gradient and grade compensation
• Speed of train
• Radius and degree of curve
• Cant of superelevation
• Curves
• Widening of gauge on curves
105
*Under Revision
 Gradient and grade compensation
Gradient:

• Any departure of a track from the level is known as gradient.

• It is measured either:

• The extent of rise/fall in 100 unit horizontal distance (1 in 100)

• Horizontal distance travelled for a rise/fall in 1 unit (1 in X).

Types of gradient:

• Rising gradient: when the track rises in the direction of movement.

• Falling gradient: when the track falls in the direction of

movements.
106
*Under Revision
Objective of providing gradient
• To provide a uniform rate of rise or fall as far as possible.

• To reach the various stations located at different elevations.

• To reduce the cost of earthwork.

• Types of gradient:

• Ruling gradient

• Momentum gradient

• Pusher gradient

• Gradient at station yards.

107
*Under Revision
Ruling Gradient
• It is defined as the gradient which determines the maximum load that the engine
can haul on the section. it is the maximum gradient allowed on the section.
• Rising gradient must be fallowed by falling gradient.
• A train is able to climb a rising gradient more easily if this rising gradient follows
a falling gradient as the train has an opportunity of attaining high speed over the
falling gradient before reaching the rising gradient.
• Extra pull required = W x gradient
• In plane terrain - 1 in 150 to 1 in 200
• In hilly region – 1 in 100 to 1 in 150
Momentum gradient:
• The gradient which is more severe than the ruling gradient, do not determine the
maximum load of train but on account of their favourable position on track, the
train before approaching them acquires sufficient momentum to negotiate them
for a certain length of track is known as Momentum gradient.
• A necessary qualification for this gradient is that the train should not be stopped
in the territory where it acquires the sufficient momentum to negotiate. Due to
this no signals should be provided on that location. 108
*Under Revision
Pusher or Helper Gradient
• In case of mountainous terrain, instead of limiting the train load, it may be
operationally easy or even be economical to run the train on the basis of load
that the engine can carry on the remaining portion of track and arrange for an
assistant engine (pusher engine) for the portion where the gradient is severe.
Such gradient are known as pusher or helper gradient.
• Ex- On Western Ghats with B.G. track, pusher gradient of 1 in 37 and on
Darjeeling Railway with N.G. track, a gradient of 1 in 25 is provided.
Gradient in Station Yards
• The Gradient at station yards have to be sufficiently low due to the following
reasons;
 To prevent the movement of standing vehicles on the track.
 To prevent additional resistance due to grade on the starting vehicles.
 A certain minimum gradient is required to be provided for drainage.
 On Indian Railway, for all a gauges, the maximum gradient permitted in
station yards is 1 in 400 and a minimum gradient of 1 in 1000 is
recommended from drainage.
109
*Under Revision
 Grade compensation
• The ruling gradient is the maximum gradient on a particular section,
but if a curve lies on a ruling gradient, the resistance of the track is
increased due to both gradient and curvature beyond the ruling
gradient. In order to avoid resistances beyond the allowable limits,
the gradient are reduced on curves and this reduction in gradients is
known as grade compensation for curves.
• In India, Compensation for curvature are,
 For B.G. = 0.04% per degree of curve or 70/R
 For M.G. = 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R
 For N.G. = 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R
110
*Under Revision
 Lecture-16
SPEED OF THE TRAIN ON CURVE
Case-1:(For transition curves)
• For B.G. and M.G.
V  4.35 R  67 OR V  4.4 R  70
• For N.G.
V  3.6 R  6.1 OR V  3.65 R  6
Case-2:(For non-transitioned curve)
• For B.G. and M.G.
• V = 4/5Th of speed calculated in case-1
• For N.G.
• V = 4/5Th of speed calculated in case-1 111
*Under Revision
 Case-3(empirical formula given by Martin’s)
• On B.G. track:
V  0.27Ca  Cd  R
• On M.G. track:
V  0.347Ca  Cd  R
• On N.G. track:
Subjected to 50 kmph
V  3.65 R  6
• For high speed train
• Where, V  4.58 R
 V= Maximum speed in kmph
 Ca= Actual cant in mm
 Cd= Cant deficiency permitted in mm
 R= Radius in metre
112
*Under Revision
 Radius or Degree of Curve
• The degree of the curve is defined as the angle subtended at
the centre by a chord of 100 feet or 30 metres length.

1720
D  V=versini
R

V 12.65C 2
R

• Max. degree of curvature for B.G.= 10ᵒ (min. R=175 m)

• Max. degree of curvature for M.G.= 16ᵒ (min. R=109 m)
• Max. degree of curvature for N.G.= 10ᵒ (min. R=44 m)
113
*Under Revision
 Lecture-17
SUPERELEVATION OR CANT
• To counteract the effect of centrifugal force, the level of the outer
rail is raised above the inner rail by a certain amount to introduce
the centrifugal force. This raised elevation of outer rail above the
inner rail at a horizontal curve is called superelevation (e) or cant.

