Well-being

2030

OECD Future of
Education and Skills 2030

Conceptual learning
framework

STUDENT AGENCY
FOR 2030
 STUDENT AGENCY

IN BRIEF FOR 2030 When students are agents

The concept of student agency, as
in their learning, they
understood in the context of the OECD
Learning Compass 2030, is rooted in the
are more likely to have
principle that students have the ability and
the will to positively influence their own lives
“learned how to learn”
and the world around them. Student agency
is thus defined as the capacity to set a goal,
– an invaluable skill that
reflect and act responsibly to effect change.
It is about acting rather than being acted
they can use throughout
upon; shaping rather than being shaped; and
making responsible decisions and choices
their lives.
rather than accepting those determined by
others.
When students are agents in their learning,
In education systems that encourage student
that is, when they play an active role in
agency, learning involves not only instruction
deciding what and how they will learn, they
and evaluation but also co-construction.
tend to show greater motivation to learn and
Co-agency is when teachers and students
are more likely to define objectives for their
become co-creators in the teaching-and-
learning. These students are also more likely
learning process. The concept of co-agency
to have “learned how to learn” – an invaluable
recognises that students, teachers, parents and
skill that they can and will use throughout
communities work together to help students
their lives.
progress towards their shared goals.
Agency can be exercised in nearly every
context: moral, social, economic, creative.
For example, students need to use moral
KEY POINTS
agency to help them make decisions that
❚❚ Agency implies having the ability and the
recognise the rights and needs of others.
will to positively influence one’s own life
While a well-developed sense of agency can
and the world around them.
help individuals achieve long-term goals
❚❚ In order to exercise agency to the
and overcome adversity, students need
full potential, students need to build
foundational cognitive, social and emotional
foundation skills.
skills so that they can apply agency to their
own – and society’s – benefit. ❚❚ The concept of student agency varies
Agency is perceived and interpreted across cultures and develops over a
differently around the world. Some languages lifetime.
have no direct translation for the term “student ❚❚ Co-agency is defined as interactive,
agency” as it is used in the OECD Learning mutually supportive relationships–with
Compass 2030; interpretations will vary across parents, teachers, the community, and
different societies and contexts. with each other– that help students
Nonetheless, the notion of students playing an progress towards their shared goals.
Turn this page active role in their education is central to the
for
e Learning Compass and is being emphasised in
an interactiev a growing number of countries.
experienc
For the full concept note, click here.
More content at: www.oecd.org/education/2030-project
 AGENCY IN ACTION STUDENT AGENCY

Student Agency, India, The Duke of Edinburgh’s Ms Kiran BIR SETHI, Founder, Riverside School and Design
International Award Foundation For Change, India
Source: www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/learning/student-agency Source: www.oecd.org/education/2030-project/learning/student-agency

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Student agency

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4│

Student Agency for 2030

There is no global consensus on the definition of “student agency”. In the context of the
OECD Learning Compass 2030, student agency implies a sense of responsibility as
students participate in society and aim to influence people, events and circumstances for
the better. Agency requires the ability to frame a guiding purpose and identify actions to
achieve a goal (OECD, 2018[1]). It is about acting rather than being acted upon; shaping
rather than being shaped; and making responsible decisions and choices rather than
accepting those determined by others.
Student agency is not a personality trait; it is something malleable and learnable. The term
“student agency” is often mistakenly used as a synonym for “student autonomy”, “student
voice” and “student choice”; but it is much more than these concepts. Acting autonomously
does not mean functioning in social isolation, nor does it mean acting solely in self-interest.
Similarly, student agency does not mean that students can voice whatever they want or can
choose whatever subjects they wish to learn.
Indeed, students need support from adults in order to exercise their agency and realise their
potential. For example, the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment found
that certain methods teachers use in class may be more effective for some students than for
others. When mathematics teachers let 15-year-old students decide on their own procedures
to solve a problem in class, or when they present problems in different contexts, not only
do socio-economically advantaged students benefit more from these approaches than
disadvantaged students do, but the approaches can have an adverse impact on
disadvantaged students’ performance (Figure 1) (OECD, 2012[2]). It is thus particularly
important to ensure that disadvantaged students receive adequate support when teachers
use teaching strategies that call for student agency.

