SRI CHANDRASEKHARENDRA SARASWATHI VISWA MAHA VIDYALAYA

ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

COURSE MATERIAL

Electronic Devices

Prerequisite: Basic knowledge of electronic components and laws such as KCL, KVL, etc

OBJECTIVES:

The student should be made to Learn about biasing of BJTs and MOSFETs

Design and construct amplifiers

Construct amplifiers with active loads

Study high frequency response of all amplifiers

Unit-1

Semiconductor Material Properties: Elemental & compound semiconductor materials,

Bonding forces and Energy bands in intrinsic and extrinsic silicon, Charge carrier in
semiconductors , carrier concentration, Junction properties, Equilibrium condition,
biased junction, Steady state condition, breakdown mechanism (Rectifying Diodes,
Zener Diodes),Metal Semiconductor Junction. Special diodes: Tunnel diodes, Varactor
diodes, Schottky diode, Photo diodes, Photo detector, LED, solar cell.

Unit-2

Diode circuits: Ideal and Practical diode, Clipper, Clamper. Power Supply: Rectifiers-
Half wave, Full wave, Bridge rectifier, filter circuits, Voltage regulation using shunt &
series regulator circuits, Voltage regulation using IC 723

Unit-3

Fundamentals of BJT: Construction, basic operation, current components and

equations, CB, CE and CC configuration, input and output characteristics, Early effect,
Region of operations: active, cut-off and saturation region. BJT as an amplifier and
switch - Photo transistor. Uni-junction Transistor (UJT) and Thyristors: UJT: Principle
of operation, characteristics, UJT relaxation oscillator.
Unit-4

Small Signal analysis: Small signal Amplifier, Amplifier Bandwidth, Hybrid model,
analysis of transistor amplifier using h-parameter, Multistage Amplifier: Cascading
amplifier, Boot-strapping Technique, Darlington amplifier and Cascode amplifier,
Coupling methods in multistage amplifier, Low and high frequency response, Hybrid π
model, Current Mirror circuits.

Unit-5

FET construction- JFET: Construction, n-channel and p-channel, transfer and drain
characteristics, parameters, Equivalent model and voltage gain, analysis of FET in CG,
CS and CD configuration. Enhancement and Depletion MOSFET drain and transfer
Characteristics. Integrated circuit fabrication process: oxidation, diffusion, ion
implantation, photolithography, etching, chemical vapor deposition, sputtering, twin-
tub CMOS process.

OUTCOMES:

Upon Completion of the course, the students will be able to

Design circuits with transistor biasing.

Design simple amplifier circuits.

Analyze the small signal equivalent circuits of transistors and Design and analyze large
signal amplifiers.

TEXT BOOK:

1. Donald .A. Neamen, Electronic Circuit Analysis and Design –2 nd Edition, Tata Mc
Graw Hill, 2009.

REFERENCE BOOKS:

1. Millman & Halkias, “Electronic Devices And Circuits”, TMH. 2013

2. Salivahanan, Kumar & Vallavaraj, “Electronic Devices And Circuits”, TMH. 2016

3. Boylestad & Neshelsky, “Electronic Devices & Circuits”, PHI.2012

4. Schilling & Belove, “Electronic Circuits , Discrete & Integrated”, TMH.2011

5. R.S.Sedha,Text book of applied electronics,second edition,S Chand publishing private

limited,2008

6. Adel S. Sedra & Kenneth C. Smith, “Microelectronic Circuits”, OUP.2007

7. R. A. Gayakwad, “Op-Amps And Linear Integrated Circuits”, PHI 2010

8. Theodore F. Bogart, Jeffrey S. Beasley, “Guillermo Rico Electronic Devices &

Circuits”.2014
UNIT I

PN Junction Diode
A p-n junction diode is two-terminal or two-electrode semiconductor device, which allows
the electric current in only one direction while blocks the electric current in opposite or
reverse direction. If the diode is forward biased, it allows the electric current flow. On the
other hand, if the diode is reverse biased, it blocks the electric current flow. P-N junction
semiconductor diode is also called as p-n junction semiconductor device. In n-type
semiconductors, free electrons are the majority charge carriers whereas in p-type
semiconductors, holes are the majority charge carriers. When the n-type semiconductor is
joined with the p-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is formed. The p-n junction, which is
formed when the p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined, is called as p-n junction
diode.

ZENER DIODE

❖ When the reverse voltage reaches breakdown voltage in normal PN junction diode, the
current through the junction and the power dissipated at the junction will be high. Such
an operation is destructive and the diode gets damaged.
❖ Whereas diodes can be designed with adequate power dissipation capabilities to operate
in a break down region. One such a diode is known as Zener diode.
❖ Zener diode is heavily doped (1 micrometer) than the ordinary diode. Due to this the
depletion layer will be very thin and for small applied reverse voltage (VR) there will
be sharp increase in current.
 V I Characteristics of Zener Diode

TUNNEL DIODE

• A tunnel diode or Esaki diode is a type of semiconductor diode that has effectively
“negative Resistance" due to the quantum mechanical effect called Tunneling.
Tunnel diodes have a heavily doped positive-to-negative (P-N) junction that is about 10 nm
(100 Å) wide. The heavy doping results in a broken band gap, where conduction band electron
states on the N-side are more or less aligned with valence band hole states on the P-side. They
are usually made from germanium, but can also be made from gallium
arsenide and silicon materials.

• Forward bias operation

 • Under normal forward bias operation, as voltage begins to increase, electrons at first
tunnel through the very narrow P-N junction barrier and fill electron states in the
conduction band on the N-side which become aligned with empty valence band hole
states on the P-side of the P-N junction.
• As voltage increases further, these states become increasingly misaligned, and the
current drops. This is called negative differential resistance because
current decreases with increasing voltage.
• As voltage increases beyond a fixed transition point, the diode begins to operate as a
normal diode, where electrons travel by conduction across the P-N junction, and no
longer by tunneling through the P–N junction barrier. The most important operating
region for a tunnel diode is the "negative resistance" region. Its graph is different from
normal P-N junction diode.

Reverse bias operation

When used in the reverse direction, tunnel diodes are called back diodes (or backward diodes)
and can act as fast rectifiers with zero offset voltage and extreme linearity for power signals.
Under reverse bias, filled states on the P-side become increasingly aligned with empty states
on the N-side, and electrons now tunnel through the P-N junction barrier in reverse direction.

Varactor Diode

• Varactor diode construction

• The varactor diode is made up of the p-type and n-type semiconductor. In the n-type
semiconductor, free electrons are the majority carriers and holes are the minority
carriers. So the free electrons carry most of the electric current in n-type
semiconductor. In the p-type semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers and free
electrons are the minority carriers. So the holes carry most of the electric current in p-
type semiconductor.
When a p-type semiconductor is in contact with the n-type semiconductor, a p-n junction is
formed between them. This p-n junction separates the p-type and n-type semiconductor.
At the p-n junction, a depletion region is created. A depletion region is a region where mobile
charge carriers (free electrons and holes) are absent.
The depletion region is made up of positive and negative ions (charged atoms). These positive
and negative ions does not move from one place to another place.
The depletion region blocks free electrons from n-side and holes from p-side. Thus, depletion
region blocks electric current across the p-n junction.

• How varactor diode works?

• The varactor diode should always be operated in reverse bias. Because in reverse bias,
the electric current does not flow. When a forward bias voltage is applied, the electric
current flows through the diode. As a result, the depletion region becomes negligible.
We know that depletion region consists of stored charges. So stored charges becomes
negligible which is undesirable.
• A varactor diode is designed to store electric charge not to conduct electric current. So
varactor diode should always be operated in reverse bias.
• When a reverse bias voltage is applied, the electrons from n-region and holes from p-
region moves away from the junction. As a result, the width of depletion region
increases and the capacitance decreases.
 • If the reverse bias voltage is increased, the width of depletion region further increases
and the capacitance further decreases.
• On the other hand, if the reverse bias voltage is reduced, the width of depletion region
decreases and the capacitance increases.