*Under Revision 114

 Objects of providing superelevation
• To introduce the centripetal force for counteracting the effect of
centrifugal force, this will result in the faster movement of trains on
the curve.

• To provide equal distribution of wheel loads on two rails so that

there is no tendency of track to move out of position due to more
load on outer rail.

• To provide an even and smooth running track to ensure comfortable

ride to passengers and safe movement of goods.

115
*Under Revision
 Relationship of superelevation (e), with
Gauge(G), Speed(v) and Radius of curve(R)

e GV 2
127 R in m. or
e GV 2
1.27 R in cm.
• For B.G. (G= 1.676m)
V2
e  1.315
R In cm
• For M.G.(G= 1.0m)
V2
e  0.80
R in cm Where,
G= Gauge of the track in metres
• For N.G.(G= 0.762m)
V= Speed of the vehicle in kmph
V 2 In cm R = Radius of curve in metre
e  0.60
R 116
*Under Revision
Equilibrium cant
• When the lateral force and wheel loads are almost equal, the cant is
said to be in equilibrium. This equilibrium cant is provided on the
basis of average speed of the train.
• In Indian Railways provide superelevation for equilibrium speed or
average speed, as follows.
• Case-1(maximum sanction speed of the section is more than
50 kmph or Vmax > 50 kmph):
Average speed= ¾ x Vmax
• Case-2(Vmax = 50 kmph):
Average speed = Vmax
• Case-3(Weighted average): n

n v i j

Weighted average=
i , j 1
V  n

n
i 1
i 117
*Under Revision
 Maximum Superelevation
• The maximum superelevation have been prescribed in Indian
Railways varying from 1/10th to 1/12th of Gauge.

Gauge Maximum S.E. when V ≤ 100 Maximum S.E. for high speed
kmph i.e. V ≥ 120 kmph

Under ordinary Under special 120 kmph 160 kmph 200 kmph
condition (in cm) permission of Chief (in cm) (in cm) (in cm)
Engineer (in cm)
B.G. 14.0 16.5 16.5 18.5 18.5

M.G. 9.0 10.0

N.G. 6.5 7.6

118
*Under Revision
 Lecture-18
CANT DEFICIENCY
• It is the difference between the equilibrium cant necessary for the
maximum permissible speed on a curve and the actual cant provided on
the basis of average speed of train.

• Higher cant deficiency gives rise to higher discomfort to passengers.

• Maximum value of cant deficiency prescribed for Indian Railway is as

fallows:

Gauge Cant deficiency for speeds Cant deficiency of speeds

upto 100 kmph (in cm) higher than 100 kmph (in cm)
B.G. 7.6 10

M.G. 5.1 _

N.G. 3.8 _ 119

*Under Revision
 Maximum permissible speed on curve
• It is taken as minimum value of the speed calculated by the
following:
 Maximum sanction speed of the section(authorized by additional
commissioner of Railway).
 Safe speed over the curve(by Martin‟s formula).
 Speed based on the consideration of S.E.
 Speed from length of transition curve:
For normal speed upto 100 kmph
134  L 134  L
Vmax  Vmax 
e D
For high speeds above 100 kmph
Where,
198  L 198  L L= length of transition curve
Vm ax  Vmax  e= superelevation in mm
e D D= cant deficiency in mm
120
*Under Revision
 Negative superelevation
AC which is the outer rail of the
main line curve must be higher
Than inner rail BD or point A > B C
F
Similarly for branch line BF should
Be greater than AE or point B > A
D
E

These two contradictory conditions can’t

Be met at the same time within one layout.
So instead of outer rail BF on branch line
Being higher. It is kept lower than the inner
Rail AE. In this cases, the branch line curve
Has a negative superelevation and A B
Therefore speeds on both tracks must
Be Restricted particularly on branch line
121
*Under Revision
 Steps for calculating negative superelevation
1. The equilibrium superelevation or cant on branch line is calculated by
in cm, after assuming a speed on branch line. e GV 2
1.27 R

2. The permissible cant deficiency is deducted from the equilibrium cant as

obtained in step-1.

3. The difference obtained(equilibrium cant-permissible cant deficiency)

will give the negative superelevation to be used on the branch line.

4. This negative superelevation is equal to the maximum superelevation

permitted on the main curved track.