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
 │5

Figure 1. Mathematics teachers’ teaching strategies and student performance in

mathematics, by socio-economic status

Disadvantaged students Advantaged students

20
PISA score-point difference in mathematics

15

10

-5
helps gives lets students makes gives presents asks students gives asks students
students problems decide on students problems problems in to explain problems to apply
learn from that require their own reflect on the that can be different how they with no what they
The mistakes thinking for procedures problem solved in contexts solved a immediate have learned
teacher … an extended different problem solution to new
time ways contexts

Note: Disadvantaged (advantaged) schools are those whose mean PISA index of economic, social and cultural
status is statistically lower (higher) than the mean index across all schools in the country/economy.
Source: OECD, PISA 2012 Database.

Box 1. Key constructs related to “student agency”

Student agency relates to the development of an identity and a sense of belonging. When
students develop agency they rely on motivation, hope, self-efficacy and a growth
mindset (the understanding that abilities and intelligence can be developed) to navigate
towards well-being. This enables them to act with a sense of purpose, which guides them
to flourish and thrive in society.

Developing agency is both a learning goal and a learning process

From their earliest years, children learn to understand the intentions of people around them
and develop a sense of self, an important step towards agency (Woodward, 2009[3]; Sokol
et al., 2015[4]). As they progress through schooling, students should be able to find a sense
of purpose in their own lives, and believe they can fulfil that purpose by setting goals and
taking action to achieve those goals. That is when student agency is a learning goal.
As a learning process, student agency and learning have a circular relationship. When
students are agents in their learning, that is, when they play an active role in deciding what
and how they will learn, they tend to show greater motivation to learn and are more likely
to define objectives for their learning. The development of agency is a relational process,
involving interactions with family members, peers and teachers over time (Schoon,
2017[5]). It is a process that continues and evolves throughout a lifetime.

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
6│

Student agency can be exercised in a variety of contexts

Agency can be exercised in nearly every context: moral, social, economic, creative. For
example, students need to use moral agency to help them make decisions that recognise
the rights and needs of others. Exercising moral agency requires that a student thinks
critically and asks such questions as “What should I do? Was I right to do that?”
(Leadbeater, 2017[6]).

In addition to moral agency, students also need to develop social agency, which involves
an understanding of the rights and responsibilities related to the society in which they live.
Going to school is one step towards acquiring social agency, as it introduces students to a
community, to authority represented by strangers, and to the need to learn how to build
relationships with other people outside of their family (Leadbeater, 2017[6]).

In addition to this, students should be able to identify and seize opportunities to contribute
to the local, national or global economy to exercise economic agency (Leadbeater, 2017[6]).
Creative agency allows students to add new value to the world by using their imagination
and ability to innovate, whether for artistic, practical or scientific purposes (Leadbeater,
2017[6]).

In all of these contexts, agency is the foundation for developing the competencies students
need to shape the future (see the concept note on Transformative Competencies). Agency
can be developed as students learn, receive feedback and reflect on their work (see the
concept note on Anticipation-Action-Reflection Cycle).

Building a sense of agency is critically important in overcoming adversity

A well-developed sense of agency can help individuals overcome adversity (Talreja,

2017[7]). For example, a child’s background – his or her parents’ level of education, the
socio-economic status of the family – can affect a child’s sense of agency (Brooks-Gunn
and Duncan, 1997[8]; OECD, 2017[9]; Yoshikawa, Aber and Beardslee, 2012[10]) and
influence the likelihood that he or she will have access to quality education and to the means
of realising his or her potential (Schoon, 2017[5]).

Research shows that children who had faced adversity in childhood, including physical,
sexual or emotional abuse or neglect, tend to have lower aspirations for their future, less of
a sense of achievement and less motivation (Duckworth and Schoon, 2012[11]).
Those negative attitudes, in turn, undermine their self-confidence and well-being (Ahlin
and Lobo Antunes, 2015[12]).

While a sense of agency can help students overcome adversity, disadvantaged students
need carefully designed support to build foundation skills, such as literacy and numeracy,
and social and emotional skills (see the concept note on Core Foundations). Without these
skills, students will not be able to use their agency to their – and society’s – advantage
(Talreja, 2017[7]).