Varactor Diodes
 • Varicap diode, varactor diode, variable capacitance diode, variable reactance
diode or tuning diode is a type of diode designed to exploit the voltage-
dependent capacitance of a reverse-biased PN Junction.
• Varactors are operated in a Reverse biased state, so no DC current flows through the
device. The amount of reverse bias controls the thickness of the depletion Zone and
therefore the varactor's junction capacitance. Generally, the depletion region thickness
is proportional to the square root of the applied voltage, and capacitance is inversely
proportional to the depletion region thickness. Thus, the capacitance is inversely
proportional to the square root of applied voltage.
• All diodes exhibit this variable junction capacitance, but varactors are manufactured to
exploit the effect and increase the capacitance variation.
• The figure shows an example of a cross section of a varactor with the depletion layer
formed of a p–n junction.
• Thus, an increase in reverse bias voltage increases the width of the depletion region and
decreases the capacitance of a varactor diode.
• The decrease in capacitance means the decrease in storage charge. So the reverse bias
voltage should be kept at a minimum to achieve large storage charge. Thus, capacitance
or transition capacitance can be varied by varying the voltage.
• In a fixed capacitor, the capacitance will not be varied whereas, in variable capacitor,
the capacitance is varied.
• In a varactor diode, the capacitance is varied when the voltage is varied. So the varactor
diode is a variable capacitor. The capacitance of a varactor diode is measured in
picofarads (pF).
Applications of varactor diode
• Varactor diode is used in frequency multipliers.
• Varactor diode is used in parametric amplifiers.
• Varactor diode is used in voltage-controlled oscillators.
SCHOTTKY DIODE
• Schottky diode definition
• Schottky diode is a metal-semiconductor junction diode that has less forward voltage
drop than the P-N junction diode and can be used in high-speed switching applications.
• What is a schottky diode?
• In a normal p-n junction diode, a p-type semiconductor and an n-type
semiconductor are used to form the p-n junction. When a p-type semiconductor is
joined with an n-type semiconductor, a junction is formed between the P-type and N-
type semiconductor. This junction is known as P-N junction.
• In schottky diode, metals such as aluminum or platinum replace the P-type
semiconductor. The schottky diode is named after German physicist Walter H.
Schottky.
• Schottky diode is also known as schottky barrier diode, surface barrier diode, majority
carrier device, hot-electron diode, or hot carrier diode. Schottky diodes are widely used
in radio frequency (RF) applications.

• When aluminum or platinum metal is joined with N-type semiconductor, a junction is

formed between the metal and N-type semiconductor. This junction is known as a
metal-semiconductor junction or M-S junction. A metal-semiconductor junction
formed between a metal and n-type semiconductor creates a barrier or depletion layer
known as a schottky barrier.
• Schottky diode can switch on and off much faster than the p-n junction diode. Also, the
schottky diode produces less unwanted noise than p-n junction diode. These two
characteristics of the schottky diode make it very useful in high-speed switching power
circuits.
• When the metal is joined with the n-type semiconductor, the conduction band electrons
(free electrons) in the n-type semiconductor will move from n-type semiconductor to
metal to establish an equilibrium state.
• We know that when a neutral atom loses an electron it becomes a positive ion similarly
when a neutral atom gains an extra electron it becomes a negative ion.
• The conduction band electrons or free electrons that are crossing the junction will
provide extra electrons to the atoms in the metal. As a result, the atoms at the metal
junction gains extra electrons and the atoms at the n-side junction lose electrons.
• Forward biased schottky diode
• If the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the metal and the negative terminal
of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the schottky diode is said to be
forward biased.
• When a forward bias voltage is applied to the schottky diode, a large number of free
electrons are generated in the n-type semiconductor and metal. However, the free
electrons in n-type semiconductor and metal cannot cross the junction unless the
applied voltage is greater than 0.2 volts.

• If the applied voltage is greater than 0.2 volts, the free electrons gain enough energy
and overcomes the built-in-voltage of the depletion region. As a result, electric current
starts flowing through the schottky diode.
• If the applied voltage is continuously increased, the depletion region becomes very thin
and finally disappears.
• Reverse bias schottky diode
• If the negative terminal of the battery is connected to the metal and the positive terminal
of the battery is connected to the n-type semiconductor, the schottky diode is said to be
reverse biased.
• When a reverse bias voltage is applied to the schottky diode, the depletion width
increases. As a result, the electric current stops flowing. However, a small leakage
current flows due to the thermally excited electrons in the metal.

❖ If the reverse bias voltage is continuously increased, the electric current gradually
increases due to the weak barrier.
❖ If the reverse bias voltage is largely increased, a sudden rise in electric current takes
place. This sudden rise in electric current causes depletion region to break down which
may permanently damage the device.
❖ V-I characteristics of schottky diode
❖ The V-I (Voltage-Current) characteristics of schottky diode is shown in the below
figure. The vertical line in the below figure represents the current flow in the schottky
diode and the horizontal line represents the voltage applied across the schottky diode.
❖ The V-I characteristics of schottky diode is almost similar to the P-N junction diode.
However, the forward voltage drop of schottky diode is very low as compared to the P-
N junction diode.
❖ The forward voltage drop of schottky diode is 0.2 to 0.3 volts whereas the forward
voltage drop of silicon P-N junction diode is 0.6 to 0.7 volts.
❖ If the forward bias voltage is greater than 0.2 or 0.3 volts, electric current starts flowing
through the schottky diode.
❖ In schottky diode, the reverse saturation current occurs at a very low voltage as
compared to the silicon diode.
Applications of schottky diodes
• Schottky diodes are used as general-purpose rectifiers.
• Schottky diodes are used in radio frequency (RF) applications.
• Schottky diodes are widely used in power supplies.
• Schottky diodes are used to detect signals.
• Schottky diodes are used in logic circuits.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

• Light-emitting diode
• Semiconductor
• Has polarity

Inside a Light Emitting Diode

The PN junction of an LED is surrounded by a transparent, hard plastic epoxy resin
hemispherical shaped shell or body which protects the LED from both vibration and shock.
1. Transparent Plastic Case
2. Terminal Pins
3. Diode
4. Light emitting diodes are made from a very thin layer of heavily doped semiconductor
material and depending on the semiconductor material used and the amount of doping,
when forward biased an LED will emit a coloured light at a particular spectral
wavelength.
5. When the diode is forward biased, electrons from the semiconductors conduction band
recombine with holes from the valence band releasing sufficient energy to produce
photons which emit a monochromatic (single colour) of light.
6. Because of this thin layer a reasonable number of these photons can leave the junction
and radiate away producing a coloured light output.
LED: How It Works

When current flows across a diode, Negative electrons move one way and positive holes
move the other way.
 • This energy is emitted in a form of a photon, which causes light.
• The color of the light is determined by the fall of the electron and hence energy level
of the photon.
LIGHT EMITTING DIODE COLOURS
• Light Emitting Diodes are made from semiconductor compounds such as Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Phosphide (GaP), Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP),
Silicon Carbide (SiC) or Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) all mixed together at different
ratios to produce a distinct wavelength of color.

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE
 PHOTO DETECTOR
• Photodetectors, also called photosensors, are sensors of light or
other electromagnetic radiation. A photo detector has a p–n junction that converts light
photons into current. The absorbed photons make electron–hole pairs in the depletion
region.
• Photodiodes and photo transistors are a few examples of photo detectors.
• Solar cells convert some of the light energy absorbed into electrical energy.

SOLAR CELL

• A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell, is an electrical device that converts the energy
of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
• The voltage induced by the PV cell depends on the intensity of light incident on it.

• The electrons of the semiconductor material are joined together by the covalent bond.
The electromagnetic radiations(light) are made of small energy particles called photons.
When the photons are incident on the semiconductor material, then the electrons
become energised and starts emitting.
• The energised electron is known as the Photoelectrons. And the phenomenon of
emission of electrons is known as the photoelectric effect. The working of the
Photovoltaic cell depends on the photoelectric effect.
• CONSTRUCTION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL

• The semiconductor materials like arsenide, indium, cadmium, silicon, selenium and
gallium are used for making the PV cells.
• The surface of the cell is made of the thin layer of the p-type material so that the light
can easily enter into the material. The metal rings are placed around p-type and n-type
material which acts as their positive and negative output terminals respectively.
• Working of PV cell
• The light incident on the semiconductor material may get absorbed or reflected through
it. The PV cell is made of the semiconductor material which is neither a complete
conductor nor an insulator.
• This property of semiconductor material makes it more efficient for converting the light
energy into electric energy. When the semiconductor material absorbs light, the
electrons of the material will get excited.
• This happens because the light consists small energise particles called photons.
• When the electrons absorb the photons, they become energised and starts moving into
the material. Because of the effect of an electric field, the particles move only in the
one direction and develops current.
• The semiconductor materials have the metallic electrodes through which the current
goes out of it. Consider the figure given which shows the PV cell made of silicon and
the resistive load is connected across it.
• The PV cell consists the P and N-type layer of semiconductor material. These layers
are joined together to form the PN junction.
• The junction is the interface between the p-type and n-type material. When the light fall
on the junction the electrons starts moving from one region to another.

• The output voltage and current obtained from the single unit of the cell is very less. The
different combinations of cells are used for increasing the output efficiency. There are
three possible ways of combining the PV cells.
❖ Series Combination of PV Cells
❖ Parallel Combination of PV cells
❖ Series-Parallel Combination of PV cells
PHOTO DIODE
❖ A photodiode is a P-N junction or PIN semiconductor device that consumes light energy
to generate electric current.
❖ Photodiodes are specially designed to operate in reverse bias condition.
❖ Photodiode is very sensitive to light so when light or photons falls on the photodiode it
easily converts light into electric current.
PHOTO DIODE SYMBOL
 ❖ The arrows striking the diode represent light or photons.
❖ A photodiode has two terminals: a cathode and an anode.

