Geotechnics & Foundation

Engineering

CGE3264

Eng. Albert Niyonzima

UR-College of Science and Technology – School of Engineering

Civil, Environmental & Geomatics Engineering – Academic Year 2019-2020
 Course details
3 Hours Lecture /week with 10 Course Credits
Sem.II: Week1-11
Classroom: P001
Course materials: Lecture Slides (PPt) + Books

Evaluation:
 Quizes/10
 CATs /20
 Assignments/20
 Written Exam:50
 Course details
Module content:

UNIT.I. SOIL EXPLORATION

UNIT.II. INTRODUCTION TO FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
UNIT.III. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
UNIT.IV. DEEP FOUNDATIONS

References:
─ Principles and practices of soil mechanics and foundation engineering
by v.N.S murthy.
─ An introduction to the mechanics of soils and foundations by john
atkinson
─ Principles of geotechnical enginnering 5th edition (by braja m.Das)
─ Principles of foundation engineering 7th edition (by braja das)
─ Etc.
UNIT I. SOIL EXPLORATION
 Overview on Soil Exploration
• The stability of the foundation of a building, a bridge, an
embankment or any other structure built on soil depends on the
strength and compressibility characteristics of the subsoil.

• The field and laboratory investigations required to obtain the

essential information on the subsoil is called Soil Exploration or
Soil Investigation.
• Exploration in soil- involves a site visit, quick visual
inspection and detailed tests to determine the behavior.

=>Enables the engineers to draw soil profile indicating the sequence

of soil strata and the properties of soil involved.
• Costs: 0.05 - 0.2% of the total project cost - Even 1% in some
cases - So proper planning must!!
 Overview on Soil Exploration
• The success or failure of a foundation depends essentially on the
reliability of the various soil parameters obtained from the field
investigation and laboratory testing, and used as an input into the
design of foundations. Sophisticated theories alone will not give a
safe and sound design.
• Soil exploration is a must in the present age for the design of
foundations of any project.

 The elements of soil exploration depend mostly on

 Type and importance and magnitude of the Project /structure

 Nature of subsoil (strata variability)

 Budget/economy
Overview on Soil Exploration
Generally, Why soil Exploration?

 To determine the type of foundation required for the

proposed project at the site, i.e. shallow foundation or deep
foundation.
 To allow the design consultant to make
recommendations regarding the safe bearing capacity or
pile load capacity, with regards to the strength and
compressibility characteristics of the subsoil.
 Ultimately, it is the subsoil that provides the ultimate
support for the structures
Overview on Soil Exploration
Objectives of soil Investigation

Assess the general suitability of site

Bearing capacity of the soil

Select type and depth of foundation for a given structure

Estimate max. probable settlement (total and differential)

Investigate the nature and depth of each stratum and assess required properties

Study the ground water conditions

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 8

Overview on Soil Exploration
Objectives of soil Investigation

Predict possible difficulties and problems n the site and suggest remedial actions

Ensure safety of existing structures

Investigate the occurrence of any natural or manmade changes in conditions

and the result from those changes

Select suitable construction materials and techniques based on availability

and economy

Study of shrinkage and swelling potential

Study of lateral earth pressure on the soil, and drainage at the site

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 9

 Overview on Soil Exploration
How to do it??
• Soil exploration involves broadly the following:
 Location and depth of boreholes
 Tests to be done, and test methods
 Sampling methods

• 3 important phases: Planning execution report writing

• Detailed info. Less uncertainty later less factor of safety (or

factor of Ignorance!!)less cost of construction

 OPTIMISATION NEEDED
Stages/steps of site exploration

Detailed
Reconnaissance investigation

Preliminary
Investigation

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 11

 1. Reconnaissance
 First stage- to decide the future work, scope of work, methods to be
used, types of samples required, and tests to be done => Helps to
evolve a suitable subsurface investigation programme
 Involves a site visit and visual inspections at the site

1
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation
2
1. Reconnaissance
General
topograp
Vegetati hy
on and Location
drainage of buried
pattern services

Hydrographic
and Geological
meteorologi info.
cal data Information

Previous
Water
use of
Level
the site
Availability Possibility of
and quality Earthquake,
of local swelling,
construction shrinkage,
erosion 8
1. Reconnaissance
Geological
professional
s