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 │7

There are different interpretations of “agency” across cultures

Agency is perceived and interpreted differently around the world. In some languages, such
as Portuguese, there is no direct translation for the term “student agency” as it is used in
the OECD Learning Compass 2030. In Korean, a new term was created in order to
communicate the concept accurately (학생주도 and 학생주체). The words are often equated
with related, but not identical, concepts, such as “student-centred” or “independent” or
“active” learning (Abiko, 2017[13]; Steinemann, 2017[14]).
Differences in interpretation are usually related to culture. For example, in many Asian
cultures, self-regulation is important in maintaining harmony in society, whereas in
Western culture, self-regulation is often applied in the service of attaining personal goals
(Trommsdorff, 2012[15]). For example, in Japan, the word “agency” is often used in the
context of collectivity, where maintaining harmony within communities is more important
than an individual’s opinion (Abiko, 2017[13]). In China, the concept of agency often refers
to the traditional values of prioritising harmony within groups and the individual’s
obligation to contribute to his or her country’s growth (Xiang et al., 2018[16]). In South
Africa, the interpretation of student agency asserts that “a person is a person through other
people” (Desmond, 2017[17]).
The definitions of harmony and conformity, and their relative priority in relation to values
such as individualism and personal autonomy, lie at the heart of differences between many
Eastern and Western cultures. However, in all societies, these relationships between belief,
motivation, and personal and social identity are vital aspects of cultural and educational
change. How students develop an understanding of their own role in wider processes of
change, and the role of education in this understanding, are central to student outcomes.
While it may be impossible to formulate a universally applicable definition of “agency”,
the concept has relevance in every context. Student agency – students’ ability to play an
active role in their education – is thus central to the OECD Learning Compass 2030
(see the concept note on the OECD Learning Compass 2030).

Co-agency implies relationships with others: parents, peers, teachers and the
community

Parents, peers, teachers and the wider community influence a student’s sense of agency,
and that student influences the sense of agency of his or her teachers, peers and parents – a
virtuous circle that positively affects children’s development and well-being (Salmela-Aro,
2009[18]). Thus, “co-agency”, often referred to as “collaborative agency”, implies the
influence of a person’s environment on his or her sense of agency.
An effective learning environment is built on “co-agency”, i.e. where students, teachers,
parents and the community work together (Leadbeater, 2017[6]). One of the aims of
education is to provide students with the tools they need to realise their potential. In the
broader education ecosystem, education goals are shared not only among students and
teachers, but also with parents and the wider community. Therefore, students can find the
“tools” they need to thrive not only in school, but also at home and in their community.
In this context, everyone can be considered a learner, not only students but also teachers,
school managers, parents and communities.

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
8│

Teachers play a key role in designing a learning environment that values agency
To help students develop agency, teachers can not only recognise learners’ individuality,
but also acknowledge the wider set of relationships – with peers, families and communities
– that influence their learning.
In the traditional teaching model, teachers are expected to deliver knowledge through
instruction and evaluation. In a system that encourages student agency, learning involves
not only instruction and evaluation but also co-construction. In such a system, teachers and
students become co-creators in the teaching-and-learning process. Students acquire a sense
of purpose in their education and take ownership of their learning (Figure 2). For teachers
to be effective co-agents, they need “the capacity to act purposefully and constructively to
direct their professional growth and contribute to the growth of their students and
colleagues” (Calvert, 2016[19]). In order to achieve this, teachers need support, including in
initial teacher education and through professional development, in designing learning
environments that support student agency.
Peers influence each other’s agency
Co-agency also happens at the student-to-student level. When students play an active role
in shaping their lessons, they are more likely to participate, ask questions, have open and
candid discussions, express opposing opinions and make challenging statements (Salmela-
Aro, 2017[20]). They not only gain a higher level of analysis and communication skills but
are also more creative while solving problems (Greig, 2000[21]; Hogan, Nastasi and
Pressley, 2000[22]). Students acquire a stronger sense of autonomy and are more confident
working in teams (Gafney and Varma-Nelson, 2007[23]). This results in better student
achievement outcomes, attitudes and persistence, a greater sense of empowerment,
and improved analytical thinking and problem-solving ability.
Parents also play a key role as the co-agent of students’ learning
Students also learn from and with their parents. Research shows that responsible and
positive family engagement with schools improves student achievement, reduces
absenteeism and strengthens parents’ confidence in their child’s education (Davis-Keen,
2005[24]). Students with involved parents or caregivers earn higher grades and test scores,
have better social skills and behave better at school. In some cases, however, schools
compensate for a lack of resources or cognitive stimulation at home. In disadvantaged
communities, where parents may have less knowledge, language skills or confidence to
help their children with their schoolwork, it can be more difficult to create a learning
environment where parents play an active role in their child’s schooling (Davis-Keen,
2005[24]).
The wider community is also part of students’ learning environment
School is not the only place where children learn. Educating children is a responsibility
shared among parents, teachers and the wider community. It is the responsibility of adults
to help children develop the skills they need to shape the future. The sense of agency is
difficult for children to develop on their own; they need the collaboration of adults to
“co-regulate” their actions and development (Talreja, 2017[7]). When the community is also
involved in children’s education, children can learn about the opportunities for their future
and also how to be engaged, responsible citizens, while the community can learn about the
needs, concerns and views of its younger members.