5. The restricted speed on curved track is obtained by adding permissible

deficiency in maximum cant on the main track and applying the
formula. 122
*Under Revision
Example-1:
• If a 7ᵒ curve track diverges from a main curve of 5ᵒ in an opposite
direction in the layout of B.G. Yard, calculate the superelevation and
the speed on the branch line, if the maximum speed permitted on the
main line is 50 kmph.
Example-2:
• A 5ᵒ curve diverges from a 3ᵒ main curve in reverse direction in the
layout of B.G. yard. If the speed on branch line is restricted to 45
kmph, determine the restricted speed on the main line.
Example-3:
• On a B.G. 4ᵒ curve, the equilibrium cant is provided for a speed of
65 kmph.
Calculate the value of equilibrium cant.
Calculate the value of theoretical cant.
Calculate the maximum permissible speed.
123
*Under Revision
Example-4
• What would be the equilibrium cant on a M.G. curve track of
6ᵒ for an average speed of trains 45 kmph, also calculate the
maximum permissible speed after allowing the maximum the
maximum cant deficiency.
Example-5
• what would be the permissible speed on the curve, if on a 8ᵒ M.G.
track, the average speed of different trains is 55 kmph and
allowable cant deficiency is half that of maximum cant deficiency.

Example-6
• Calculate the maximum permissible speed on a curve of
high speed B.G. track having the following particulars.
 Degree of curve= 1ᵒ
 Amount of superelevation= 8.5 cm
 Length of transition curve= 140 m
 Maximum sanctioned speed= 160 kmph
124
*Under Revision
 Lecture-19
CURVES
Necessity:
• To bypass the natural or artificial obstacles.
• To provide easier gradients by diversions from the straight
route.
• To balance the earth work in excavation and cutting.
Effect of curvature:
• Lateral bending of rails due to the rigid wheel base of
vehicles.
• Extra vertical load on the inner or outer rail depending on
the amount of superelevation and speed of the vehicle.
Due to above effects and objections to curvature use, it is
desirable to avoid the use of curve at bridge, tunnel, level-
crossings, steep gradients, deep cuttings, steep gradient and
station yards. 125
*Under Revision
 Widening of Gauge on Curve
• Due to the rigidity of the wheel base, when the outer wheel of the
front axle strikes against the outer rail, the outer wheel of the inner
axle bears a gap with the outer rail. Provision should be made for
this gap, otherwise there is every possibility of tilting rails
outwards.
13B  L 
2
d
R
• Where,
 B= Rigid wheel base in metres.
 For B.G. Track, B=6 m
 For M.G. Track, B=4.88 m
 R= Radius of the curve in m.
 L= Lap of flange in m.= L  0.02 h2  D.h
 h= Depth of wheel flange below rail top level in cm
 D= Diameter of wheel in cm.
126
*Under Revision
 Lecture-20
TRANSITION CURVE
• It is defined as a curve of non-uniform radius which is introduce
between a straight and a circular curve for gradual introduction of
centrifugal force. Its radius raises from infinity to a selected
minimum in order to attain full superelevation and curvature
gradually.
Objects of providing transition curve:
• To decrease the radius of curve gradually from infinity at the
straight to that of circular curve of selected radius.
• To attain gradual rise for the desired superelevation.
• The gradual increase or decrease of the centrifugal force on the
vehicle.
• No sudden application of releasing of the force is encountered. 127
*Under Revision
 Types of Transition Curve
• Spiral curve: it is an ideal curve and satisfies all the requirement of
transition curve. Radius of the curve is inversely proportional to the
length of the curve.

• Cubic parabola: rate of decrease of radius of curvature is low from 4ᵒ to 9ᵒ

but beyond 9ᵒ there is rapid increase in the radius of curvature.

• Bernoulli‟s Lemniscate: the radius decreases as the length increases so the

radial accleration goes on falling but the fall is not uniform beyond 30ᵒ
angle deflection.

• In Indian Railways, a cubic parabola which is easy to lay by offset

method is usually adopted for transition curves.

128
*Under Revision
 Length of Transition Curve
• Indian Railways specify that greatest of the following
lengths should be taken as the length of the Transition
curve.
• Based on Arbitrary gradient:
L= 7.2 x e where e=actual superelevation in cm
• Based on rate of change of cant deficiency:
L= 0.073 x D x Vmax where, D= cant deficiency in cm
• Based on the rate of change of superelevation:
L= 0.073 x e x Vmax
• As per the Railway Code: (greatest of following)
L= 4.4 x ѴR where R= radius in m.
Rate of change of superelevation (1 cm for every 3.6 m)
Based on radial acceleration L  3.28  V
2

R 129
*Under Revision
 Shift of the transition curve
L2
S 
24 R

Example-1
• Determine the length of transition curve. Given that the design
speed of the train on the curve is 90 kmph on B.G. track.

Example-2
• Find out the length of the curve for a B.G. curved track having 4ᵒ
curvature and a cant of 12 cm. the maximum permissible speed on
the curve is 85 kmph. Also find the shift of the curve

130
*Under Revision
 Lecture-21
POINTS & CROSSINGS
• Points, crossing and turnouts are the arrangements by which
different routes either parallel or diverging are connected and afford
the means for trains to move from one route to another.