TYPES OF PHOTODIODES
❖ The different types of photodiodes are
❑ PN junction photodiode
❑ PIN photodiode
❑ Avalanche photodiode

PN junction PHOTODIODE
• When external light energy is supplied to the p-n junction photodiode, the valence
electrons in the depletion region gains energy.
• If the light energy applied to the photodiode is greater the band-gap of semiconductor
material, the valence electrons gain enough energy and break bonding with the
parent atom. The valence electron which breaks bonding with the parent atom will
become free electron.
• Free electrons move freely from one place to another place by carrying the electric
current. When the valence electron leave the valence shell an empty space is created in
the valence shell at which valence electron left. This empty space in the valence shell
is called a hole.
• Thus, both free electrons and holes are generated as pairs. The mechanism of generating
electron-hole pair by using light energy is known as the inner photoelectric effect. The
minority carriers in the depletion region experience force due to the depletion
region electric field and the external electric field.
• The strong depletion region electric field and the external electric field increase the drift
velocity of the free electrons.
 • Because of this high drift velocity, the minority carriers (free electrons and holes)
generated in the depletion region will cross the p-n junction before they recombine with
atoms. As a result, the minority carrier current increases.
• When no light is applied to the reverse bias photodiode, it carries a small reverse current
due to external voltage. This small electric current under the absence of light is called
dark current. It is denoted by I λ.

PIN photodiode
• PIN photodiode is made of three layers namely p-type, n-type and intrinsic
semiconductor.
• A PIN photodiode is made of p region and n region separated by a highly resistive
intrinsic layer. The intrinsic layer is placed between the p region and n region to increase
the width of depletion region.
• The p-type and n-type semiconductors are heavily doped. Therefore, the p region and
n region of the PIN photodiode has large number of charge carriers to carry electric
current. However, these charge carriers will not carry electric current under reverse bias
condition.

In PIN photodiode, the charge carriers generated in the depletion region carry most of the
electric current. The charge carriers generated in the p region or n region carry only a small
electric current.
When light or photon energy is applied to the PIN diode, most part of the energy is observed
by the intrinsic or depletion region because of the wide depletion width. As a result, a large
number of electron-hole pairs are generated.
Free electrons generated in the intrinsic region move towards n-side whereas holes generated
in the intrinsic region move towards p-side. The free electrons and holes moved from one
region to another region carry electric current.
Avalanche photodiode
• The operation of avalanche photodiode is similar to the PN junction and PIN
photodiode except that a high reverse bias voltage is applied in case of avalanche
photodiode to achieve avalanche multiplication.
• Applying high reverse bias voltage to the avalanche photodiode will not directly
increase the generation of charge carriers. However, it provides energy to the electron-
hole pairs generated by the incident light.
• When light energy is applied to the avalanche photodiode, electron-hole pairs are
generated in the depletion. The generated electron-hole pairs experience a force due to
the depletion region electric field and external electric field.
• The newly generated free electrons are again accelerated and collide with other atoms.
Because of this continuous collision with atoms, a large number of minority carriers are
generated. Thus, avalanche photodiodes generate a greater number of charge carriers
than PN and PIN photodiodes.
UNIT-2
Diode circuits: Ideal and Practical diode, Clipper, Clamper. Power Supply: Rectifiers- Half
wave, Full wave, Bridge rectifier, filter circuits, Voltage regulation using shunt & series
regulator circuits, Voltage regulation using IC 723.
DIODE CIRCUITS – IDEAL AND PRACTICAL DIODE

• A diode is said to be an Ideal Diode when it is forward biased and acts like a perfect
conductor, with zero voltage across it. Similarly, when the diode is reversed biased, it
acts as a perfect insulator with zero current through it.
• An Ideal diode also acts like a switch. When the diode is forward biased it acts like
a closed switch as shown in the figure below.
• Whereas, if the diode is reversed biased, it acts like an open switch as shown in the
figure above.

PRACTICAL DIODE
• A Real diode contains barrier potential V0 (0.7 V for silicon and 0.3 V for Germanium)
and a forward resistance RF of about 25 ohms. When a diode is forward biased and
conducts, a forward current IF flows through it which causes a voltage drop IFRF in the
forward resistance. Hence, the forward voltage VF applied across the real diode for
conduction, has to overcome the following.
 • Potential barrier
• Drop in forward resistance

For Silicon diode, the equation becomes as shown below.

For Germanium diode the equation becomes

• The V-I characteristic of the Real diode is shown below.

• The equivalent circuit of the real diode under forwarding bias condition is shown
below.

This circuit shows that a real diode still acts as a switch when forward biased, but the
voltage required to operate this switch is VF, that is

• For all the practical purposes, a diode is considered to be an open switch when reversed
biased. It is because the value of reverse resistance is so high (RR > 100 MΩ) that is
considered to be an infinite for all practical purposes.
 Clipper
❖ A clipper is a type of diode network that has the ability to “clip off” a portion of the
input signal without distorting the remaining part of the alternating waveform.
❖ A wave shaping circuit which controls the shape of the output waveform by removing
or clipping a portion of the applied wave.
❖ Also referred as voltage limiters/ amplitude selectors/ slicers.
❖ Applications:
- In radio receivers for communication circuits.
- In radars, digital computers and other electronic systems.
- Generation for different waveforms such as trapezoidal, or square waves.
Types of clippers
❖ According to non- linear devices used:
- Diode clippers and Transistor clippers
❖ According to biasing
- Biased clippers and Unbiased clippers.
❖ According to level of clipping
- Positive clippers, Negative clippers and combination clippers
TYPES OF CLIPPER
POSITIVE CLIPPER
SERIES CLIPPER

NEGATIVE CLIPPER

POSITIVE CLIPPER
WITH BIASING

NEGATIVE CLIPPER
WITH BIASING

CLIPPER POSITIVE CLIPPER

SHUNT CLIPPER NEGATIVE CLIPPER

POSITIVE CLIPPER
WITH BIASING

NEGATIVE CLIPPER
COMBINATION WITH BIASING
CLIPPER

THUMB RULE
Action of biasing on diode
❖ When diode is forward biased, it acts as a closed switch ( ON state).
❖ When diode is reverse biased, it acts as a open switch ( OFF state).
SERIES AND SHUNT CLIPPER
In series clippers, the diode is connected in series with the output load resistance.
 In shunt clippers, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance.
Series positive clipper
❖ In series positive clipper, the positive half cycles of the input AC signal is removed.
❖ The diode D is connected in series with the output load resistance RL and the arrowhead
of the diode is pointing towards the input. So the circuit is said to be a series positive
clipper.
WORKING

During the positive half cycle, the diode is said to be reverse biased. no current flows
through the diode.
During the negative half cycle, the diode is said to be forward biased electric current flows
through the diode.
Series negative clipper
❖ In series negative clipper, the negative half cycles of the input AC signal is removed at
the output.
❖ If the diode is arranged such that the arrowhead of the diode points towards the output
and the diode is in series with the output load resistance, then the clipper is said to be a
series negative clipper.
WORKING

❖ During the positive half cycle, the diode is said to be forward biased. electric current
flows through the diode.
❖ During negative half cycle: the diode D is reverse biased, no current flows through the
diode.
Series positive clipper with bias
❖ Sometimes it is desired to remove a small portion of positive or negative half cycles.
In such cases, the biased clippers are used.
❖ The only difference is an extra element called external voltage source used in series
positive clipper with bias.
Construction

WORKING: During positive half cycle:

▪ During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage
Vi.
▪ The diode is forward biased by the battery voltage VB.
▪ That means the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage (Vi) and forward
biased by the battery voltage (VB).
▪ The input supply voltage Vi is less than the external voltage VB (Vi < VB).
▪ The diode is forward biased by the external voltage and allows electric current
through it. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
▪ When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage VB, the
diode D is reverse biased. So no current flows through the diode.
▪ As a result, input signal does not appear at the output.
▪ Thus, the clipping (removal of a signal) takes place during the positive half cycle
only when the input supply voltage becomes greater than the external voltage.
During negative half cycle
❖ During the negative half cycle, the diode D is forward biased due to the input supply
voltage.
❖ The diode is forward biased by both biasing voltage VB and input supply voltage Vi.
❖ Hence, it doesn’t matter whether the input supply voltage is greater or less than the
battery voltage, the diode always remains forward biased.
❖ So, the complete negative half cycle appears at the output.
❖ Thus, the series positive clipper with positive bias removes a small portion of positive
half cycles.
Series positive clipper with negative bias

WORKING
During positive half cycle:
❖ The diode D is reverse biased by both input supply voltage Vi and external voltage
VB.
❖ So no signal appears at the output during the positive half cycle.
❖ Therefore, the complete positive half cycle is removed.
During negative half cycle:
❖ The diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and reverse biased by the
external voltage VB.
❖ The diode remains to be reverse biased until the Vi becomes greater than VB.
❖ When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the biasing voltage VB, the
diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi.
❖ So the signal appears at the output.
Series negative clipper with bias
 During the positive half cycle
❖ The diode is forward biased by input supply voltage Vi and reverse biased by external
voltage VB.
❖ Initially, the biasing voltage is greater than the input supply voltage.
❖ Hence, the diode is reverse biased and does not allow electric current.
❖ Therefore, no signal appears at the output.
❖ When the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the external voltage VB, the
diode is forward biased and allows electric current.
❖ As a result, the signal appears at the output.
During negative half cycle:
❖ During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply
voltage Vi and biased voltage VB.
❖ Hence even if the input supply voltage is greater or less than the battery voltage
VB, the diode always remains reverse biased.
❖ Therefore, during the negative half cycle, no signal appears at the output.
Series negative clipper with negative bias

