Groundwater

10

An aquifer is an underground body of water perched on top table buildup, the irrigation water can flush the aquifer and
of bedrock or other impermeable layer. Most usable fresh- improve water quality.
water storage is within aquifers (Table 10.1). The residence Aquifers are defined as confined or unconfined depending
time of groundwater can vary from days to millennia on whether they have a confining bed (aquitard) above them
(Fig. 10.1). Groundwater’s often long period of water (Fig. 10.1). The unsaturated zone above an aquifer called the
exchange (Table 10.1) makes it useful as a stable source of vadose zone (Fig. 10.2). The water table is defined as the
water but also leads to its susceptibility to long term degra- elevation at which water pressure is zero gauge pressure.
dation by aquifer contamination. Groundwater supplies Water above the water table is called the capillary fringe.
approximately 40 % of the water used by irrigated agricul- This water wicks up above the water table because of capil-
ture. Wells are drilled into high conductivity layers in geo- lary potential of the small pores in soil. The capillary fringe
logic formations. Sand and gravel aquifers are the primary is thin for coarse textured soils and can be up to 15 m thick in
source of groundwater for irrigation. Measurement of the fine textured soils.
piezometric gradient and aquifer hydraulic conductivity
enables hydrologists to calculate aquifer flow velocity and
direction. The product of aquifer thickness and hydraulic
Aquifers
conductivity is the transmissivity. The Thiem equation
calculates aquifer transmissivity in confined aquifers based
There are five major types of groundwater aquifers (Fig. 10.3):
on steady-state pumping in a pumping well and draw down
unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers, semi-consolidated
(decline in water table) in an observation well. The steady-
sand and gravel aquifers, volcanic aquifers, sandstone and
state unconfined aquifer equation adds aquifer thickness to
carbonate rock aquifers, and sandstone aquifers.
the equation. The Theis equation evaluates transient draw-
Most groundwater-irrigated land draws water from
down in an observation well.
unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers (Fig. 10.3). In the
The rate that water is replaced in an aquifer is called the
US, the High Plains aquifer is in the central US, the basin
rate of exchange. The average rate of groundwater exchange
and range aquifers are the southwest US, Coastal and Central
in the world is 280 years (Table 10.1). Primarily because of
Valley aquifers are in California, Pacific Northwest basin fill
the slow rate of exchange, polluted aquifers are much more
aquifers are in Washington, the Surficial aquifer system is in
difficult to reclaim than polluted rivers and lakes. In some
eastern Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina, and the
desert regions, the water in the aquifer is called fossil
Mississippi Valley alluvial aquifer and the glacial-deposit
groundwater because the water was deposited during a dif-
(glacial-fill) aquifers are in the northern United States.
ferent climatic period. There is no water exchange in these
There are three types of unconsolidated sand and gravel
aquifers. Agriculture has polluted some aquifers with unac-
aquifers: basin fill, blanket sand and gravel, and glacial-
ceptable levels of nutrients and pesticides. Many of these
deposit (glacial-fill). Basins formed due to uplift of mountains
have very slow exchange rates so there is no possibility of
on either side of the basin and are filled with unconsolidated
remediation in the foreseeable future. Agriculture has also
alluvial sediments underlain by bedrock. Finer grained
improved the water quality of some aquifers by increasing
sediments are typically located near the center of basins.
the rate of exchange. When higher quality water is used for
Water yielding sand and gravel layers are typically con-
irrigation than is in the underlying aquifer, and drainage is
fined by finer grained sand or clay layers that have low
used to remove water from the aquifer and prevent water
hydraulic conductivity. Geologists can observe the sand

# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 169

P. Waller, M. Yitayew, Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-05699-9_10
170 10 Groundwater

Table 10.1 Freshwater of the hydrosphere and its rate of exchange. [Modified from Lvovich (1979), Tables 2 and 10] Ground-Water Hydrology
(Credit USGS: Paper 2220)
Parts of the Volume of Share in total volume Rate of water
hydrosphere freshwater km Mile of freshwater (percent) exchange (yr) Recharge km /year
Ice sheets and 24,000,000 5,800,000 84.9 8,000 3,000
glaciers
Ground water 4,000,000 960,000 14.2 280 14,000
Lakes and 155,000 37,000 0.549 7 22,000
reservoirs
Soil moisture 83,000 20,000 0.294 1 83,000
Vapors in 14,000 3,400 0.049 0.027 52,000
atmosphere
River water 1,200 300 0.004 0.031 39,000
Total 28,253,200 6,820,700 100

Fig. 10.1 Groundwater RECHARGE AREA

residence times (Credit: DISCHARGE AREA
U.S. Geological Survey Circular
1139)