Necessity of point and crossing:

• It provide flexibility of movement by connecting one line to another

according to requirements.

• It helps for imposing restriction over turnouts which necessarily

retards the movements.

131
*Under Revision
 Turnouts
• It is the simplest combination of point and crossings which
enables one track to take off from another track.
• The object of turnout is to provide facilities for safe movement of
trains in either direction on both the track.
Right-hand turnouts:- if a train from main track is diverted to the
right of the main route in the facing direction then this diversion
is known as Right-hand turnouts.
Left-hand turnouts:- if a train from main track is directed to the left
of the main route in the facing direction, then the diversion is
known as left-hand turnouts.
132
*Under Revision
Right-Hand Turnouts
133
*Under Revision
Left-Hand Turnouts

134
*Under Revision
*Under Revision 135
 Terms related to points and crossings
• Check rail:- Checks rails are provided on the opposite side of the
crossing location for guiding one wheel of the vehicle and thus to
check the tendency of another wheel to climb over the crossing.
• Wing rail:- It helps in channelising the wheels in their proper routes
and direction meant for their movement. these rails guide the wheel
path for movement of trains.
• Tongue rail:- A tongue rail is tapered having toe at one end and heel
at other end. It is fixed at the heel end and can move or rotate about
this point.
• Stock rail:- The position of straight alignment against which the
tongue rail fits.

136
*Under Revision
 Stretcher bar:-
• the toe of the two tongue rails are connected together by means of a
bar is known as stretcher bar, so that each tongue rail moves the
same distance on the gap while changing the points.

Flare:-

• it is the gradual or tapered widening to the flangeway which is

formed by bending or splaying the end of check rail or wing rail
away from the gauge rail.

Lead rail:-

• lead rails are the length of rails from the heel of the tongue rail to
the toe of the crossing. 137
*Under Revision
 Points of Switches
• The various component parts of the switches are:
• A pair of stock rails
• A pair of tongue rail
• Heel block or distance block
• Stretcher bars
• Switch tie plate or gauge tie plate
• Sliding chair or sliding plates
• Studs or stop
Heel clearance or heel divergence
• It is the distance between the running face of the stock rail and the
gauge face of the tongue rail when measured at the heel of the switch.
• For BG heel divergence is 13.7 to 13.3 cm
• For MG heel divergence is 12.1 to 11.7 cm
• For NG heel divergence is 9.8 cm
138
*Under Revision
 Cont…
Flangeway depth:
• It is the vertical distance between the top surface of the running rail to
the top surface of the heel block used between the stock rail and the
check rail
Flangeway clearance:
• It is the distance between the adjacent faces of the stock rail and the
check rails.
Switch angle:
• It is the angle between the running faces of the stock rail and tongue
rail. This is also known as angle of switch divergence.
Types of switches:
• Stud switch
• Split switch
 Loose heel type
 Fixed heel type
 Undercut switch
 Over riding switch
 Straight cut switch
139
*Under Revision
 Lecture-22
CROSSINGS
• It is a device which provides two flangeways through which the wheels of
the flanges may move, when two rails intersect each other at an angle.
Component parts of crossing:
• A crossing or Vee piece
• Wing rails
• Point and splice rail
• Check rail
• Chairs at crossing, at toe and at heel
• Blocks at throat, at nose, at heel and distance block
Requirements of good crossings
• The assembly of crossing has to be rigid to stand against severe
vibrations.
• The wear on parts of the wing rails, opposite the nose and also of nose
itself must be protected.
• The crossing body should be as rigid as possible.
140
*Under Revision
 Cont…
Types of crossings:
• On the basis of shape of crossing
 Acute angle crossing or „V‟ crossing or frog
 Obtuse angle crossing or diamond crossing
 Square crossing
• On the basis of assembly of crossing
 Spring or movable wing crossing
 Ramped crossing
Acute angle crossing:
• When a left hand-rail of one track crosses right-hand rail of another
track or vice versa. If the angle of intersection of the approaching
rails is acute angle, it is termed as Acute angle crossing
141
*Under Revision
Obtuse angle crossing:
• When a left hand-rail of one track crosses right-hand rail of another track
or vice versa. If the angle of intersection of the approaching rails is a
obtuse angle, it is termed as Obtuse angle crossing.
Square crossing:
• When two straight track cross each other at right angle, they give rise to
square crossing.
Spring or movable crossing:
• One wing rail is movable and is held against the Vee of the crossing with
a strong helical spring.
Ramped crossing:
• The throat of the nose clearance is negotiated by use of special
manganese steel blocks over long distance. The wheel flanges roll over
this distance from a little beyond the throat to little beyond the nose.
The top level of these special blocks is so arranged that the tread of the
wheel is taken off the table by the wheel flange riding the blocks. This
type of crossing may be used for slow speed.
142
*Under Revision
 Theoretical and actual nose crossing(TNC & ANC):
• The point rail is never manufactured to a well defined sharp point as it break off
under the dynamic action of moving traffic. So a blunt nose is provided for the
point rail. The thickness of blunt nose usually equal to the thickness of the web
of the rail.
• The sharp imaginary point where the two gauge faces in case of acute angle
crossing or the gauge face and sloping obtuse angle crossing would meet is
known as true or theoretical nose crossing
Number of crossing and Angle of crossing:
• Right angle or Cole‟s method: N= Cot α
• Centre line method: N= ½ Cot α/2
• Isosceles triangle method: N= ½ Cosec α/2
• Various crossing used in Indian Railway are
• 1 in 6 , used in symmetrical split
• 1 in 8 ½ , used in station yard where space is restricted
• 1 in 12, used in station yards of main line.
• I in 16 , used in very high speed turnout.
143
*Under Revision
 Different methods of turnout design
Method-I (Cole‟s method)
• Curve lead(CL) = 2GN
• Radius(R) = R0 – G/2 , R0  1.5G  2GN
2