In +Ve half cycle, diode D F.B by Vi and VB Therefore, the signal appears at the output. In –
Ve half cycle, diode D is R.B by Vi and F.B by VB. Vi < VB , D is F.B by VB. As a result, the
signal appears at the output. Vi >VB, D is R.B. As a result, no signal appears at the output.
Shunt positive clipper
❖ In shunt clipper, the diode is connected in parallel with the output load resistance.
❖ The series clipper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is forward
biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is reverse biased.
❖ The shunt clipper passes the input signal to the output load when the diode is reverse
biased and blocks the input signal when the diode is forward biased.
 In shunt positive clipper, during the positive half cycle the diode is forward biased and
hence no output is generated.
During the negative half cycle the diode is reverse biased and hence the entire negative
half cycle appears at the output.
Shunt negative clipper

❖ In shunt negative clipper, during the positive half cycle the diode is reverse biased and
hence the entire positive half cycle appears at the output.
❖ On the other hand, during the negative half cycle the diode is forward biased and hence
no output signal is generated.
Shunt positive clipper with bias

DURING THE POSITIVE HALF CYCLE,

Diode is F.B by Vi and R.B by VB.
 Initially, Vi < VB. VB makes the diode to be reverse biased. Therefore, the signal
appears at the output. Vi > VB, the diode D is forward biased by the input supply voltage
Vi. As a result, no signal appears at the output.
DURING THE NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE,
the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage and biasing voltage. Hence the
diode always remains reverse biased. As a result, a complete negative half cycle appears
at the output.
Shunt positive clipper with negative bias

DURING THE POSITIVE HALF CYCLE, the diode is forward biased by both
input supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB. Therefore, no signal appears at the
output during the positive half cycle.
DURING THE NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE, the diode is reverse biased by the input
supply voltage and forward biased by the battery voltage.
Initially, the input supply voltage Vi is less than the voltage VB. So the voltage makes
the diode to be forward biased. As a result, no signal appears at the output.
However, when the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the voltage VB, the
diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage Vi. As a result, the signal appears at
the output.
Shunt negative clipper with bias

Shunt negative clipper with positive bias

 DURING THE POSITIVE HALF CYCLE, the diode is reverse biased by the input
supply voltage Vi and forward biased by the battery voltage VB.
However, initially, the input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage.
So the diode is forward biased by the battery voltage. As a result, no signal appears at
the output.
However, when the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage then
the diode is reverse biased by the input supply voltage. As a result, the signal appears
at the output.
DURING THE NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE, the diode is forward biased by both
input supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB. So the complete negative half cycle is
removed at the output.
Shunt negative clipper with negative bias

DURING THE POSITIVE HALF CYCLE, the diode is reverse biased by both input
supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB. As a result, the complete positive half cycle
appears at the output.
DURING THE NEGATIVE HALF CYCLE, the diode is forward biased by the input
supply voltage Vi and reverse biased by the battery voltage VB.
However, initially, the input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. So the diode
is reverse biased by the battery voltage.
As a result, the signal appears at the output.
However, when the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage, the
diode is forward biased by the input supply voltage.
As a result, the signal does not appear at the output.
Dual (combination) clipper
❖ When it is desired to remove a small portion of both positive and negative half cycles.
In such cases, the dual clippers are used.
❖ The dual clippers are made by combining the biased shunt positive clipper and biased
shunt negative clipper.
During positive half cycle:
❖ In positive half cycle, the diode D1 is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB1.
❖ The diode D2 is reverse biased by both input supply voltage Vi and battery voltage VB2.
❖ Initially, the input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. So the diode D1 is
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB1.
❖ Similarly, the diode D2 is reverse biased by the battery voltage VB2. As a result, the
signal appears at the output.
❖ However, when the input supply voltage Vi becomes greater than the battery voltage
VB1, the diode D1 is forward biased by the input supply voltage. As a result, no signal
appears at the output.
During negative half cycle:
❖ During the negative half cycle, the diode D1 is reverse biased by both input supply
voltage Vi and battery voltage VB1.
❖ On the other hand, the diode D2 is forward biased by the input supply voltage Vi and
reverse biased by the battery voltage VB2.
❖ Initially, the battery voltage is greater than the input supply voltage.
❖ Therefore, the diode D1 and diode D2 are reverse biased by the battery voltage.
❖ As a result, the signal appears at the output.
❖ When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage VB2, the diode
D2 is forward biased.
❖ As a result, no signal appears at the output.
Clamper
❖ A clamper is an electronic circuit that changes the DC level of a signal to the desired
level without changing the shape of the applied signal.
❖ The clamper circuit moves the whole signal up or down to set either the positive peak
or negative peak of the signal at the desired level.
❖ The dc component is simply added to the input signal or subtracted from the input
signal.
 ❖ A clamper circuit adds the positive dc component to the input signal to push it to the
positive side.
❖ Similarly, a clamper circuit adds the negative dc component to the input signal to push
it to the negative side.
❖ A diode and capacitor can be combined to “clamp” an AC signal to a specific DC
level.
RULE
Start the analysis of clamping network, by considering that part of the input signal that
will forward bias the diode.
During the period that the diode is in the “ON” state, assume that capacitor will charge
up instantaneously to a voltage level determined by the network.
Assume that during the period when the diode is in “OFF” state, capacitor will hold on
its established voltage level.
Keep in mind the general rule, that
Total swing of total output = Swing of input signal
Types of clampers
• Clamper circuits are of three types:
Positive clampers
Negative clampers
Biased clampers
Positive clamper

❖ During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is reverse biased and
hence the signal appears at the output.
❖ In reverse biased condition, the diode does not allow electric current through it. So the
input current directly flows towards the output.
❖ When the positive half cycle begins, the diode is in the non-conducting state and the
charge stored in the capacitor is discharged (released).
❖ Therefore, the voltage appeared at the output is equal to the sum of the voltage stored
in the capacitor (Vm) and the input voltage (Vm) { I.e. Vo = Vm+ Vm = 2Vm} which have
the same polarity with each other.
❖ As a result, the signal shifted upwards.
❖ The peak to peak amplitude of the input signal is 2Vm, similarly the peak to peak
amplitude of the output signal is also 2Vm.
❖ Therefore, the total swing of the output is same as the total swing of the input.
❖ During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and
hence no signal appears at the output.
❖ In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current through it. This current
will flows to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of input voltage Vm.
❖ The capacitor charged in inverse polarity (positive) with the input voltage.
❖ As input current or voltage decreases after attaining its maximum value -Vm, the
capacitor holds the charge until the diode remains forward biased.
❖ Negative clamper

During the positive half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is forward biased and
hence no signal appears at the output.
In forward biased condition, the diode allows electric current through it.
This current will flows to the capacitor and charges it to the peak value of input voltage
in inverse polarity -Vm.
As input current or voltage decreases after attaining its maximum value Vm, the
capacitor holds the charge until the diode remains forward biased.
During the negative half cycle of the input AC signal, the diode is reverse biased and
hence the signal appears at the output.
In reverse biased condition, the diode does not allow electric current through it.
So the input current directly flows towards the output.
When the negative half cycle begins, the diode is in the non-conducting state and the
charge stored in the capacitor is discharged (released).
Therefore, the voltage appeared at the output is equal to the sum of the voltage stored
in the capacitor (-Vm) and the input voltage (-Vm) {I.e. Vo = -Vm- Vm = -2Vm} which
have the same polarity with each other.
As a result, the signal shifted downwards.
Biased clampers
Positive clamper
with positive bias
with negative bias
Negative clamper
with positive bias
with negative bias
Positive clamper with positive bias

If positive biasing is applied to the clamper then it is said to be a positive clamper with
positive bias. The positive clamper with positive bias is made up of an AC voltage
source, capacitor, diode, resistor, and dc battery.
During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the battery voltage forward biases the diode when the
input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. This current or voltage will flows
to the capacitor and charges it.
When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage then the diode
stops allowing electric current through it because the diode becomes reverse biased.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both input supply voltage
and battery voltage. So the diode allows electric current. This current will flows to the
capacitor and charges it.
Positive clamper with negative bias
 During positive half cycle:
During the positive half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage
and the battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at the output. The signal appeared
at the output is equal to the sum of the input voltage and capacitor voltage.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the battery voltage reverse biases the diode when the
input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at
the output.
When the input supply voltage becomes greater than the battery voltage, the diode is
forward biased by the input supply voltage and hence allows electric current through it.
This current will flows to the capacitor and charges it.
Negative clamper with positive bias