Local Previous
authorities use of the
site

Info.
Sources

Museums, Aerial
libraries photographs and
geological
mapping
Old maps and up
to date
publications

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 14

1. Site Reconnaissance -- Visual Indications

 Random depressions and marked irregularities

Sink holes
 Wrinkling of surface on hillside soil creep
 Shafts or heaps of mineral waste abandoned
mines
 Low lying flat areas river or lake bed
 Springs, wells, High water table
 Marshy ground High water table with poor
drainage

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 15

 2. Preliminary Investigations

 To assess the need for detailed investigation

 Determination of depth, thickness, extent and composition of each
layer or stratum within the zones affected by foundation pressure
and construction
 Depth of bedrock and Ground water table also studied
 Lab and field tests to assess basic properties
 Chemical and bacteriological tests if needed
• Boreholes, test pits
 Methods: • Cone penetrometer,
• Sounding rods
• Geophysical methods
16
 3. Detailed Investigation

 Mainly for big projects- Dams, bridges, multistoreyed buildings

 Also for newly built up soil
 Involves extensive boring programme  sampling  lab and field
testing
 For small projects on site with uniform strata or clear history, info.
from reconnaissance and prelim. investigation sufficient
 Location of additional boreholes  confirmatory boreholes
 Aim: Maximum info. With minimum no: of holes
 Uniform strata boreholes at regular spacing

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 17

 BOREHOLES (BH)
• Depth, lateral extent and number of boreholes important.
• Depth of Exploration: Depends on type of structure, total weight, size,
shape and disposition of loaded area, soil profile, and the physical
properties of the soil that constitutes each individual stratum
• Based on few trial pits and test borings, or an experienced person’s
judgement
Significant Depth:
Depth upto which the superimposed loads can produce significant settlement
and shear Stresses

• Generally, significant depth is that at which vertical stress is 20% ( or

1/5th)of the load intensity (considering 2:1 load distribution, stress at
D=1.5B is nearly 1/5th)
• Depth of exploration must be greater than or equal to significant depth
18
Codal provisions (IS 1892-1979)

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 19

Figure 1
 Depth of exploration

 For hospitals and office buildings, the following rule could be

used to determine boring depth

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 21

 Depth of exploration

• Deep excavations, the depth of boring should be at, least 1.5 times the
depth of excavation.
• Sometimes subsoil conditions are such that the foundation load may
have to be transmitted to the bedrock. The minimum depth of core
boring into the bedrock is about 3m. If the bedrock is irregular or
weathered, the core borings may have to be extended to greater
depths.
• If there are weak zones at depth ( zone of volume change, seasonal
variations, swelling and shrinkage), boring should be continued
below this weak zones.
• Always ensure: Exploration depth such that load can be carried
by that stratum without undesirable settlement and shear failure

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 22

 Lateral extent of exploration
 No hard and fast rules

 No. and spacing of boreholes must be such as to reveal any major changes
in the thickness, depth and properties of strata over the base area of the
structure and its immediate surroundings.
 More uniform strata less no: of BH and more spacing can be adopted
 Erratic variation more no: of boreholes at reduced spacing

 Wherever possible, BH must be sunk close to the proposed

foundation, especially in soils of erratic variation
 When layout not planned before Best pattern is evenly spaced grid of BH
 Cone penetration tests can be performed at every 50m intervals

 Gravelly and boulderous strata CPT not feasible, hence geophysical

23
methods adopted
Lateral extent of exploration

 Approximate spacing requirements of Boreholes

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 24

 Codal provisions(IS 1892)

 Very small buildings 1BH or trial pit in center

 Compact buildings upto 0.4 hectares Atleast 5 (4 at corners and 1
at center)

 Large projects Depends on geology of terrain; holes drilled at

corners and important locations
 Highways: BH along centerline at 150-300m spacing
 Irregular variation: 5-30m spacing

 Concrete dams: 40-80m spacing

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 25

Different Methods of Exploration in soils

Drifts and shafts

Open
Excavation
Pits and Trenches

Auger boring
Soil Exploration
Wash boring

Borings Rotary drilling

Percussion drilling

Core drilling

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 26

Methods of soil Exploration

Exploration methods

Direct Methods Semi Direct In Direct Methods

Borings Sounding or
Test pits, Trial •Auger penetration
pits, Trenches •Auger and shell Tests and
•Wash Boring Geophysical
•Percussion methods
drilling
•Rotary Drilling