• Switch Lead(SL) = SL  2R d 0

• Lead or crossing lead= CL-SL

2

• Heel Divergence(d) = d 
( SL )
2R 0

Method-II (Cole‟s method)

• Radius(R) = R0 – G/2 , R0 
Gd
cos   cos

 
• Lead or crossing lead (L)= L  (G  d ) cot
2
144
*Under Revision
Method-III (IRS method)
• Radius(R) = R0 – G/2, G  d  x sin 
R0 
cos   cos

• Lead or crossing lead(L)=

 
L  x cos  (G  d  x sin  ) cot
2
• where:
• α = angle of crossing
• β = switch angle
• G= gauge length
• d=heel divergence
• x= straight arm
• N= number of crossing
145
*Under Revision
Example-1

• Calculate the all the necessary elements required to set out a I

in 12 turnout, taking off from a straight BG track with its curve
starting from the toe of the switch. Heel divergence is 11.4 cm.

Exampl-2
• On a straight BG track, a turnout takes off an angle of
5ᴼ35‟22”, switch angle is 1ᴼ45‟54”, heel divergence is 11.45
cm and length of straight arm is o.9 m.

146
*Under Revision
 Lecture-23
SIGNALING
• It consist of system, devices and means by which trains are operated
efficiently and tracks are used to maximum extent, maintaining the safety of
the passangers.
Object of signaling
• To provide facilities for the efficient movement of the train
• To ensure safety between trains which cross or approaches each other‟s path
• To provide facilities for the maximum utility of the track.
• To guide the trains movement during maintenance.
• To safeguard the trains at converging junctions.
Classification and types of signals
a) Operating characteristics
b) Functional characteristics
c) Location characteristics
d) Special characteristics
147
*Under Revision
 Cont..
a) Operating characteristics
I. Detonating signals(Fog or Audible signals)
II. Hand signals(visual indication signals)
III. Fixed signals(visual indication signals)
b) Functional characteristics
I. Stop or Semaphore type signals
II. Warner signals
III. Shunting signals(Disc or ground signals)
c) Location characteristics
I. Reception signals
 Quoter signals
 Home signals
II. Departure signals
 Starter
 Advanced starter
d) Special characteristics
I. Repeater or Co-acting signals
II. Routing signals
III. Calling on signals
IV. Point indicator
V. Modified lower quadrant semaphore signals
VI. Miscellaneous signals
148
*Under Revision
 149
*Under Revision
 150
*Under Revision
 151
*Under Revision
 152
*Under Revision
 153
*Under Revision
 Interlocking of signals and points
• It is define as the technique achieved through mechanical or electrical devices
or agencies by which it can be ensured that before a signal is taken to “OFF”
position, for the route, which the signal controls, is properly set and held, and
at the same time all the signals and points, the operation of which may lead to
conflicting movements, are locked against the feasibility of such conflicting
movement.
Necessity of interlocking:
• It is not possible to turn a signal “OFF” unless all the points for the line on
which the train is to be received are correctly set and all the facing points are
locked.
• The line should be fully isolated before the signal is turned “OFF”
• After the signal has been taken “OFF” , it should not be possible to make
adjustments in the points or locks on the route, including those in the isolated
line.
• It should not be possible to turn any two signals “OFF” at the same time.
• Wherever feasible the points should be so interlocked as to avoid any
conflicting movement.
154
*Under Revision
 155
*Under Revision
 Lecture-24
AIRCRAFT CHARACTERISTICS
• Aircraft characteristics are of prime importance to the
airport planner and designer, the following
characteristics are:
 Types of propulsion
 Size of aircraft
 Minimum turning radius
 Minimum circling radius
 Speed of the aircraft
 Capacity of aircraft
 Aircraft weight and wheel configuration
 Jet blast
 Fuel spillage
 noise 156
*Under Revision
AIRPORT ENGINEERING