During positive half cycle:

During the positive half cycle, the battery voltage reverse biases the diode when the
input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. When the input supply voltage
becomes greater than the battery voltage, the diode is forward biased by the input supply
voltage and hence allows electric current through it. This current will flows to the
capacitor and charges it.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the diode is reverse biased by both input supply voltage
and battery voltage. As a result, the signal appears at the output.
Negative clamper with negative bias

During positive half cycle:

During the positive half cycle, the diode is forward biased by both input supply voltage
and battery voltage. As a result, current flows through the capacitor and charges it.
During negative half cycle:
During the negative half cycle, the battery voltage forward biases the diode when the
input supply voltage is less than the battery voltage. When the input supply voltage
becomes greater than the battery voltage, the diode is reverse biased by the input supply
voltage and hence signal appears at the output.
The input signal can be any type of waveform such as sine, square, and triangle
waves.
The DC source lets you adjust the DC clamping level.
Summary of Clipper Circuits
RECTIFIERS
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY

Wave forms at various points in a Regulated power supply

Rectification
• Rectification is a process of converting the alternating quantity (voltage or current)
into a corresponding direct quantity(voltage or current).
• The input to a rectifier is AC whereas its output is unidirectional or DC.
• Rectifier is an electronic device which is used for converting an alternating quantity
(Voltage or current) into unidirectional i.e. DC quantity (Voltage or current).
Need of Rectification
• Every electronic circuit such as amplifiers, needs a DC power source for its
operation.
• This DC voltage has to be obtained from AC supply.
• For this the AC supply has to be reduced , Stepped down first using a Step down
transformer and then converted to dc by using rectifier.
• Types of Rectifier

• Half Wave Rectifier

Full Wave Rectifier (Center Tapped Transformer)
Full Wave Rectifier (Bridge)

FEW IMPORTANT PARAMETERS

• Rectifier efficiency
• Peak value of the current
• Peak value of the voltage
• Ripple factor
Filter Circuits
• The output from the rectifier section is a pulsating DC.
• The output of the rectifier has to be passed through a filter circuit to filter the ac
components.
• The filter circuit reduces the peak-to-peak pulses to a small ripple voltage.
• The filter is a device that allows passing the dc component of the load and blocks the
ac component of the rectifier output.
• RIPPLE FACTOR

•
• After the filter circuit a small amount of AC is still remaining. The amount of ripple
voltage can be rated in terms of ripple factor (r).

ripple voltage (rms) Vr(rms )

%r = =  100
dc voltage V dc
• The filter circuit can be constructed by the combination of components like capacitors,
resistors, and inductors.
• Inductor is used for its property that it allows only dc components to pass and blocks
ac signals.
• Capacitor is used so as to block the dc and allows ac to pass.
• SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER
• SERIES INDUCTOR FILTER

• SHUNT CAPACITOR FILTER

LC FILTER

CLC FILTER – PI FILTER

 VOLTAGE REGULATION CIRCUITS
There are two common types of circuitry for voltage regulation:
• Discrete Transistors
• IC’s
• DISCRETE-TRANSISTOR REGULATORS
• Series voltage regulator
• Shunt voltage regulator
• Series Voltage Regulator Circuit

❖ The series element controls the amount of the input voltage that gets to the output.
❖ If the output voltage increases (or decreases), the comparator circuit provides a
control signal to cause the series control element to decrease (or increase) the
amount of the output voltage.
❖ Shunt Voltage Regulator Circuit
❖
❖ The shunt voltage regulator shunts current away from the load.
❖ The load voltage is sampled and fed back to a comparator circuit.
❖ If the load voltage is too high, control circuitry shunts more current away from
the load.
❖ IC Voltage Regulators
❖ Regulator ICs contain:
❖ Comparator circuit
❖ Reference voltage
❖ Control circuitry
❖ Overload protection
❖ Types of three-terminal IC voltage regulators
❖ Fixed positive voltage regulator
❖ Fixed negative voltage regulator
❖ Adjustable voltage regulator
❖ Three-Terminal Voltage Regulators
The specifications for this IC indicate:
• The range of input voltages that can be regulated for a specific range of
output voltage and load current
• Load regulation—variation in output voltage with variations in load
current
• Line regulation—variation in output voltage with variations in input
voltage
Fixed Negative Voltage Regulator

•
• These ICs output a fixed negative output voltage.

Adjustable Voltage Regulator

These regulators have adjustable output voltages.

The output voltage is commonly selected using a potentiometer.
IC723 Voltage Regulator
❖ The 723-voltage regulator is commonly used for series voltage regulator applications. It
can be used as both positive and negative voltage regulator.
❖ LM723 IC can also be used as a temperature controller, current regulator or shunt regulator
and it is available in both Dual-In-Line and Metal Can packages. The input voltage ranges
from 9.5 to 40V and it can regulate voltage from 2V to 37V.

PIN OUT – 723 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

❖ V+ and V-
These are the supply voltage terminals of the IC. V+ is the positive terminal and V- is the
negative terminal. The voltage difference between these terminals should be between 9.5V
to 40V.
❖ Non Inverting Input
This is the non inverting input of the error amplifier whose output is connected to the series
pass transistor. The reference voltage or a portion of it is given to the non inverting input.
❖ Inverting Input
This is the inverting input of the error amplifier whose output is connected to the series
pass transistor. We usually give output voltage or a portion of it to the inverting input. This
makes the output voltage constant.
❖ Vref
It is the reference voltage output of the IC. It is the output of voltage reference amplifier.
Its output voltage is about 7.15V.
❖ Vout
It is the output terminal of the IC. Usually output voltage ranges from 2 to 37V. This pin
can provide up to 150mA current.
❖ Current Limit
It is the base input of the current limiter transistor. This pin is used for current limiting or
current fold back applications.
❖ Current Sense
This is the emitter of current limiting transistor. This terminal is used with current
limiting and current fold-back applications.
❖ Vc
This is the collector input of the series pass transistor. It is usually directly connected to
the positive supply voltage if an external transistor is not used.
❖ Freq. Comp
Frequency Compensation : This pin is used to connect a capacitor which bypasses high
frequency noises. It is the output of error amplifier. The capacitor is connected between
this pin and inverting input of the error amplifier. The prescribed value of this capacitor
varies for different types of regulators. Please refer the datasheet for that.
❖ Vz
It is the anode of the Zener diode whose cathode connected to the output terminal. It is
usually used for making negative regulators.
It is the output terminal of the IC. Usually output voltage ranges from 2 to 37V. This pin
can provide up to 150mA current.
INTERNAL WORKING

❖ In the reference voltage generator, a zener diode is being compelled to operate at fixed
point (so that zener output voltage is a fixed voltage) by a constant current Source which
comes along with an amplifier to generate a constant voltage of 7.15V at the Vref pin
of the IC.
❖ For the error amplifier section, it consists of an error amplifier, a series pass transistor
Q1 and a current limiting transistor.
❖ The error amplifier can be used to compare the output voltage applied at Inverting input
terminal through a feedback to the reference voltage Vref applied at the Non-Inverting
input terminal.
❖ These connections are to be externally provided in accordance with the required output
voltage.
❖ The conduction of the transistor Q1 is controlled by the error signal. It is this transistor
that controls the output voltage.
UNIT III
Bipolar Junction transistor
❖ Three terminal device
❖ Amplification and switching through 3rd contact
❖ Control of two terminal currents
❖ Holes and electrons determine device characteristics.
• BJT consists of three terminals:
→ collector: C
→ base: B
→emitter: E
• Two types of BJT: PNP and NPN
• 3-layer semiconductor device consisting:
• 2 n- and 1 p-type layers of material → npn transistor
• 2 p- and 1 n-type layers of material →pnp transistor
• Base is located at the middle and more thin from the level of collector and emitter.
• The emitter and collector terminals are made of the same type of semiconductor
material, while the base of the other type of material.
• Doping levels of E,B and C
• Emitter is heavily doped.
• Base is lightly doped.
• Collector is moderately doped.
• BJT is a current controlled device because the output characteristics of BJT are
determined by the input current.
DIODE ANALOGY

Transistor currents

The arrow is always drawn on the emitter.

The arrow always point toward the n-type.
The arrow indicates the direction of the emitter current:
pnp: E→ B
npn: B→ E
IC=the collector current
IB= the base current
IE= the emitter current
Operation of NPN Transistor

Applying Kirchhoff's law to the transistor:

IE = IC + IB
TYPES OF CONFIGURATIONS
BJT has three types of configuration
❖ Common base (CB) configuration
❖ Common emitter (CE) configuration
❖ Common collector (CC) configuration
 Configurations in PNP Transistors

Characteristics of BJT
• Input Characteristics
Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with
constant output voltage.
• Output Characteristics
The output characteristics are obtained between output current and output voltage
with constant input current.