Stream
PUMPED WELL

Water table

Unconfined
aquifer

Confining bed

Confined
aquifer Centuries

Confining bed

Confined
aquifer Millennia

Although basins have a regional elevation of the water table

there is generally a complex network of aquifers within sand
and gravel layers and perched above impermeable layers.
Vadose
Zone There are often hydraulic connections between aquifers and
Capillary sometimes between the aquifers and surface water bodies.
Fringe In their natural state, many basin aquifer systems supply
Water Zone of streams with groundwater that originates from mountain
Table Saturation front recharge and surface infiltration (Fig. 10.4).
The geology of the hill slopes and mountains surrounding
an aquifer is an important factor in the assessment of a
basin’s suitability for irrigation. For example, hills on the
west side of the Central Valley of California have high levels
Fig. 10.2 Vadose zone (Credit USGS. http://geology.er.usgs.gov/ of selenium. Wells were dug in the valley in order to supply
eespteam/brass/ground/groundintro.htm) water for irrigation. Excessive selenium in the system and in
the drainage effluent caused bird deformities. This example
and rock removed during drilling and conduct other electri- points to the need to conduct an extensive soil and geological
cal resistance and sound tests in order to determine the survey throughout a hydrologic basin before beginning an
location of the water yielding formations. irrigation project.
 EXPLANATION
Figure 4. The principal
Unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifers aquifers of the United
States are in six types of
1 Basin and Range aquifers rocks and deposits. The
2 Rio Grande aquifer system
colored areas show the
extent of each principal
3 California Coastal Basin aquifers aquifer at or near the
4 Pacific Northwest basin-fill aquifers land surface.
5 Puget-Willamette Lowland aquifer system
Northern Rocky Mountains Intermontane SCALE : 7,500,000
6 Sandstone aquifers 0 25 50 MILES
Basins aquifer system
0 25 50 KILOMETERS
7 Central Valley aquifer system 20 Colorado Plateaus aquifers
Carbonate-rock aquifers
8 High Plains aquifer 21 Denver Basin aquifer system
42 Basin and Range carbonate-rock aquifers
9 Pecas River Basin alluvial aquifer 22 Lower Cretaceous aquifers
44 Roswell Basin aquifer system
10 Mississippi River Valley alluvial aquifer 23 Rush Springs aquifer
45 Ozark Plateaus aquifer system Sandstone and carbonate-rock aquifers
11 Seymour aquifer 24 Central Oklahoma aquifer
46 Blaine aquifer 58 Edwards-Trinity aquifer system
12 Surficial aquifer system 25 Ada-Vamoosa aquifer
47 Arbuckle-Simpson aquifer 59 Valley and Ridge aquifers-Carbonate-
26 Early Mesozoic basin aquifers Basaltic and other volcanic-rock aquifers rock aquifers are patterned
13 Unconsolidated-deposit aquifers (Alaska)
48 Silarian-Devonian aquifers
14 South Coast aquifer (Puerto Rico) 27 New York sandstone aquifers 35 Southern Nevada volcanic-rock aquifers 60 Mississippian aquifers
49 Ordovician aquifers
28 Pennsylvanian aquifers 36 Northern California volcanic-rock aquifers 61 Paleozoic aquifers
50 Upper carbonate aquifer
Semiconsolidated sand aquifers 29 Mississippian aquifer of Michigan 37 Pliocene and younger basaltic-rock aquifers
51 Floridan aquifer system
15 Coastal lowlands aquifer system 30 Cambrian-Ordovician aquifer system 38 Miocene basaltic-rock aquifers Glacial deposit aquifers overlie
52 Biscayne aquifer bedrock aquifers in many areas
16 Texas coastal uplands aquifer system 31 Jacobsville aquifer 39 Volcanic- and sedimentary-rock aquifers
53 New York and New England carbonate-rock
17 Mississippi embayment aquifer system 32 Lower Teritary aquifers 40 Snake River Plain aquifer system aquifers
and Blue Ridge carbonate-rock Not a principal aquifer
18 Southeastern Coastal Plain aquifer system 33 Upper Cretaceous aquifers 41 Columbia Plateau aquifer system 54 Piedmont
aquifers
42 Volcanic-rock aquifers- Overlain by 55 Castle Hayne aquifer
19 Northern Atlantic Coastal Plain aquifer system 34 Upper Teritary aquifers (Wyoming) sedimentary deposits where patterned (Hawaii)
56 North Coast Limestone aquifer system (Puerto Rico)
57 Kingshill aquifer (St. Croix)

Fig. 10.3 Aquifers in the United States (Credit: USGS)

172 10 Groundwater

Fig. 10.4 Natural ground water

flow in basin (Credit Wikipedia,
Hans Hillewaert)

Groundwater pumping changes the hydrologic flow

patterns in basins. Aquifers in a basin may have naturally
provided water to streams (Fig. 10.4); however, wells may
drop the water table below the river and dry up the river. In
arid regions, the streams and rivers only flow during major
storms; thus, the stream ecosystems have been destroyed.
The High Plains Aquifer (contains the Ogallala aquifer)
in Nebraska, Colorado, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, South
Dakota, Wyoming, and New Mexico (Fig. 10.5) is a blanket
sand and gravel aquifer. These aquifers are formed from
wind-blown sand. They are unconfined by impermeable
layers above, and are perched above bedrock. As a result,
they are susceptible to pollution by agricultural chemicals.
Some regions of the High Plains Aquifer in Nebraska have
such high levels of nitrogen due to nitrogen leaching from
agricultural fields that farmers do not even have to add
nitrogen fertilizer to fields that use pumped groundwater.
Although the lack of need for fertilizer is an agricultural
benefit, the farmers cannot drink the water because of the
high nitrate concentration.
In regions where the rate of pumping has exceeded the
recharge rate, the case in the southern part of the Ogallala
aquifer, water tables have declined. They can decline by
hundreds of feet. In contrast, irrigated agriculture can also
raise the water table, which has been the case in the northern
sections of the Ogallala aquifer. The groundwater table has
fallen so far that it has become uneconomical for farmers to
irrigate. The same problem is found in other dry regions. In
the Middle East, large sand and gravel aquifers underlie the
desert; however, as countries such as Syria and Saudi Arabia
Fig. 10.5 Aquifer decline in Ogallala aquifer (Credit USGS)
try to develop “food security” and become self-sufficient
food producers, sand and gravel aquifers that were filled
The components of the water balance in a basin aquifer during a different climatic era are becoming depleted
system include mountain front recharge, surface infiltration (Elhadj 2008). The Punjab area of northern India produces
and streamflow infiltration, interbasin flow, and underflow. a significant fraction of the wheat and rice requirements of
Streamflow infiltration is generally the largest component India; however, aquifers are being depleted. Saudi Arabia,
and mountain front recharge is the second largest recharge US, northern China, and northern India are the top regions in
component (USGS, Paper 2220). the world with aquifer depletion.
Aquifer Flow 173