*Under Revision 157

*Under Revision 158
*Under Revision 159
*Under Revision 160
*Under Revision 161
*Under Revision 162
*Under Revision 163
*Under Revision 164
*Under Revision 165
 Airport site selection
• The factors on which the selection of suitable site for a
major airport installation are:
 Regional plan
 Airport use
 Proximity to other airport
 Ground accessibility
 Topography
 Obstructions
 Visibility
 Wind
 Noise nuisance
 Grading, drainage
 Soil characteristics
 Future development
 Availability of utilities from town
 Economic considerations
166
*Under Revision
 Surveys for site selection
• Traffic survey

• Meteorological survey

• Topographical survey

• Soil survey

• Drainage survey

• Material survey

167
*Under Revision
 Airport classification
• The airport have been classified by various agencies:

 ICAO(International Civil Aviation Organisation )

 FAA(Federal Aviation Agency)

 United states Air force.

• ICAO classifies the airport in two ways

 Based on runway length and geometric standards, classification has

been done by using the code letters A to E in which A-type airport has
longest runway length and E-type has shortest runway length.

 Based on ESWL and the tire pressure, classification has been done by
using the numerical numbers i.e. 1 to 7
168
*Under Revision
 Lecture-25
AIRPORT OBSTRUCTIONS

Zoning Laws:

• The site for airport should be so selected that it does not obstruct
the safe landing and take –off of aircraft. steps should be also be
taken to curb the possibility of developing any future obstruction.
Zoning ordinates regarding the permissible height of structures
and the land use within the airport boundary need implementation
as soon as the site is selected for airport development. The use of
land for manufacture of certain items which may result in smoke
nuisance, foul order..etc is also control by the zoning laws. 169
*Under Revision
 Imaginary surfaces

• Take-off climb surface

• Approach surface

• Inner horizontal surface

• Conical surface

• Transitional surface

• Outer horizontal surface

170
*Under Revision
 171
*Under Revision
 172
*Under Revision
approach zone:
• During landing, the glide path of an aircraft varies from a steep to flat
slope. But during take-off, the rate of climb of aircraft is limited by its
wing loading and engine power, as such wide clearance areas known as
approach zone are required on either side of runway along the direction
of landing and take-off of aircraft. Over this area, the aircraft can safely
gain or loose altitude. The whole area should kept free of obstruction.
Clear zone:
• The inner most portion of approach zone which is critical portion from
obstruction view-point is known as clear zone. The purchase of land is
recommended for the effective implementation of zoning laws.
Turning zone:
• During take-off, if the engine fails or the pilot select to land for any
reason, the aircraft will have to take a turn and come in the line with
runway before landing. The area of airport other than approach area,
which is used for turning operation of aircraft is called turning zone.
173
*Under Revision
 Lecture-26
WIND ROSE DIAGRAM
• The wind data i.e. direction, duration and intensity are
graphically represented by a diagram called wind rose.
• The wind data usually be collected for a period of at least 5 years
and preferably of 10 years, so as to obtained an average data with
sufficient accuracy
Wind rose diagrams can be plotted in two types:
• Type-I: showing direction and duration of wind
• Type-II: showing direction, duration and intensity of wind
Calm period:
• Percentage of time during which wind intensity, is less than 6.4
kmph is called calm period. It dies not influence the operation of
landing or take-off because low wind intensity.
174
*Under Revision
Runway orientation:
• Runway is usually oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The
head wind i.e. the direction of wind opposite to the direction of
landing and take-off, provides greater lift on the wings of the aircraft
when it is taking-off. During landing, the head wind provides a
braking effect and the aircraft comes to a stop in a smaller length of
runway.
Cross wind component and wind coverage:
• The normal component of the wind is called cross wind component
and may interrupt the safe landing and take-off of the aircrafts.
• FAA recommends that for a small aircraft, the cross wind compnent
should not exceed 15 kmph and for mixed traffic it should not exceed
25 kmph
• For airport serving big aircrafts ICAO recommends that the cross
wind component should not exceed 35 kmph.
• The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind
compnent within the limits as specified above is called wind
coverage.
175
*Under Revision
 176
*Under Revision
 177
*Under Revision
 Lecture-27
RUNWAY DESIGN
• Runway geometric elements:

 Runway length

 Runway width

 Width and length of safety area

 Transverse gradient

 Longitudinal and effective gradient

 Rate of change of effective gradient

 Sight distance
178
*Under Revision
 Basic runway length
• It is the length of runway under the following assumed
conditions at the airport:
• Airport altitude is at sea level
• Temperature at the airport is standard i.e. 15⁰c
• Runway is levelled in the longitudinal direction
• No wind is blowing on runway
• Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity
• There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination
Correction for elevation, temperature and gradient:
• No correction is required if the runway is at mean sea level
elevation having standard temperature conditions. So necessary
correction are applied for any change in elevation, temperature
and gradient for actual site of construction.
179
*Under Revision
 Correction for elevation
• As the elevation increases, the air density reduces, this is turn reduces
the lift on the wings of the aircraft and the aircraft requires greater
ground speed before it can rise into the air. To achieve the greater speed,
longer length of runway is required.
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be increased at
the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation above the mean sea level
Correction for temperature:
T T
• Airport reference temperature= Ta  m 3 a
• Where, Ta is the monthly mean of average daily temperature for the
hottest month of the year and Tm is the mean of the maximum daily
temperature.
• ICAO recommends that basic runway length after having been
correction corrected for elevation should be further increase at the rate
of 1% for every 1ºc rise in temperature.
• Standard atmospheric temperature at given elevation= 15º-(o.oo65 x
altitude above mean sea level) 180
*Under Revision
Total correction
• ICAO recommends that, the total correction for elevation plus
temperature should not exceed 35% of the basic runway length.
Correction for gradient:
• FAA recommends that the runway length after having been
corrected for elevation and temperature should be further
increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
Example-1
• the length of runway under standrad condition is 2000 m. the
airport site has an elevation of 300 m. its reference temperature is
35⁰c if the runway is to be constructed with an effective gradient
of 0.2 %, determine the corrected runway length as per ICAO
and FAA.

181
*Under Revision
 Lecture-28
TAXIWAY DESIGN
• The main function of taxiway is to provide access to the aircraft
from the runways to the loading apron of service hanger and
back.
• Geometric elements of taxiway:
 Length of taxiway
 width of taxiway
 Width of safety area
 Transverse gradient
 Longitudinal gradient
 Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
 Sight distance
 Turning radius 182
*Under Revision
 Turning radius:(maximum value of three cases)
1. Whenever there is a change in the direction of taxiway a
horizontal curve is provided. The curve is so designed that the
aircraft can negotiate it without significantly reducing the speed.
V2
R 
125 f
0.388  W 2

2. According to “Horonjeef” R 
T
S
2

3. The absolute minimum turning radius for subsonic aircrafts

regardless of any speed is 120m
Where,
 R= radius of taxiway in meter
 W= wheel base of aircraft in meter
 t= width of taxiway pavement.
 S= distance between midway point of the main gears and the edge of the
taxiway pavement in meter
 f= coefficient friction between tire and pavement surface as 0.13
183
*Under Revision
 Holding Apron:
• These are located where the aircraft wait for their turn to take-off, and
where they are finally checked before the take-off. Holding aprons are
usually provided near the runway ends and are made sufficiently large so
that, if one aircraft is unable to take-off because of some defect in the
machinery, another aircraft can bypass it for the take-off.
• The size of the holding apron depends upon the peak hour aircraft
movements.
• Holding apron may not be required if the volume of traffic is small.
Example-1
• A taxiway is to be designed for operationg Boeing 707-320, which
has the following characteristics, determine the turning radius of
taxiway,
• Wheel base= 17.7 m
• Tread of main loading gear= 6.5 m
• Turning speed= 45 kmph
• f= 0.13 184
*Under Revision
 Lecture-29
VISUAL AIDS
• The pilot needs visual aids while landing or taking off during all
weathers and every time. The pilot usually takes help of respective view
of runway and other ground reference marks during the landing
operations. Runway threshold, runway edges and the runway centre line
are amongst the most essential items which should be clearly visible to
the pilot.
• In order to enhance the day time visibility, runways and taxiways are
marked with lines and numbers, respective view of a runway, as seen
from a height of 60 m and distance of 100 m from the threshold.
• All marking should be clear and should provide the maximum
practicable contrast under all conditions.
• In the day time during poor weather conditions, or at night , the
visibility reduces considerably, it is essential to provide adequate
lighting in the airport which should convey the similar informations to
the pilot .
185
*Under Revision
 Airport marking
• Airport area is marked in a simpler manner so that the pilots can
easily spot and recognise various airport elements. Airport
markings are:

 Runway marking

 Taxiway marking

 Runway and taxiway shoulder marking

 Apron marking

 Wind direction indicator

 Landing direction indicator

186
*Under Revision
 Airport lighting
• The colour and general pattern of lights used in airport lighting are
standardized for all civil airport. Various airport lighting are:

 Rotating beacon

 Code beacon

 Boundary lighting

 Approach lighting

 Threshold lighting

 Runway lighting

 Taxiway lighting

 Apron and hangar lighting

 Lighting and wind direction indicator

 Lighting and landing direction indicator 187

*Under Revision
 Bibliography
1. Saxena, S.C. & Arora, M.G. , “A text book of railway
engineering” Dhanpat rai publication, seventh edition.