Characteristics of Common emitter (CE) Configuration

Input Characteristics Curve

• The curve plotted between base current IB and the base-emitter voltage VBE is called
Input characteristics curve.
• The Input characteristics for CE is similar to a forward diode characteristic.
• The base current IB increases with the increases in the emitter-base voltage VBE.
• Input Resistance: The ratio of change in base-emitter voltage VBE to the change in base
current ∆IB at constant collector-emitter voltage VCE is known as input resistance, i.e.,

Output Characteristics
• In CE configuration the curve drawn between collector current IC and collector-emitter
voltage VCE at a constant base current IB is called output characteristics.

• In the active region, the collector current increases slightly as collector-emitter

VCE current increases.
• The value of the collector current IC increases with the increase in VCE at constant
current IB, the value of β also increases.
• In the saturation region, the collector current becomes independent and free from the
input current IB.
• In the Cut-off region IC = βIB, a small current IC flows and it is equal to reverse leakage
current ICEO.
• Common Base (CB) Input & Output Characteristics
 •
E C

Input Output

B
Base is common both to input signal and output signal

CB Voltages and Currents

NPN PNP

C C
IC IC
B B

IB IB
IE E IE E
VBE = 0.7 VEB = 0.7
CB Input Characteristics

VBE = -VEB

IE IC
E C

Input Side
VBE VBC

B
 CB Input Characteristics

IE

VCB = 25V
VCB = 10V
VCB = 0V

Output Characteristics
0.7

IC Break down Region or Punch Through Region

(Depletion Regions Overlap)

Active Region

IE = 4mA

Saturation Region

IE = 3mA

IE = 2mA

Junction Forward Biased

IE = 1mA

Junction Reverse Biased

Common Collector Configuration
• The base terminal of the transistor serves as the input, the emitter terminal is the
output and the collector terminal is common for both input and output.
• Hence, it is named as common collector configuration.
• The input is applied between the base and collector while the output is taken from the
emitter and collector.
• Common collector configuration is also referred to as emitter follower.

• The input supply voltage between base and collector is denoted by VBC while the
output voltage between emitter and collector is denoted by VEC.
• In this configuration, input current or base current is denoted by IB and output current
or emitter current is denoted by IE.
• The common collector amplifier has high input impedance and low output impedance.
• It has low voltage gain and high current gain.
Input characteristics
• The input characteristics describe the relationship between input current or base current
(IB) and input voltage or base-collector voltage (VBC).
Output characteristics
• The output characteristics describe the relationship between output current or emitter
current (IE) and output voltage or emitter-collector voltage (VEC).

• In common collector configuration, if the input current or base current is zero then the
output current or emitter current is also zero.
• As a result, no current flows through the transistor. So the transistor will be in the cut-
off region.
• If the base current is slightly increased then the output current or emitter current also
increases.
• So the transistor falls into the active region.
• If the base current is heavily increased then the current flowing through the transistor
also heavily increases.
As a result, the transistor falls into the saturation region.
Transistor parameters
Dynamic input resistance (ri)
 It is defined as the ratio of change in input voltage or base voltage (VBC) to the
corresponding change in input current or base current (IB), with the output voltage or emitter
voltage (VEC) kept at constant.
The input resistance of common collector is high.

• Dynamic output resistance is defined as the ratio of change in output voltage or emitter
voltage (VEC) to the corresponding change in output current or emitter current (IE), with
the input current or base current (IB) kept at constant.
• The output resistance of common collector is low.

• Current amplification factor (γ)

• The current amplification factor is defined as the ratio of change in output current or
emitter current IE to the change in input current or base current IB.
• It is expressed by γ
• The current gain of a common collector amplifier is high.

Applications of Transistor
1) Amplifier
An amplifier is a device which increases the strength of a weak input signal.
A transistor when operated in active region, it acts as an amplifier.
2) Switch
ON and OFF. A transistor operated between cut off and saturation acts a Switch.
3) Photo transistor

Unijunction Transistor

The UJT as the name implies, is characterized by a single PN junction.

It exhibits negative resistance characteristic that makes it useful in oscillator circuits.

The UJT is having three terminals base1 (B1), base2 (B2) and emitter (E).

The UJT is made up of an N-type silicon bar which acts as the base as shown in fig.
It is very lightly doped.

A P-type impurity is introduced into the base, producing a single PN junction called emitter.

The PN junction exhibits the properties of a conventional diode.

A complementary UJT is formed by a P-type base and N-type emitter. Except for the polarity
of voltage and current the characteristic is similar to those of a conventional UJT.

Base 2

B2
Emitter

Base 1 B1

Basic Structure Schematic Symbol

Equivalent Circuit
RB1 = dynamic resistance of the silicon bar between the emitter and base 1.
RB1 varies inversely with emitter current IE, and therefore it is shown as a variable resistor.
Range of RB1: several thousand ohms down to tens of ohms
RB2 = resistance between the emitter and base 2

B2

RB2
E
RB1

B1

• The total resistance between the base terminals is known as interbase resistance RBBO,
 i.e.

RBBO = RB1 + RB 2
The ratio of RB1 to the interbase resistance is called the Intrinsic standoff ratio, .

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

• VBB is a source of biasing voltage connected between B2 and B1

• When the emitter is open, the total resistance from B2 to B1 is simply the resistance of
the silicon bar, this is known as the inter base resistance RBB.
• Since the N-channel is lightly doped, therefore RBB is relatively high, typically 5 to
10K ohm.
• RB2 is the resistance between B2 and point ‘a', while RB1 is the resistance from point
‘a' to B1, therefore the interbase resistance RBB is RBB = RB1 + RB2.
B2

RB2
IE + VD -
V BB
+ +

VE
RB1 VBB I E =0

- B1 -

If the device is biased as shown in the figure, the voltage across RB1 is;
 ❖ As long as VE is less than VBB +VD, there is no emitter current (except a very small
leakage current in A known as IEO) because the PN junction is not forward-biased.
❖ The level of emitter voltage that causes the PN junction to become forward-biased is
called VP (peak-point-voltage)
❖ Once VE reaches VP , IE begins to flow (UJT turns on) – conductivity increases and RB1
decreases.
❖ After turn-on, the UJT operates in a negative resistance region (VE decreases as IE
increases) up to a certain level of IE .
❖ Beyond this level, VE begin to increase again.
❖ The minimum level of VE is known as valley point (VV , IV).
Beyond this point, the device enters its saturation region.
• The diode accounts for the rectifying properties of the PN junction.
• VD is the diode's threshold voltage.
• With the emitter open, IE = 0, and I1 = I 2 . The interbase current is given by I1 = I2 =
VBB / RBB .
• Part of VBB is dropped across RB2 while the rest of voltage is dropped across RB1 .
• The voltage across RB1 is Va = VBB * (RB1 ) / (RB1 + RB2 )
• The ratio RB1 / (RB1 + RB2 ) is called intrinsic standoff ratio ƞ = RB1 / (RB1 + RB2
) i.e. Va = ƞVBB .
• The ratio ƞ is a property of UJT and it is always less than one and usually between 0.4
and 0.85.
• The circuit of behaves as a voltage divider.
• Assume now that VE is gradually increased from zero using an emitter supply VEE .
The diode remains reverse biased till VE voltage is less than ƞVBB and no emitter
current flows except leakage current. The emitter diode will be reversed biased.
• When VE = VD +ƞVBB, then appreciable emitter current begins to flow where VD is
the diode's threshold voltage. The value of VE that causes, the diode to start conducting
is called the peak point voltage and the current is called peak point current IP . VP =
VD + ƞ VBB.
• The graph in above fig. shows the relationship between the emitter voltage and current.
The region from VE = 0 to VE = VP is called cut off region because no emitter current
flows (except for leakage).
• Once VE exceeds the peak point voltage, IE increases, but VE decreases, up to certain
point called valley point (VV and IV ). This is called negative resistance region.
• Beyond this, IE increases with VE this is the saturation region, which exhibits a positive
resistance characteristic.
• The physical process responsible for the negative resistance characteristic is called
conductivity modulation. When the VE exceeds VP voltage, holes from P emitter are
injected into N base.
• Since the P region is heavily doped compared with the N-region, holes are injected to
the lower half of the UJT.

• The lightly doped N region gives these holes a long lifetime.

• These holes move towards B1 to complete their path by re-entering at the negative
terminal of VEE.
• The large holes create a conducting path between the emitter and the lower base.
• These increased charge carriers represent a decrease in resistance RB1, therefore can
be considered as variable resistance.
• It decreases up to 50 ohm.
❖ Applications
Trigger device for SCR’s and triac
Nonsinusoidal (relaxation) oscillators,
Sawtooth generators
Phase control
Timing circuits
• Phototransistor
• The phototransistor is a semiconductor light sensor formed from a basic transistor with
a transparent cover that provides much better sensitivity than a photodiode.
• Phototransistor structure
• The photo transistor has much larger base and collector areas than would be used for a
normal transistor. These devices were generally made using diffusion or ion
implantation.
• Early photo transistors used germanium or silicon throughout the device giving a homo-
junction structure. The more modern phototransistors use type III-V materials such as
gallium arsenide.