A dramatic increase in recharge due to irrigation can cause Table 10.2 Approximate characteristics of various natural porous
water tables to rise. In some irrigated regions where no subsur- media (After Huffman et al. 2013)
face drainage has been installed and an unconfined aquifer is Specific Conductivity Conductivity
near the soil surface, rising water tables have actually reached Media Porosity yield K (low) m/d K (high) m/d
the soil surface. In fact, approximately 50 million ha of Gravel 25–40 19 100 100,000
irrigated agriculture in the world has high water tables, limited Coarse sand 30–45 22 10 1000
Sand, 20–35 22 5 10
leaching capability, and, as a result, rising salinity. Installation
mixture
of subsurface drainage systems is needed in these areas. Fine sand 25–50 22 1 50
The third type of unconsolidated sand and gravel aquifer is Silt 35–50 22 0.01 1
the glacial-fill aquifer. These aquifers, laid down by glaciers Clay 40–70 2 0.001 and lower
during the last ice age, contain alternating layers of permeable Loam Soil 55 40
sand and gravel and impermeable clay and silt layers. Karst 5–50 18 0.07 1000
Limestone
Fractured 0–10 9 0.00050 20
Aquifer Parameters Ign. & met,
rock
Limestone 0–20 0.00003 0.2
Groundwater hydrologists focus on the amount of water that and
will drain from a porous media during pumping rather than dolomite
the amount of water that a soil will hold after drainage (field Sandstone 5–30 6 0.00001 0.2
capacity). The fraction of water that drains naturally from an Shale 0–10 100 0.0001
aquifer is called the specific yield. Conversely, the specific Unfractured 0–5 <0.00000001 0.00002
retention is the amount of water that remains in the rock after rock
gravity drainage (like field capacity). The specific retention
(S ) + specific yield (S ) is equal to the porosity (n). The flow by setting up networks of two or more observation
specific yield is also called the storativity. The depth of wells. Three wells are needed to determine the direction of
water removed from an aquifer divided by the change in groundwater flow. The USGS outlines a procedure for deter-
aquifer elevation is defined as the storativity or the specific mining the groundwater flow direction and gradient using
yield. For example, if 1 m depth of water was removed from three wells based on the geographic position, distance
an aquifer and the ground water elevation decreased by 4 m, between wells, and total head in each well.
then the storativity or specific yield would be ¼ ¼ 25 %.
Values of porosity and specific yield for various rock (a) Identify the well that has the intermediate water level
materials are shown in Table 10.2. (that is, neither the highest head nor the lowest head).
Values of porosity do not vary dramatically between (b) Calculate the position between the well having the
different unconsolidated materials (Table 10.2); however, highest head and the well having the lowest head at
conductivity, which determines how fast the water moves which the head is the same as that in the intermediate
to the well, can vary by 10 orders of magnitude (Table 10.2). well. This is accomplished by interpolation using the
Only the high conductivity materials are suitable for wells elevation of water in the intermediate well.
and water supply. (c) Draw a straight line between the intermediate well and
The piezometric (potentiometric) surface is defined as the the point identified in step b as being between the well
sum of elevation + pressure. Confined aquifers can have posi- having the highest head and that having the lowest head.
tive pressure if water flows to the aquifer from a high elevation. This line represents a segment of the water-level contour
If the potentiometric surface of a confined aquifer is greater along which the total head is the same as that in the
than the ground surface, then a well drilled into the aquifer will intermediate well.
be a flowing artesian well (Fig. 10.6). The piezometric surface (d) Draw a line perpendicular to the water-level contour and
for an unconfined aquifer is the same as the water table since through either the well with the highest head or the well
the water table is defined as the point of zero pressure. with the lowest head. This line parallels the direction of
ground-water movement.
(e) Divide the difference between the head of the well and
Aquifer Flow that of the contour by the distance between the well and
the contour. The answer is the hydraulic gradient.
Groundwater hydrologists can determine the rate that water
is flowing through an aquifer by measuring the piezometric These steps are included in the Well triangulation
gradient and aquifer hydraulic conductivity. They measure worksheet; however some of the graphical techniques are
the hydraulic gradient (slope of water table) and direction of replaced by equations.
174 10 Groundwater

Fig. 10.6 Potentiometric or piezometric surface over confined aquifers (Credit USGS)

Steps b and c. The next step is to find the point at which

350
the contour line through well 1 crosses the line between the
Well 1
50, 300 high (H) and low (L) elevation wells, wells 2 and 3, respec-
300
Well 2 tively. This point (Int) is found with the ratio of the well
400, 250 elevations.
250
RatioH, L ¼ ðzH zM Þ=ðzH zL Þ ¼ ð105 104Þ=ð105 100:8Þ
200 ¼ 0:3125 m:
xInt ¼ xH ðxH xL Þ*RatioH, L ¼ 400 ð400 200Þ*0:3125
150 ¼ 352m:
yInt ¼ yH ð yH yL Þ*RatioH, L ¼ 250 ð250 50Þ*0:3125
100 ¼ 202m:

50 The next step is to find the equation for the line between
Well 3
the intermediate well (M) and the point at which the contour
200, 50
0 line intersects the line between the high and low wells
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 (x , y ).