2. Chandra S. & Agrawal, M.M. “Railway Engineering ”, Second

edition.

3. Khanna, S.K. & Arora, M.G., “Air-port Engineering ”.

188
 Sample question(Set-A)
Answer question No. 1 which is compulsory and any five from the rest.
Q. No.-1 (2x10=20)
a) Write any three requirements of an ideal sleeper.
b) Classify train resistance.
c) Name different gauges and specify their standard length.
d) What is grade compensation? What is the standard value of compensation
for curvature for Broad gauge?
e) What is Airport capacity?
f) What is cross wind component
g) What is “Kinks” of Rails
h) Define Calm period
i) Define end bound sleeper
j) What is the minimum size of ballast for wooden sleeper and steel
sleepers?

189
Q. No. 2
a) draw the schematic diagram of Right hand turn out and show its various
component parts. (5)
b) What are the requirements of an ideal rail joint? (5)
Q. No. 3
a) The length of runway under standard condition is 1620 m, the Airport site
has an elevation of 270 m. The reference temperature is 32°C,if the
runway is to be constructed with an effective gradient of 0.2%, determine
the corrected runway length. (5)
b) What are the different characteristics of aircraft? How they affect the
planning and design of design of aircraft. (5)
Q. No. 4
a) What will be the gradient for a BG track when the grade resistance
together with curve resistance due to a curve of 5° shall be equal to the
resistance due a rolling gradient of 1 in 150? (5)
b) Calculate maximum permissible train load that can be pulled by a
locomotive having 4 pairs of driving wheels carrying an axle load of 25 tons
each. The train has to run at a speed of 80 kmph on a straight BG track.
Also calculate the reduction speed if the train has to climb a gradient of 1
in 200. (5)
190
Q. No. 5
a) Compare between flat footed and bull headed rails. (5)
b) Discuss supported, Suspended and bridge joint in brief. (5)
Q. No. 6
a) Discuss different factors on which airport site selection
depends in brief. (5)
b) A taxiway is to be designed for an operating Boeing 707
which has the fallowing characteristics. Determine the turning
radius of taxiway, wheel base = 17.00 m, tread of main
loading gear = 6.5 m, turning speed = 40 kmph, co-efficient
of friction = 0.13. (5)
Q. No. 7 write short notes on the following. (2x5=10)
a) Preliminary Survey
b) Normal Take-off
c) Wind rose
d) Pusher gradient
e) Spikes 191
 Sample question(Set-B)
Answer question No. 1 which is compulsory and any five from the rest.
Q. No.-1 (2x12=20)
a) Define Centre Bound Sleeper.
b) Mention various type of Rail section used in Indian Railways for B. G.
track.
c) What are the compositions of Rails?
d) What is the difference between Staggered joint and Square joint?
e) Write any two advantage of welding of Rails.
f) What is Negative Superelevation?
g) What is Wind Rose diagram?
h) What are FAA and DARA?
i) Define Track Modulus.
j) Write any two factors which affecting the choice of particular Gauge.

192
Q. No. 2
a) What would be the permissible speed on the curve, if on a 7ᵒ M.G.
track, the average speed of different trains is 55 kmph and allowable
cant deficiency is half that of maximum cant deficiency. (4)
b) Describe the requirements of Rail in a Railway track. (6)
Q. No. 3
a) If the wheel base of a vehicle moving on a M.G. track is 4.88 m, the
diameter of the wheel is 1.2 m and the depth of flange below the top of
the rail is 3.17 cm. Determine the extra width required to be provided
on gauge, if the radius of the curve is 150 m. (5)
b) Draw a typical cross-section of a B.G. track in embankment and briefly
explain the basic functions of its various components. (5)
Q. No. 4
a) Draw the schematic diagram of left hand Turn out and show its various
component parts. (5)
b) Define Creep of Rail. What are the effects of Creep? (5)
193
Q. No. 5
a) The length of the runway under standard conditions is 2000 m. The airport is to
be provided at elevation of 400 m above the mean sea level. The airport
reference temperature is 34ᵒc. Determine the length of runway with fallowing
data: (6)
End to end runway(m) Grade (%)
0-300 +1.00
300-900 -0.4
900-1500 +0.5
1500-1800 +0.8
1800-2100 -0.5
2100-2700 -0.3
2700-3000 +0.2
b) What are the imaginary surfaces? Explain briefly their significance. (4)
Q. No. 6
a) Explain with neat sketches the limiting heights of objects in the approach and
turning zone of an instrumental runway. (5)
b) What do you understand by the term visual aid in connection with airport?
Name the different visual aids. What is the necessity of visual aids? (5)
Q. No. 7 write short notes on the following. (2x5=10)
a) Grade compensation on curves
b) ICAO
c) Zoning Laws
d) Holding aprons
e) Turnout
194