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
 │9

“Collective agency” is needed to make change happen for the common good

Collective agency refers to the idea of individual agents acting together for a community,
a movement or a global society. In contrast with co-agency, collective agency is exercised
on a larger scale and includes shared responsibility, a sense of belonging, identity, purpose
and achievement. Many complex challenges demand collective responses, such as the
growing distrust of governments, increases in migration and climate change. Entire
societies need to address these challenges. Collective agency requires that individuals put
their differences and tensions aside and come together to achieve a common goal
(Leadbeater, 2017[6]). Doing so also helps build more solid and unified societies.

Students develop the Sun Model of Co-agency

Some have considered children to be the most ignored members of society (Hart, 1992[25]).
Many projects for children are fully designed and run by adults, where the students either
have no role to play or are manipulated by adults. In the early 1990s, sociologist Roger
Hart developed the Ladder of Participation to illustrate the level of children’s participation
in activities and decision making (Hart, 1992[25]).

Figure 2. The ladder of participation

Eight levels of young people’s participation

Note: The ladder metaphor is borrowed from Sherry Arnstein (1969); the categories are from Roger Hart (1992).
Source: Arstein (1969[26]) and Hart (1992[25]).

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
10 │

A little less than 30 years later, in 2018, the OECD Student Focus Group – students from
10 countries who had volunteered to help steer the development of the Learning Compass
2030 and were selected by their respective countries to do so – created the “Sun Model of
Co-agency” based on the ladder schema.
Students changed the visualisation from a ladder to a sun (see Figure 3, next page), as they
determined that agency is better represented by a circular image than a linear one. They
also wanted to show that in every degree of co-agency, students work with adults (except
in the newly added degree of “silence”, or 0, where neither young people nor adults believe
that young people can contribute, and young people remain silent while adults initiate all
activities and make all decisions. By comparison, in the first three degrees of co-agency
(“manipulation”, “decoration” and “tokenism”), students believe that they could contribute
to decision making, but they are not given the opportunity to do so. The stronger the degree
of co-agency, the better for the well-being of both students and adults.

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
 │ 11

Figure 3. Sun Model of Co-Agency

The light is brightest when we shine together

Source: OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Student Focus Group.

Table 1. Degrees of co-agency

0. Silence Neither young people nor adults believe that young people can contribute, and young people remain
silent while adults take and lead all initiatives and make all decisions.
1. Manipulation Adults use young people to support causes, pretending the initiative is from young people.

2. Decoration Adults use young people to help or bolster a cause.

3. Tokenism Adults appear to give young people a choice, but there is little or no choice about the substance and
way of participation.
4. Assigned but informed Young people are assigned a specific role and informed about how and why they are involved, but do
not take part in leading or taking decisions for the project or their place in it.
5. Adult led with student input Young people are consulted on the projects designed, and informed about outcomes, while adults
lead them and make the decisions.
6. Shared decision making, adult led Young people are a part of the decision-making process of a project led and initiated by adults.

7. Young people-initiated and directed Young people initiate and direct a project with support of adults. Adults are consulted and may
guide/advise in decision making, but all decisions are ultimately taken by young people.
8. Young people-initiated, shared Young people initiate a project and the decision making is shared between young people and adults.
decisions with adults Leading and running the project is an equal partnership between young people and adults.

Source: Hart (1997[27]). Modified from the Ladder of Student Participation by the OECD Student Sphere (Linda
Lam, Peter Suante, Derek Wong, Gede Witsen, Rio Miyazaki, Celina Færch, Jonathan Lee and Ruby Bourke).

OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019
12 │

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OECD Future of Education and Skills 2030 Concept Note © OECD 2019