m ¼ ð yInt yM Þ=ðxInt xM Þ ¼ ð202 300Þ=ð352 50Þ

Fig. 10.7 Well coordinates for Example 10.1
¼ 0:323 ðcell H5Þ
y ¼ mx þ b b ¼ yInt mxInt
Example 10.1 Three wells are located as shown in b ¼ 202 ð 0:323Þ*352 ¼ 316 ðcell H6Þ
Fig. 10.7. Use the Well triangulation worksheet to find the y ¼ 0:323 x þ 316
hydraulic gradient and the direction of flow. The East axis
(x-axis) is zero degrees. The slope of the line that is perpendicular to this line, which
is the direction of flow, is
Well 1 elevation ¼ 104 m
Well 2elevation ¼ 105 m mFlow ¼ 1=m ¼ 1= 0:323 ¼ 3:44
Well 3 elevation ¼ 100:8 m
The y-intercept of the flow direction is found with the
Step a. The first step is to find the well with the interme- coordinates of the well with the lowest water table elevation.
diate water level (M). This is well 1, and the elevation is
104 m. bFlow ¼ yL mFlow xL ¼ 50 200*3:44 ¼ 638
Steady State Models of Well Flow Rate 175

Fig. 10.8 Determination of flow direction based on water table elevations in three wells

The intersection point of the contour line and the flow The Darcy velocity (cell E10) is calculated as the product of
direction line is found by solving the two equations simulta- conductivity and dH/dL.
neously. The flow line angle in cell B11 (252 degrees) is the
direction of water flow. Zero degrees would be east (to the
y ¼ ð mFlow *b=m þ bFlow Þ=ð1 mFlow =mÞ right as in the positive x-direction). In the case of Fig. 10.8,
y ¼ ð 3:44*316=ð 0:323Þ 639Þ=ð1 3:44=ð 0:323ÞÞ the green line is the flow line, and the flow line angle is
¼ 233 ðcell H10Þ 252 degrees from zero (counterclockwise), which agrees
x ¼ ð y bÞ=m ¼ ð233 316Þ=ð 0:323Þ ¼ 259 ðcell H9Þ
with the fact that the direction of flow (direction of the
green line) is to the lower left (SW). Thus, one must determine
The distance between the well with the lowest elevation
the flow direction based on the angle specified in cell B11.
and the contour line is found with the Pythagorean
Theorem.
0:5 Steady State Models of Well Flow Rate
Distance ¼ ðxL xÞ2 þ ð yL yÞ2
0:5 Once a well is drilled, the flow rate of a well is tested before
¼ ð200 259Þ2 þ 50 2332
¼ 192 ðcell H11Þ the pump is purchased. The flow rate of a well is determined
by the conductivity and thickness of an aquifer. Groundwa-
The hydraulic gradient, dH/dL, is the elevation difference ter hydrologists use pumping tests and mathematical models
between the contour line and well with the lowest elevation to predict well flow rate. Finite difference and finite element
divided by the distance between the two. The elevation of models of groundwater flow (i.e. MODFLOW) are used by
the contour line is 104 m. hydrologists and groundwater engineers, but this section
focuses on analytical models.
dH=dL ¼ ðzM zL Þ=Distance Aquifer and well pump tests can be divided into transient
¼ ð104 100:8Þ=192 ¼ 0:0167 m=m: ðcell H12Þ and steady-state tests. Steady-state well tests are less
176 10 Groundwater

complex but also provide less information. They generally Confined Aquifer Model
require data from observation wells that are located at some
distance from the pumping well. If there are other irrigation The piezometric surface declines in the vicinity of a well
wells already in the aquifer, then they can be used as observa- (Fig. 10.9). If the piezometric surface and cone of depression
tion wells. Steady-state methods require that the pumping test drop into the aquifer, then the upper portion of the aquifer
continues until a steady state water surface elevation is becomes unsaturated near the well.
observed in both the observation wells and the pumping well. The analytic flow model presented in this section assumes
Transient models are based on the change in water sur- that the aquifer remains saturated near the well and that the
face elevation over time within the pumping well, and some piezometric surface does not drop into the aquifer. Several
also require information from observation wells. Transient assumptions are required for this analytic aquifer model:
pump tests can reveal the extent and yield of individual isotropic (no change with direction) and homogeneous
aquifers, and sometimes reveal whether aquifers are (no spatial change) aquifer properties, steady state pumping,
connected to other aquifers. The more complex well tests and infinite aquifer extent. It also assumes horizontal flow.
require complex mathematical models and a more in-depth Horizontal Dupuit-Forchheimer flow lines are shown in
understanding of groundwater hydrology than is presented in Fig. 10.9. This assumption is valid except for deep aquifers
this book. with a large vertical component of flow up to the well.
In this text, two simple steady state models/tests for The elevation of the piezometric surface at two distances
confined and unconfined aquifers are presented that calculate (r and r ) away from the well can be measured with obser-
the transmissivity of an aquifer. Transmissivity is the prod- vation wells (Fig. 10.9).
uct of depth and conductivity of the aquifer. The transmis- Based on Darcy’s law, the horizontal flow of water at any
sivity can be used to determine the relationship between well point in the aquifer is
flow rate and water table drawdown around the well. This
will provide the necessary information for sizing the pump, dH
v¼ K ð10:1Þ
setting the elevation of the pump, and determining the max- dr
imum flow rate that can be pumped without exceeding the
capacity of the well. The next section presents the steady where
state test for a confined aquifer, which is followed by the
steady state model for an unconfined aquifer. Although flow r ¼ radial distance from the well, m,
H ¼ piezometric surface (elevation + pressure), m,
to a well may include a vertical component, these models
K ¼ hydraulic conductivity, m/day,
ignore the vertical component of flow with the Dupuit-
Forchheimer assumption. v ¼ Darcy velocity, m/day.