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 28
 Open excavation( for depth <6m) –IS 4453-1967

 Trial pits-1.2m* 1.2m( IS 4453-1967)

 Depth > 3m lateral support
 Proper ventilation and dewatering if necessary

 Trenches-long shallow continuous pit, exposing a line

 Drifts(adits)-horizontal tunnels along hillside, especially for

rocks
 Min 1.5m(b) * 2m (h)
 Lateral support if unstable
 Generally expensive
 Helps to establish minimum excavation limits to reach
sound rocks, & to locate failure and shear zones 22
 Open excavation( for depth <6m) –IS 4453-1967

 Shafts: Large vertical holes(min 2.4m width or diameter)

 For D>4m
 Proper support and ventilation required

 The in-situ conditions are examined visually It is easy to obtain

disturbed and undisturbed samples (Block samples can be cut
by hand tools and tube samples can be taken from the bottom of
the pit.)
 BORING
 Boring refers to advancing a hole in the ground. , used esp. when D> 6m
 A semi direct method of exploration( Direct: open pits, trenches; Indirect:
sounding
rods, geophysical methods etc)
 Necessity:
 To obtain representative soil and rock samples for laboratory tests.
 To identify the groundwater conditions.
 Performance of in-situ tests to assess appropriate soil characteristics.
 Extensometers and pressure meters can be installed
 Results Borelog and subsurface profiles
 Drilling borehole taking samples testing Borelog
 Types: (1)Auger boring (2)Wash boring (3)Rotary drilling

 (4)Percussion drilling (5) Core drilling

 1. Auger Boring
 Simplest and most common method of boring for small projects in soft
cohesive soils. – Fast, economical, light, inexpensive and flexible
 Auger a drill for advancing holes
 Has a shank with cross wise handle to apply torque
 The length of the auger blade varies from 0.3-0.5m.
 Diameter of central rod almost 18mm
 Auger held vertically and driven by applying torque, either manually or
mechanically
 Driving force: Torque on handle+ downward pressing force
 The auger is rotated until it is full of soil, then it is withdrawn to remove the
soil and the soil type present at various depths is noted.
 Hand augers and mechanically operated auger
 Post hole augers: for taking samples when hole is already dug/driven

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 3

2
 1. a) Hand augers

 Hand-augered holes can be made upto

about 20m depth although depth greater
than about 8-10m is usually not practical.

 Usually used for shallow depth

applications rail road, highways etc

 Repeated withdrawal of auger for soil

removal makes boring difficult below 8-
10m depth.
 Highly disturbed samples (but better than
other boring methods) used for
classification purpose and basic tests only

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 3

3
 1.b) Mechanical Augers
 Power operated The power required to rotate the auger depends on the type
and size of auger and the type of soil.
 Downwards pressure  applied hydraulically, mechanically or by dead weight
 The diameter of the flight auger  between 75 to 300mm.
 Borehole depths up to 50m are possible with continuous-flight augers.

 The most common method  continuous flight augers can be solid stem
or hollow stem with internal diameter of 75-150mm.

 Hollow stem augers  used for undisturbed samples  Plug is

withdrawn and sampler is lowered down and driven in to the soil below the
auger.

 Auger acts as a casing it can be used in sand below water table. The possibility of
rising sand in to the stem by hydrostatic pressure can be avoided by filling the
stem with water up to the water table
 The soil rises to the surface along the helical blades, obviating the
necessity of withdrawal. 3
4
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 3
5
 Post hole auger
Hand auger-
H elical

Mechanical augers

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 3

6
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation
1.b) Mechanical Augers
 Disadvantages of auger boring

 Difficult in:
 hard soil and soil containing gravels- cobbles and boulders create
problems with
small-sized augers
 very soft clay or coarse sand-hole tends to collapse when auger is
removed

 Possibility that different soil types may become mixed as they rise to
the surface and it may be difficult to determine the depths of
changes of strata.