• Photo transistors are operated in their active region

• For operation the bias conditions are quite simple.
• The collector of an n-p-n transistor is made positive with respect to the emitter or
negative for a p-n-p transistor.
• The light enters the base region of the phototransistor where it causes hole electron
pairs to be generated.
• This mainly occurs in the reverse biased base-collector junction.

• The hole-electron pairs move under the influence of the electric field and provide the
base current, causing electrons to be injected into the emitter.
• Phototransistor characteristics:
• The photo transistor has a high level of gain resulting from the transistor action.
• The characteristics of the photo-transistor under different light intensities. They are
very similar to the characteristics of a conventional bipolar transistor, but with the
different levels of base current replaced by the different levels of light intensity.
• There is a small amount of current that flows in the photo transistor even when no light
is present. This is called the dark current, and represents the small number of carriers
that are injected into the emitter.
• Advantage: much lower level of noise.
• Disadvantage: it does not have a particularly good high frequency response.
Thyristor
• A thyristor is a four-layer semiconductor device of PNPN structure with three PN
junctions.
• The following figure shows the thyristor symbol and the sectional view of the three PN
junctions.

• When the anode voltage is positive with respect to cathode, the junctions J1 and J3 are
forward-biased.
• However, the junction J2 is reverse-biased.
• Only a small leakage current flows from anode to cathode.
• Thyristor is in forward blocking or off state.
• If the anode-to-cathode voltage VAK is increased to a sufficiently large value, the
reverse-biased junction will break.
• This is known as the avalanche breakdown and the corresponding voltage is called
forward breakover voltage VBO.
• Since J1 and J3 are already forward biased, there will be free movement of carriers
across all three junctions, resulting in a large forward anode current.
• The device will be in a conducting state or on-state.
• The voltage drop would be due to the ohmic drop in four layers and it is small, typically
1V.
• In the on-state, the current is limited by the external impedance.
• The current must be greater than the latching current in order for the device to
conduct; otherwise, the device will go into the blocking mode as the anode-cathode
voltage is reduced.
• Latching current of forward biased SCR is the minimum current which
anode current must attain to continue to remain in forward conduction mode even
when gate current is removed.
• Holding current of SCR or thyristor is that minimum value of current below which
anode current must fall to come in OFF state.
• When the cathode voltage is positive with respect to the anode, the junctions J1 and J3
are reversed-biased and J2 is forward-biased.
• This is like two series-connected diodes being reverse biased.
• The reverse leakage current is known as the reverse current IR.
• A thyristor can be turned on by increasing the forward voltage beyond VBO, but such
a turn on can destroy the thyristor.
• In practice, the forward voltage is maintained below VBO and the thyristor is turned on
by applying a positive voltage between its gate and cathode.
• This was shown on the previous figure by dashed lines.
• Once a thyristor is turned on by a gating signal, the device continues to conduct even if
the gate signal is removed.
• Therefore, a thyristor is a latching device.

UNIT IV – Small Signal Analysis

• Small Signal analysis: Small signal Amplifier, Amplifier Bandwidth, Hybrid model,
analysis of transistor amplifier using h-parameter,
• Multistage Amplifier: Cascading amplifier, Boot-strapping Technique, Darlington
amplifier and Cascode amplifier, Coupling methods in multistage amplifier, Low and
high frequency response, Hybrid π model, Current Mirror circuits.
• Small signal and Large Signal
• Small signal means that you're operating the device at a limited range of voltage or
current where the characteristic curve is linear.
• The idea behind small signal analysis is to model the behaviour of the device using
linear equations.
• The small signal model accounts for the behavior which is linear around an operating
point.
• When the signal is large in amplitude, the behavior becomes non-linear and we have to
use the model which accounts for non-linearity, and thus called large signal model.
• Amplifier: An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an electronic
device that can increase the power of a signal (a time-varying voltage or current).
• It is a two-port electronic circuit that uses electric power from a power supply to
increase the amplitude of a signal applied to its input terminals, producing a
proportionally greater amplitude signal at its output.
• The amount of amplification provided by an amplifier is measured by its gain: the ratio
of output voltage, current, or power to input.
• Small signal Amplifier
• The Small Signal Amplifier is generally referred to as a “Voltage” amplifier because
they usually convert a small input voltage into a much larger output voltage.
• Small signal response is analyzed using the h-parameter model.
• Response of an amplifier depends on frequency considerations.

Small Signal Analysis of Amplifiers

• Frequency response curves of RC Coupled amplifier is shown.
• There are 3 regions of frequency: low, mid and high
• The difference between high and low frequency is the bandwidth.
 RC Coupled Amplifier

• Hybrid h-Parameter model for an amplifier

• The equivalent circuit of a transistor can be drawn using simple approximation by
retaining its essential features.
• These equivalent circuits will aid in analyzing transistor circuits easily and rapidly.
• A transistor can be treated as a two-port network.
• The terminal behavior of any two-port network can be specified by the terminal
voltages V1 & V2 at ports 1 & 2 respectively and current i1 and i2, entering ports 1 & 2,
respectively, as shown in figure.

Hybrid Parameters or h-parameters

If the input current i1 and output Voltage V2 are takes as independent variables,
Then input voltage V1 and output current i2 can be written as:

V1 = h11 i1 + h12 V2
i2 = h21 i1 + h22 V2
The four hybrid parameters : h11, h12, h21 and h22 are defined as follows.
 ▪ h11 = [V1 / i1] with V2 = 0, : Input Resistance with output port short circuited.

▪ h12 = [V1 / V2] with i1 = 0, : reverse voltage transfer ratio with i/p port open circuited.

▪ h21 = [i2 / i1] with V2 = 0, : Forward current gain with output part short circuited.
▪ h22 = [i2 / V2] with i1 = 0, : Output admittance with input part open circuited.
▪ The dimensions of h – parameters are as follows:
h11 - Ω
h12 – dimension less.
h21 – dimension less.
h22 – mhos
▪ as the dimensions are not alike, (i.e) they are hybrid in nature, and these parameters
are called as hybrid parameters.

V1   hi hr   I1 
 I  = h ho  V2 
 2  f
Advantages of Transistor Hybrid Model
Use of h – parameters to describe a transistor have the following advantages:
• h – parameters are real numbers up to radio frequencies.
• They are easy to measure
• They can be determined from the transistor static characteristics curves.
• They are convenient to use in circuit analysis and design.
• Easily convert able from one configuration to other.
• Readily supplied by manufactories.
Transistor Hybrid Model CE Configuration
 • In common emitter transistor configuration, the input signal is applied between the
base and emitter terminals of the transistor and output appears between the collector
and emitter terminals.
• The input voltage (Vbe) and the output current (ic) are given by the following
equations:
Vbe = hie.ib + hre.Vc
ic = hfe.ib + hoe.Vc

Transistor Hybrid Model CB Configuration

Transistor Hybrid Model CC Configuration

 Hybrid Model and Equations for the transistor in three different configurations are are
given below.

Analysis using h – Parameter Model

• Analysis of Transistor Amplifier using Complete h-Parameter Model
• Analysis of Transistor Amplifier using simplified h-Parameter Model
Analysis of Transistor Amplifier using Complete h-Parameter Model

In the h-parameter model consider the following.,

load Resistance ZL
Zi input impedance
Rs source resistance
input signal Vs.
The expressions for Current gain, Voltage gain, input and output impedance are analysed.

Current Gain:
Ai=-hf/(1+hoZL)
Where Ai is the current amplification or current gain.
 Input Impedance (Zi)
Zi= hi+hrAiZL

Voltage Gain (Av):

Av=(Ai * ZL)/ Zi

Output Admittance(Yo)
Yo=ho-hf * hr/(hi+Rs).
Let us derive.,
Voltage gain taking source resistance is given by
Avs=(Av * Zi)/(Zi+Rs)

The overall current gain taking source resistance is given by:

Ais=Ai * Rs/(Zi + Rs)
 Transistor Current Gain Input Impedance Voltage Gain Output Admittance
General -h /(1+h Z ) h +h A Z (A * Z )/ Z h -(h * h /(h +R ))
f o L i r i L i L i o f r i s
hybrid
CE -h /(1+h Z ) h +h A Z (A * Z )/ Z h -(h * h /(h +R ))
fe oe L ie re i L i L i oe fe re ie s

CB -h /(1+h Z ) h +h A Z (A * Z )/ Z h -(h * h /(h +R ))

fb ob L ib rb i L i L i ob fb rb ib s

CC -h /(1+h Z ) h +h A Z (A * Z )/ Z h -(h * h /(h +R ))

fc oc L ic rc i L i L i oc fc rc ic s

Multistage Amplifiers
Two or more amplifiers can be connected to increase the gain of an ac signal. The overall gain
can be calculated by simply multiplying each gain together.
A’v = Av1Av2Av3 ......
Types of Coupling
(i)In RC coupling, a capacitor is used as the coupling device. The capacitor connects the output
of one stage to the input of the next stage in order to pass the a.c. signal on while blocking the
d.c. bias voltages.
(ii)In transformer coupling, transformer is used as the coupling device. The transformer
coupling provides the same two functions (viz.to pass the signal on and blocking d.c.) but
permits in addition impedance matching.
(iii)In direct coupling or d.c. coupling, the individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so
designed that the two stages may be directly connected without the necessity for d.c. isolation.
RC Coupled Transistor Amplifier

The Figure shows two stages of an RC coupled amplifier.