Fig. 10.9 Confined aquifer with r2

Dupuit Forchheimer assumption r1
of horizontal flow

Pumping well
Observation
wells
Piezometric surface

h1 h2

Aquitard

Confined aquifer

Aquitard
Unconfined Aquifer Model 177

Total flow, Q, equals the product of velocity of flow and Example 10.2 Find the transmissivity and conductivity in a
cross sectional area of flow. confined aquifer in which the flow rate to a well is 200 gpm,
and observation wells at distances of 100- and 200-m from
Q ¼ vA ð10:2Þ the pumping well have depths to the water table of 100-m
and 95-m, respectively. The upper surface of the aquifer is
where 150 m below ground and the aquifer is 50 m in depth. The
same calculations are also performed in the Confined aquifer
A ¼ cross-sectional area of aquifer perpendicular to flow worksheet.
direction, m , Calculate flow rate in m /day.
Q ¼ flow rate, m /day.
200 gal 0:003785 m3 24*60 min
¼ 1, 090 m3 =day
The cross sectional area of flow at any radial distance min gal day
from the well is the product of the circumference and the
depth of the aquifer b. Find the elevations h and h . Let the datum ¼ 200 m below
the ground surface, which is at the boundary between the
A ¼ b*2πr ð10:3Þ aquifer and the lower aquitard.

Substitute Eqs. 10.2 and 10.3 into Eq. 10.1. h1 ¼ 200 100 ¼ 100 m h2 ¼ 200 95 ¼ 105 m

dH
Q¼ K *2π rb ð10:4Þ 1, 090lnð200=100 Þ T 24
dr T¼ 24 m2 =day K ¼ ¼ ¼ 0:48 m=day
2π ð105 100Þ b 50
Q is negative because flow is in the negative r direction
(toward the well).
It is conventional in groundwater modeling to combine Unconfined Aquifer Model
the depth and conductivity of the aquifer into one term called
the transmissivity. Unconfined aquifers have no confining aquitard above; the
water table is at atmospheric pressure, and the piezometric
T ¼ Kb ð10:5Þ surface is the water table. Nevertheless, Dupuit-Forchheimer
(horizontal) flow is also assumed in this unconfined aquifer
where model (Fig. 10.10). Transmissivity of an unconfined aquifer is
variable because the cross-sectional area of flow decreases near
T ¼ transmissivity, m /day. the well as the water table declines (Fig. 10.10).
The depth of the aquifer is equal to h, the water table
elevation, at any radial distance from the pumping well. The
dH cross-sectional area is 2πrh, and flow rate is Darcy velocity *
Q¼ *2π rT ð10:6Þ cross-sectional flow area.
dr
dH
Integrate Eq. 10.6 and solve for elevation of the piezometric Q¼ K *2π rh ð10:10Þ
dr
surface with distance from the well.

Zr2 Zh2 Zr2 Zh2

Q dr Q dr
¼ dH ð10:7Þ ¼ hdH ð10:11Þ
2πT r 2πK r
r1 h1
r1 h1

Q Q h22 h21
ðlnðr 2 Þ lnðr 1 ÞÞ ¼ h2 h1 ð10:8Þ lnðr 2 Þ lnðr1 Þ ¼ ð10:12Þ
2πT 2πK 2

Qlnðr2 =r1 Þ Qlnðr2 =r1 Þ

T¼ ð10:9Þ K¼ ð10:13Þ
2π ðh2 h1 Þ π h22 h21

Equation 10.9 is called the Thiem equation. Equation 10.13, the Thiem equation for unconfined aquifers,
is different from Eq. 10.9 for confined aquifers because the
178 10 Groundwater

Fig. 10.10 Unconfined aquifer r2

r1

Pumping well
Observation
wells
Water table surface

h1 h2
Unconfined aquifer

Aquitard

cross-sectional area of flow changes with distance from in the well during pumping and the static water level in the
the well. well with no pumping. For a confined aquifer, the specific
capacity is calculated as follows by rearranging the Thiem
Example 10.3 Find the conductivity and transmissitivity of equation:
an unconfined aquifer. The flow rate is 200 gpm, and obser-
vation wells at distances of 100- and 200-m from the Q 2πT
SC ¼ ¼ ð10:14Þ
pumping well have depths to the water table of 100-m and ðhe hw Þ lnðre =rw Þ
95-m, respectively. Depth to the aquitard is 130 m.
Set the datum equal to the upper surface of the aquitard. where

h1 ¼ 130 100 ¼ 30 m r ¼ well radius

h2 ¼ 130 95 ¼ 35 m r ¼ distance where there is no drawdown, m.

1, 090lnð200=100Þ In this case, the radial distances in the Thiem equation are
K¼ ¼ 0:74 m=day
π 352 302 well radius and the distance to a point in the aquifer at which
there is no drawdown. If this distance is unknown, then it is
The product of conductivity and average aquifer thickness is typically assumed that r ¼ 1,000 r . If this is the case, ln
a reasonable estimate of transmissivity. (1,000 r /r ) ¼ 6.9, and Eq. 10.14 reduces as follows:

35 þ 30 Q 2πT
h¼ ¼ 32:5m T ¼ Kh ¼ 0:74*32:5 ¼ 24 m2 =day SC ¼ ¼ T ð10:15Þ
2 ðhe hw Þ 6:9

These calculations are also performed in the Unconfined The specific capacity of an unconfined aquifer is more diffi-
aquifer worksheet cult to calculate and must be adjusted with correction
factors.