 Experienced driller can however detect the change of strata by the

change of speed and the sound of drilling.
 Refer Fig: - helical auger, post hole auger, continuous flight auger

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 3

9
 2. Wash Boring
 Soil exploration below the ground water table is usually very difficult to
perform by means of pits or auger-holes.
 Wash boring in such cases is a very convenient method provided the soil is
either sand, silt or clay.
 The hole is advanced a short depth by auger and then a casing pipe is pushed
to prevent the sides from caving in.
 The hole is then continued by the use of a chopping bit fixed at the end of a
string of hollow drill rods. A stream of water under pressure is forced through
the rod and the bit into the hole, which loosens the soil as the water flows up
around the pipe.
 The loosened soil in suspension in water is discharged into a tub.
 The soil in suspension settles down in the tub and the clean water flows into a
sump which is reused for circulation.
 The motive power for a wash boring is either mechanical or man power.
 The bit which is hollow is screwed to a string of hollow drill rods supported on
a tripod by a rope or steel cable passing over a pulley and operated by a winch
fixed on one of the legs of the tripod.
 Whenever an undisturbed sample
 Fast and simple depths is required at a particular depth,
up to 8-10m possible the boring is stopped, and the
chopping bit is replaced by a
sampler. The sampler is pushed
into the soil at the bottom of the
hole and the sample is
Wash Boring withdrawn.
 Disadvantages
 Highly disturbed samples
 Finer particles (clay, loam etc.) wont
settle, and heavier particles not
brought up
 Exact strata identification not possible due
to mixing
of soil particles
 Slow in c. grained and stiff soils
 Not effective in hard soils, rocks , boulders
 Can be used in most type of soil but the
progress is slow in coarse gravel strata
 Some indications about strata from slurry
colour and drill penetration resistance

 It is only used for advancing the borehole to

enable tube samples to be taken or field test
to be carried at the hole bottom.

 Refer Fig: 
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 4
2
 3. Rotary drilling
 Similar to wash boring, but hole advanced by rotating a hollow drill
rod with cutting bit at the lower end and drill head at upper portion
 Primarily intended for investigation in rock, but also used in soils.

 Water or drilling fluid is pumped down the hollow rods and passes under
pressure through narrow holes in the bit or barrel

 Drilling rod rotates cutting bit shears off chips of material materials
removed by circulating drilling fluids( Refer Fig : )
 Functions of drilling fluid:
 cools and lubricates the drilling tool
 carries the loose debris to the surface between the rods and the side of
the hole.
 Provides some support to the sides of the hole if no casing is used .
 Useful for highly resistant strata and for clay, sand, rocks
 Not for gravelly soil since they keep rotating beneath drill rod 35
 3. Rotary drilling
 Two forms of rotary drilling open-hole drilling and core drilling.

 Open- hole drilling generally used in soils and weak rock just for
advancing the hole  The drilling rods can then be removed to allow tube
samples to be taken or in-situ tests to be carried out.

 Core drilling used in rocks and hard clays the diamond or tungsten
carbide bit cuts an annular hole in the material and an intact core enters the
barrel, to be removed as a sample.
 Typical core diameters are 41, 54 and 76mm, but can range up to 165 mm.
 Suitable for holes of 15-20cm dia; uneconomical for diameter < 10cm
 Advantages :progress much faster , and disturbance of the soil below the
borehole is slight.
 Limitations The method is not suitable if the soil contains a high percentage of
gravel/cobbles, as they tend to rotate beneath the bit and are not broken up.
The natural water content of the material is liable to be increased due to contact
with the drilling fluid 4
4
Rotary drilling rig (After Hvorslev, 1949) 4
5
 4. Percussion drilling
 Consists of breaking up of the formation by repeated blows from a bit or a
chisel.
 Water should be added to the hole at the time of boring, and the debris removed
at intervals.

 Where the boring is in soil or into soft rocks and provided that a sampler can
be driven into them, cores may be obtained at intervals using suitable tools;
 But in soils, the material tends to become disturbed by the action of this method
of boring
and for this reason, the sample may not be much reliable
 Stroke of bit depends upon ground condition:
45-100cm in depth @ 35-60 blows/mt

 As these machines are devised for rapid drilling by pulverizing the material,
they are not suitable for careful investigation.
 The only method suitable for drilling bore holes in boulderous and gravelly
strata.
 Percussion drilling(cntd..)
 Change in soil character identified by
composition of outgoing slurry
 Disadvantages:
 Bottom material highly disturbed due to
heavy blows
 Expensive- requires large
equipments
 Minor changes cannot be detected from
the slurry

 Uneconomical for holes of diameter

<10cm
 Also used for drilling tubewells
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 4
7
 Core drilling
 A type of rotary drilling used for rocks