•A coupling capacitor CC is used to connect the output of first stage to the base (i.e., Input) of
the second stage and soon.
•As the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor followed by a
connection to a shunt resistor, therefore, such amplifiers are called resistance-capacitance
coupled amplifiers.

•The resistances R1, R2 and RE form the biasing and stabilization network.

•The emitter bypass capacitor offers low reactance path to the signal. Without it, the voltage
gain of each stage would be lost.

•The coupling capacitor CC transmits a.c. signal but blocks d.c. This prevents d.c. interference
between various stages and the shifting of operating point.

Frequency response

Transformer-Coupled Amplifier
Operation When an a c signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it appears in the amplified
form across primary P of the coupling transformer. The voltage developed across primary is
transferred to the input of the next stage by the transformer secondary as shown in Fig. The
second stage renders amplification in an exactly similar manner.
Frequency response
• The frequency response of a transformer coupled amplifier is shown in Fig.
• The frequency response is rather poor i e gain is constant only over a small range of frequency.
• The output voltage is equal to the collector current multiplied by reactance of primary At low
frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain.
•At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass condenser to
reduce the output voltage and hence gain.
• Therefore, that there will be disproportionate amplification of frequencies in a complete signal
such as music, speech etc.
• Hence, transformer coupled amplifier introduces frequency distortion.
• In a properly designed transformer, it is possible to achieve a fairly constant gain over the
audio frequency range.
• But a transformer that achieves a frequency response comparable to RC coupling may cost
10 to 20 times as much as the inexpensive RC coupled amplifier.
Hybrid p model
The hybrid p model is shown in Fig which includes parameters that do not appear in the other
two models primarily to provide a more accurate model for high frequency effects.
 UNIT V
FIELD EFFECT TRANSISTOR
• Field-effect transistor (FET) are important devices such as BJTs
• Also used as amplifier and logic switches
• Types of FET:
• JFET (junction field-effect transistor)
• MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor)

Junction FETs (JFETs)

• JFETs consists of a piece of high-resistivity semiconductor material (usually Si) which

constitutes a channel for the majority carrier flow.
• Conducting semiconductor channel between two ohmic contacts – source & drain
• JFET is a high-input resistance device, while the BJT is comparatively low.
• If the channel is doped with a donor impurity, n-type material is formed and the channel
current will consist of electrons.
• If the channel is doped with an acceptor impurity, p-type material will be formed and
the channel current will consist of holes.
• N-channel devices have greater conductivity than p-channel types, since electrons have
higher mobility than do holes; thus n-channel JFETs are approximately twice as
efficient conductors compared to their p-channel counterparts.
• N channel JFET:
• Major structure is n-type material (channel) between embedded p-type material
to form 2 p-n junction.
• In the normal operation of an n-channel device, the Drain (D) is positive with
respect to the Source (S). Current flows into the Drain (D), through the channel,
and out of the Source (S)
• Because the resistance of the channel depends on the gate-to-source voltage
(VGS), the drain current (ID) is controlled by that voltage.
 2
 V 
I D = I DSS 1 - GS  VP = VGS ( off )
 VGS 
 ( off ) 

DC JFET Biasing
• Just as we learned that the BJT must be biased for proper operation, the JFET also must
be biased for operation point (ID, VGS, VDS)
• In most cases the ideal Q-point will be at the middle of the transfer characteristic curve,
which is about half of the IDSS.
• 3 types of DC JFET biasing configurations:
• Fixed-bias
• Self-bias
 • Voltage-Divider Bias
MOSFET
In case of JFET, the gate must be reverse biased for proper operation of the device i.e. it can
only have negative gate operation for n-channel and positive gate operation for p-channel.
That means we can only decrease the width of the channel from its zero-bias size. This type of
operation is known as depletion-mode operation.
Therefore, a JFET can only be operated in the depletion mode.
However, there is a field effect transistor that can be operated to enhance the width of the
channel i.e. it can have enhancement-mode operation. Such a FET is called MOSFET.
• There are two basic types of MOSFETs such as:
1. Depletion-type MOSFET or D-MOSFET: The D-MOSFET can be operated in both
depletion mode and the enhancement mode. For this reason, it is also called
depletion/enhancement MOSFET.
2. Enhancement-type MOSFET or E-MOSFET: The E-MOSFET can be operated only in
enhancement mode.

The n-channel D-MOSFET is a piece of n-type material with a p-type region called substrate
on the right and an insulated gate on the left as shown in fig.1.The free electrons flowing from
source to drain must pass through the narrow channel between the gate and the p-type region
(i.e., substrate).
 • The gate forms a small capacitor. One plate of this capacitor is the gate and the other
plate is the channel with metal oxide layer as the dielectric.
• When gate voltage is changed, the electric field of the capacitor changes which in turn
changes the resistance of the n-channel.
• Since the gate is insulated from the channel, we can apply either negative or positive
voltage to the gate.
• The negative gate operation is called depletion mode and positive gate operation is
called enhancement mode.

Since gate is negative, it means electrons are on the gate as shown in fig.5 (ii).
These electrons repel the free electrons in the n-channel, leaving a layer of positive ions in a
part of the channel as shown in fig.5 (ii).In other words, the n-channel is depleted of some of
its free electrons.
Therefore, lesser number of free electrons are available for current conduction through the n-
channel. This is same as increasing the channel resistance. The greater the negative voltage on
the gate, the lesser is the current from source to drain.
Thus by changing the negative voltage on the gate, we can vary the resistance of the n-channel
and hence the current from source to drain. As the action with negative gate depends upon
depleting the channel of free electrons, the negative-gate operation is called depletion mode.
Again the gate acts like a capacitor. Since the gate is positive, it induces negative charges in
the n-channel as shown in fig.6 (ii).
These negative charges are the free electrons drawn into the channel. Because these free
electrons are added to those already in the channel, the total number of free electrons in the
channel is increased.
Thus a positive gate voltage enhances or increases the conductivity of the channel. The greater
the positive voltage on the gate, greater the conduction from source to drain.
Thus by changing the positive voltage on the gate, we can change the conductivity of the
channel. Because the action with a positive gate depends upon enhancing the conductivity of
the channel, the positive gate operation is called enhancement mode.
The following points may be noted about D-MOSFET operation:
1. In a D-MOSFET, the source to drain current is controlled by the electric field of
capacitor formed at the gate.
2. The gate of a D-MOSFET acts like a capacitor. For this reason it is possible to operate
D-MOSFET with positive or negative gate voltage.
3. As the gate of D-MOSFET forms a capacitor, therefore, negligible gate current flows
whether positive or negative voltage is applied to the gate. For this reason, the input
impedance of D-MOSFET is very high ranging from 10,000 MΩ to 10,000,00 MΩ.
4. The extremely small dimensions of oxide layer under the gate terminal results is a very
low capacitance and the D-MOSFET has, therefore, a very low input capacitance. This
characteristic makes the D-MOSFET useful in high frequency applications.
E-MOSFET

Its gate construction is similar to that of D-MOSFET.

The E-MOSFET has no channel between source and drain. The substrate extends completely
to the SiO2 layer so that no channel exists.
The E-MOSFET requires a proper gate voltage to form a channel , called induced channel
between the source and the drain.
It operates only in the enhancement mode and has no depletion mode.
Only by applying VGS of proper magnitude and polarity, the device starts conducting.
The minimum value of VGS of proper polarity that turns on the E-MOSFET is called threshold
voltage [VGS(th)].

The n-channel device requires positive VGS (≥VGS(th)) and the p-channel device requires
negative VGS(≥VGS(th)).
IC Fabrication Process Steps

The fabrication of integrated circuits consists basically of the following process steps:

• Lithography: The process for pattern definition by applying thin uniform layer of
viscous liquid (photo-resist) on the wafer surface. The photo-resist is hardened by
baking and then selectively removed by projection of light through a reticle containing
mask information.
• Etching: Selectively removing unwanted material from the surface of the wafer. The
pattern of the photo-resist is transferred to the wafer by means of etching agents.
• Deposition: Films of the various materials are applied on the wafer. For this purpose
mostly two kind of processes are used, physical vapor deposition (PVD) and chemical
vapor deposition (CVD).
• Chemical Mechanical Polishing: A planarization technique by applying a chemical
slurry with etchant agents to the wafer surface.

• Oxidation: In the oxidation process oxygen (dry oxidation) or H O (wet oxidation)

molecules convert silicon layers on top of the wafer to silicon dioxide.
• Ion Implantation: Most widely used technique to introduce dopant impurities into
semiconductor. The ionized particles are accelerated through an electrical field and
targeted at the semiconductor wafer.
• Diffusion: A diffusion step following ion implantation is used to anneal bombardment-
induced lattice defects.