Specific Capacity Example 10.4 Calculate the drawdown in the well that was
assessed in Example 10.2 if pumping flow rate is 200 gpm
Once the transmissivity of the aquifer is calculated, the (1,090 m /day). A “good well” is generally considered to be
specific capacity of the well can be determined, which is able to support a flow rate of 1,000 gpm. Reassess at the
the ratio of the pumping flow rate to the drawdown. The “good well” flow rate.
drawdown is the difference between the dynamic water level
Transient Aquifer Models 179

In Example 10.2, T was calculated as 24 m /day. Thus, where

SC is approximately equal to 24 m /day.
S ¼ Storativity or specific yield, m/m.
he hw ¼ drawdown ¼ Q=SC ¼ 1, 090=24 ¼ 45 m
The equation can be rearranged and s can be plotted as a
This would be acceptable since the dynamic water level in function of t/r as follows or as a function of t as in
the well would be approximately 5 m above the aquifer since Eq. 10.18:
the static water level is approximately 50 m above the top of
the aquifer. Q r2S
At 1,000 gpm, the drawdown would be s¼ W ð10:19Þ
4πT 4Tt
he hw ¼ drawdown ¼ Q=SC ¼ 5ð1; 090Þ=24 ¼ 227 m
The derivation and theory behind the Theis equation are not
easy to understand; however, the use of the Theis equation to
This would be unacceptable since the water table would
find T and S is made quite simple in the Chapter 10 Ground-
theoretically drop below the aquifer.
water Excel program. The Theis scrollbars worksheet allows
adjustment of S and T until the Theis theoretical curve
(based on Eq. 10.19) matches the shape and magnitude of a
Transient Aquifer Models
drawdown vs. time curve (s vs. t/r ) curve for a group of
wells. Adjusting transmissivity changes the magnitude of the
There are many transient models for confined, unconfined, and
curve, and adjusting storativity changes the shape (slope) of
leaky confined aquifers). This section presents the original
the curve. This scrollbar method for matching the Theis
confined aquifer model for a fully penetrating well (water
curve was originally developed by Gao, but the reference
flows into the well for the entire thickness of the aquifer),
has been lost, and cannot be found on the Internet. This
which was adapted by C.V. Theis from heat transfer equations.
version is not the original program by Gao, but follows the
C.V. Theis adapted heat transfer equations to groundwa-
same procedure. The “expint1” W(u) function is in the Excel
ter and developed the Theis equation for transient water
VBA editor.
table behavior. This equation can be used to calculate the
water table at any distance from a well at any time after
Example 10.5 Calculate the transmissivity and storativity
initiation of pumping. It can also be used to fit observed
of a confined aquifer with the Theis scrollbar worksheet.
transient water table behavior in order to calculate the trans-
The following drawdown data was collected from an obser-
missivity and storativity of an aquifer. The traditional
vation well 20 m from the pumping well. The well flow rate
method developed by Theis is called the type curve method;
was 5,000 m /day.
he overlaid the observed drawdown vs. time logarithmic
curve on a theoretical logarithmic curve in order to calculate Time after initiation of pumping Drawdown s (m)
storativity and transmissivity. The following equation devel- 5 min 2.98
oped by Theis calculates the drawdown s as a function of 10 min 4.23
flow Q, transmissivity T, and the well function, W(u). 20 min 5.54
1 hour 7.67
Z1
Q e u 2 hour 9.04
ð he hw Þ ¼ s ¼ du ð10:16Þ 3 hour 9.84
4πT u
u 4 hour 10.41
5 hour 10.86
ðhe hw Þ ¼ s 6 hour 11.22
Q u2 u3 u4 7 hour 11.53
¼ 0:5772 lnu þ u þ þ ... 10 hour 12.23
4πT 2*2! 3*3! 4*4!
Q 15 hour 13.04
¼ W ðuÞ ð10:17Þ 20 hour 13.61
4πT
24 hour 13.97
where W(u) is called the well function and Convert the data to t/r with units of days/m
r2S Time Time (days) t/r s
u¼ ð10:18Þ
4Tt 5 min 0.0035 0.0000087 2.98
10 min 0.0069 0.0000174 4.23
20 min 0.0139 0.0000347 5.54
(continued)
180 10 Groundwater