 Similar to rotary drilling, but provided with a sharper cutting edge(made of

diamond or tungsten)

 Drilling rod with core barrel fitted with drilling bit Rotated drill bit
advances down cuts an annular hole around an intact core.
 Core then removed and retained by core lifter
 Water pumped continuously  to cool the drilling bit, and bring up the
disintegrated
materials

 Important: ensure that boulders, or layers of cemented soils are not mistaken
for bed rock. This necessitates core drilling to a depth of at least 3 m in bed rock
in areas where boulders are known to occur.
 For shear strength determination, a core with diameter to height ratio of 1 : 1 is
required.
4
 Rock pieces may be used for determination of specific gravity and classification.
8
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 4
9
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 5
1
SAMPLING IN SOIL (Sampling Tools and Samplers)

N atural soil structure m odified or

disturbed

U sed to test index properties (grain

D isturbed
size, plasticity, Specific gravity )

R epresent composition and

sample

m ineral structure

N atural soil str. A nd m oisture

s

content maintained

U ndisturbed Engg. Properties determined (Shear

str., compressibility, perm eability)

R epresents the soil structure

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 52
Features measuring degree of disturbance

Cutting edge Inside wall friction

Design features
affecting degree
of disturbance

Method of applying force N on-return valve

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 5

3
 Design features affecting degree of disturbance
1. Cutting Edge

(i) Inside Clearance: Ci = (D3-D1)/D1 X100

(i) Internal dia of cutting edge must be slightly
less than internal dia of sampling tube
It allows elastic expansion of the sample
(ii) and reduces frictional drag

For undisturbed sample, Ci = 0.5 to 3%

(ii) Outside clearance: Co =(D2 – D4)/D4 X 100

 Outside dia of cutting edge must be more
than outer dia of tube
 To facilitate the withdrawal of sampler from
soil, this must be least
 For undisturbed sample, It should lie between
0 to 2% ( But Co must not be much more
than Ci)
 Design features affecting degree of disturbance
(iii). Area ratio Ar = (D 2- D 2)/D 2 X100
2 1 1

 Ar= Ratio of Maximum cross-sectional area of the cutting edge to total

area of the soil sample

 Should be as low as possible, consistent with strength requirement of

sample tube

 Should be < 20% for stiff formations & < 10% for sensitive clays
 Generally, for Undisturbed samples: Area ratio must be 10% or less than
10%

2. Inside wall Friction: The inside wall should be smooth . Can be done by:

 Applying oil inside the tube

 Providing smooth finish to sample tube

 Ensuring suitable inside clearance 5

5
Design features affecting degree of disturbance

3.Design of Non return Valve:

 The sampler must have a large orifice to allow quick escaping of
air, water or slurry.
 It should close immediately when the sampler is with drawn

4. Method of applying force:

 The rate of advancement and method of application of force
controls the sample disturbance.

 The sampler must be pushed not driven

5.Recovery ratio: R=L/H

 should be 96-98% for an undisturbed sample

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 5

6
How soil is disturbed??

• Soil disturbance can occur during drilling, during sampling, during

transportation and storage, or during preparation for testing.
• Any sample of soil being taken from the ground, transferred to the
laboratory, and prepared for testing will be subject to disturbance.
• The mechanisms associated with this disturbance can be classified as
follows:
1. changes in stress conditions;
2. mechanical deformation;
3. changes in water content and voids ratio;
4. chemical changes.

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 5

7
 Sampling technique

Hand samples

Disturbed Auger

Shell
Sampling technique

Soils

Chunk samples
Undisturbed
Tube samples

Disturbed Wash samples

Rocks
Undisturbed Cores

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 5

8
Samplers

Open tube sampler

Cohesive Split spoon sampler

Piston sampler

Top controlled
samplers Bottom controlled
cohesionless
Solidification by
chemicals or emulsions
Cores
rocks R otary drillin g
washout

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 59

 Samplers
On the basis of area ratio, soil samplers are classified into the following
types:
i. Thin-wall samplers.
ii. Thick-wall samplers.
• Thin-wall samplers are the samplers in which the wall thickness of the
sampling tube is less than 2.5% of the diameter.
• In other words, thin-wall samplers are those for which the area ratio is less
than or equal to 10%. Samplers for which the area ratio is more than 10% are
known as thick-wall samplers.