Time Time (days) t/r s are available for this purpose Theis s vs. t worksheet and
1 hour 0.0417 0.0001042 7.67 Theis s vs. t/r worksheet.
2 hour 0.0833 0.0002083 9.04 The Theis equation is only applicable to homogenous
3 hour 0.1250 0.0003125 9.84 aquifers. Numerical groundwater models have been devel-
4 hour 0.1667 0.0004167 10.41 oped to calculate aquifer parameters for nonhomogenous,
5 hour 0.2083 0.0005208 10.86 nonisotropic and irregular aquifers. One popular aquifer
6 hour 0.2500 0.0006250 11.22 model developed by the USGS is called MODFLOW.
7 hour 0.2917 0.0007292 11.53 After rough estimates of well flow rate with the Thiem or
10 hour 0.4167 0.0010417 12.23 Theis models, or steady state tests, a step drawdown test with
15 hour 0.6250 0.0015625 13.04 a test pump can be used to determine the actual size of the
20 hour 0.8333 0.0020833 13.61 pump that should be installed in the well. The first phase of a
24 hour 1.0000 0.0025000 13.97
step drawdown test is to find the maximum permissible
pumping flow rate, which is found by increasing the
Input the right two columns of data into the Theis pumping rate until the steady state drawdown is equal to
scrollbar worksheet under the Actual data columns the maximum permissible drawdown in the well. This maxi-
(columns C:D) as shown in Fig. 10.11. Note that because mum flow rate should be maintained for at least 8 hours, and
time is expressed as t/r , drawdown data could have been once it is confirmed that the drawdown has reached steady
taken from any location in the aquifer where each drawdown state, the test should be maintained for at least one more
is normalized by its distance, r, from the pumping well. hour. However, a 24 hour test is preferable, especially in low
Adjust the T and S scrollbars until the Actual data and permeability aquifers (ASAE EP400.2 T). Next, the draw-
Calculated values curves are aligned. It is best to reduce the down at 80 % of the maximum discharge is determined by
range of s on the y-axis scale in order to improve accuracy lowering the pump flow rate by 20 % and continuing to
(Fig. 10.12). rom Fig. 10.27, it is observed that storativity, S, pump. Once the drawdown level is maintained at a constant
is 0.001 and transmissivity, T, is 193 m /day. It should be level for at least 30 minutes and recorded, then flow is
noted that actual drawdown curves will not generally fit as dropped to the 60 %, 40 %, and 20 % of maximum discharge
tightly as in Fig. 10.12. flow rates. These drawdown and discharge rates can be used
If storativity and transmissivity are known, then the Theis to select a pump and to find the intersection point of the
equation can be used to plot drawdown vs. time. worksheets pump curve and the irrigation system curve.

Fig. 10.11 Theis scrollbars worksheet before adjustment of T and S scrollbars

Wells 181

Fig. 10.12 Aligned actual data and calculated values curves

Fig. 10.13 Well casing

Wells Solid well
casing
This section is intended to give a brief summary of well
drilling steps, screens, gravel pack, and casings so that an
irrigation engineer can communicate with well designers. It
is not at all intended to give the necessary background to
pick well casings, gravel packs, screens, pumps, or pipes. Slotted
These should be designed by a certified well driller or well casing
professional with experience in the region in which the
well is to be drilled. Selecting the proper casing, screen, Gravel
etc. is a science in and of itself. Some well equipment pack
manufacturers will design the components of the well if
the materials are purchased from them. Bentonite
The well casing is solid steel pipe except where the well seal
penetrates the aquifer. Slotted steel pipe or wound stainless
steel screens are surrounded by a gravel pack in order to
facilitate water movement into the well but prevent aquifer
materials from entering the well (Fig. 10.13). The well is
sealed above and below the aquifer to prevent pollutant
leakage into the aquifer by placing a bentonite seal above The gravel pack is poured into the well over the entire
and below the gravel pack. The bentonite is poured into the height of the water bearing aquifer. In order to allow water to
well as a dry aggregate at the base of and at the upper end of freely enter the well while at the same time preventing
the water bearing aquifer. As it hydrates between the well particles from entering the well, the gravel pack has a size
casing and the well wall, the well is sealed. The sealant gradation that maintains high hydraulic conductivity but at
material is an expanding clay called Wyoming bentonite the same time has small enough particles to filter out
that is actually montmorillonite. A good seal is important particles that are carried with the pumped water.
in agricultural wells because of the danger of chemical spills Specifications for gravel pack particle size distribution are
near the well that could wash down the well. found in many handbooks.
182 10 Groundwater

If a well is drilled into an unstable formation such as toward the groundwater. Point sources cause groundwater
unconsolidated sand and gravel, then the well casing must contamination plumes that spread as the groundwater moves
be driven into the well right behind the drill bit so that the below the ground surface and carries the pollutants with it.
well does not collapse. If the well is drilled into rock, then Nonpoint source pollution directly pollutes large groundwa-
the well casing is driven into the well after the drilling is ter regions.
completed.
One of the criteria for selection of well casing wall
thickness is the differential pressure head on the inside and Questions
outside of the well, which is generally the difference
between the water elevation within the well and the piezo- 1. What are the five major types of aquifers?
metric surface outside the well. This may change due to the 2. Describe four different types of aquifers commonly used
fact that the water level is drawn down within the well for irrigation and give an example of each.
during pumping. Well casing is most susceptible to collapse 3. Draw a confined and unconfined aquifer.
during installation before the gravel pack around the well is 4. Discuss groundwater recharge and discharge
installed. Shipping can sometimes damage well casing so components for a basin
that it is not perfectly cylindrical. A small eccentricity, even 5. Discuss the impact of overpumping on stream flow in
1 %, reduces the differential head limitation. arid climates.
Energy is lost as water moves through the slotted casing. 6. Discuss the natural condition and impact of man on the
This results in an additional depth of drawdown in the well. Ogallala aquifer.
This energy loss (additional drawdown) can be calculated as 7. Discuss the impact of irrigation on water table elevation
a function of well flow rate. and salinization.
8. Calculate the porosity, storativity, specific yield, and
specific retention for an aquifer that has 40 % water
Groundwater Pollution below the water table, and yield of 1.2 m of water for
every 5 m drop in water table elevation.
Regulation of groundwater will continue to grow in impor- 9. A coarse sand aquifer has a water table slope of 1 m/
tance for agriculture. The trend is to increase regulations that 100 m. Evaluate at the upper and lower limits of coarse
restrict the leaching or runoff of agricultural chemicals, sand hydraulic conductivity. What is the Darcy velocity
pesticides and nutrients, from agriculture. of the water in the aquifer? The cross sectional area of
Prior to the 1970s, scientists thought that groundwater the aquifer is 100 m x 1,000 m. What is the volume of
was naturally protected from contamination by the layers of water flow in 1 year? Convert water volume to acre-ft.
soil above the groundwater. Although layers of soil may help How many acres of cotton could be irrigated with this
slow or reduce pollution of the groundwater, some chemicals volume per year? Also calculate for a silt aquifer with a
are not removed from water as it moves through the soil. In hydraulic conductivity at the lower end of silt
addition, the soil has a maximum capacity to absorb conductivities.
pollutants, and continued addition of pollutants to soil will 10. Find the hydraulic gradient and the direction of flow
overwhelm this capacity. As a result of some catastrophic with the East axis (x-axis) as zero degrees for the fol-
environmental disasters in the 1970s such as dumping of lowing three wells. Show your work (work it by hand),
extremely toxic chemicals in landfills within sand aquifers, and check your work with the Groundwater program.
Congress passed the Safe Drinking Water Act and
authorized the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to East North Elevation
set standards for maximum levels of contaminants in drink- Well 1 50 600 104
Well 2 400 250 105
ing water, and to regulate activities that may adversely affect
Well 3 200 50 108
water quality. The protection effort includes disposal
regulations, water treatment, and water monitoring. 11. If the aquifer in question 10 is a coarse sand aquifer
There are two major types of groundwater pollution: with hydraulic conductivity equal to 100 m/day and
point source and nonpoint source. A point source comes porosity of 0.40 calculate the Darcy velocity and the
from a single location such as a factory, concentrated animal velocity that a contaminant plume would travel through
feedlot operation (CAFO), or a landfill. Nonpoint source the aquifer.
pollution comes from a broad area such as nitrate pollution 12. What is the reason that aquifer pollution is much more
from agricultural fertilizers and animal waste used for fertil- difficult to correct than surface water pollution?
ization on farms. As irrigation and precipitation infiltrate 13. What are the primary pollutants from agriculture that
into the soil, the water carries pollutants with it downward have contributed to aquifer pollution?
References and Resources 183

14. What often happens to shallow aquifers when irrigation would be considered a good well. Assume that the
is introduced to a region? drawdown after 7 days is the steady state drawdown.
15. Find the transmissivity and conductivity of confined 20. The static water table in the aquifer described in
aquifer in which the flow rate to a well is 400 gpm, questions 17–19 is 40 m below the ground surface.
and observation wells at distances of 100- and 200-m The pump in the well has a pump curve as shown
from the pumping well have depths to the water table of below. The pump has an open discharge 0.5 m above
100-m and 98-m, respectively. The upper surface of the the ground surface, and the sum of minor losses
aquifer is 140 m below ground and the aquifer is 40 m (K) ¼ 3.9 (including velocity head losses at the dis-
thick. Check your calculations with the Confined aquifer charge). The pump hangs on a 12 inch pipe (Schedule
worksheet. 40) at an elevation 80 m below the ground surface, and
16. Find the conductivity and transmissivity in an uncon- there is a 2 m section of pipe above the ground surface
fined aquifer in which the flow rate to a well is 400 gpm, (total 82 m pipe). The pipe has a Hazen Williams
and observation wells at distances of 100- and 200-m C ¼ 100. Include the minor losses. Calculate the dis-
from the pumping well have depths to the water table of charge flow rate.
100-m and 98-m, respectively. The lower boundary of
the aquifer (upper surface of aquitard) is 150 m below
the ground.
17. Calculate the transmissivity and storativity of a confined
aquifer. The following drawdown data was collected
from an observation well 100 m from the pumping
well. The well flow rate was 2,000 m /day.

Time after initiation of pumping Drawdown s (m)

1 min 0.44
2 min 0.55
4 min 0.66
8 min 0.77
0.01 day 0.86 21. What are the two types of groundwater pollution?
0.02 day 0.97 Which comes from field agriculture?
0.04 day 1.08
0.08 day 1.19
0.16 day 1.30
0.32 day 1.41 References and Resources
0.64 day 1.52
1 day 1.59 American Groundwater Trust. www.AGWT.org
Elhadj E (2008) Dry aquifers in Arab countries and the looming food
18. For the aquifer in question 17, calculate the drawdown in crisis. Middle East Rev Int Aff 12(4):1–12
the well for a series of points between 1 hr and 1 week. Huffman R, Fangmeier D, Elliott W, Workman S (2013) Soil and water
The well diameter is 50 cm (use r ¼ 0.25 m in the Theis conservation engineering. American Society of Agricultural and
s vs. t worksheet). The pump flow rate is 3,000 m /day. Biological Engineering, St. Joseph
JohnsonScreens. Publisher of Groundwater and Wells (the definitive
19. The well described in questions 17 and 18 has a maxi- resource on well design). http://www.weatherford.com/
mum acceptable drawdown of 20 m inside the well. The weatherford/groups/public/documents/johnsonscreens/
pressure loss in the casing is flow rate (m /day)/4,600. Lvovich MI (1979) World water resources, present and future.
Calculate the maximum allowable pump flow rate and GeoJournal 3(5):423–433
National Groundwater Association. www.NGWA.org
the drawdown at 80 %, 60 %, 40 %, and 20 % of USBR Groundwater manual (1995) US Department of the Interior.
maximum. Plot the drawdown vs. flow rate curve. Bureau of Reclamation. pp 661. http://www.usbr.gov/pmts/
What is the shape of the curve? Convert the maximum wquality_land/GndWater.pdf
flow rate to units of GPM and report whether this well USGS Groundwater Information. http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/