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 60

 Samplers
• Later studies have modified the definition of thin-wall samplers to include
the effect of cutting edge on sample disturbance.

• Accordingly, thin-wall samplers may be defined as those with an area ratio

less than 20% when the sampler has a suitably designed cutting edge. Thick-
wall samplers are those with an area ratio more than 20%.
• Based on the sampler design and use, soil samplers are classified
into the following types:
1. Open-tube sampler.
2. Standard split-spoon sampler.
3. Stationary piston sampler.
4. Rotary sampler.
5. Scraper bucket sampler.
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 61
1. Open tube sampler/ Shelby tubes(IS 2132-1986)
 The open-tube samplers are the simplest type of samplers for collection
of undisturbed samples.
 They are thin-wall tube samplers made of seamless steel and are also
known as thin-wall Shelby tube samplers.
 Outside dia: 45mm, 65mm, 80mm, 100mm etc
 Thickness:1.25 - 3.15mm
 Commonly used: outside dia. 50.8mm ,inside dia. 47.63 mm =>Area
ratio~ 10% (always < 15%) Undisturbed
 Casing driven up to sampling level hole is cleaned sampling done
 Length of tube: 5-10 times dia. for sandy soils, and 10-15 times dia. for
clayey soils Sampler pushed, not driven least disturbance
Suitable in very soft to medium soft clays and silts
(Refer Fig: ) Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 6
2
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 6
3
 2. Split spoon samplers

• It is the most commonly used sampler for obtaining undisturbed soil samples.
• It is also known as split-barrel and split-tube sampler.
• A split-spoon sampler is also used to conduct SPT in the borehole.
• When the SPT is conducted, the soil sample simultaneously enters the
sampler by the end of the test, which is then withdrawn and taken to the
laboratory.

• Features of the Sampler:

=>The standard split-spoon sampler consists of the
following 3 parts: (Refer Fig:)
 Driving shoe at bottom- 75mm long
 Steel tube, split longitudinally into 2 halves-
450mm long
 Coupling at the top-150mm long

54
 2. Split spoon samplers
 Procedure:
 Sampler lowered to the bottom of the borehole by attaching it to the
drill rod Then driven by forcing it into the soil by blows of a
standard hammer Sampler assembly then taken out coupling and
driving shoe removed steel tube split into halves samples taken

 Standard penetration Test: Uses split spoon sampler Hammer 63.5Kg;

height of fall 760mm
 Samples generally taken at intervals of 1.53m

 Commonly used dia: Outside dia 50.8mm and inside dia 34.9mm=>
Area ratio > 100% highly disturbed samples

 When used in sand, ―spring core catcher‖ placed inside the split
tube, to retain the sample

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation

54
Split spoon samplers IS:9640-1980

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 6

6
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 6
7
 3. Piston sampler
 Consists of two separate parts, (a) the sample cylinder
and (b) the piston system; (Refer Fig:)

 The piston rod is 30 cm (12 in.) in diameter at the

bottom end and fits easily inside the hollow drill rod.

 During the driving and till the start of the sampling

operation, the bottom of the piston flush with the
cutting edge of the sampler.

 At the desired sampling elevation, the piston fixed in to

the ground and the sampler cylinder forced
independently into the ground, thus punching a sample
out of the soil
 The piston prevents water and dirt from entering the
tube during the lowering operation. It also keeps the
recovery ratio constant during the punch.

 As the sampler tube slides past the tight fitting piston

during the sampling operation, a negative pressure is
developed above the sample, which holds back the
sample during withdrawal 57
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 6
9
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 7
0
 4. Rock Core Sampling

 Rock coring is the process in which a sampler consisting of a

tube (core barrel) with a cutting bit at its lower end cuts an
annular hole in a rock mass, thereby creating a cylinder or core of
rock which is recovered in the core barrel.
 Rock cores are normally obtained by rotary drilling.
 The primary purpose of core drilling is to obtain intact samples.
 The behavior of a rock mass is affected by the presence of
fractures in the rock.
 The size and spacing of fractures, the degree of weathering of
fractures, and the presence of soil within the fractures are critical
items.

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation

54
 4. Rock Core Sampling
 The core barrel may consist of a single tube or a double tube (Refer Fig:)
 Samples taken in a single tube barrel are
likely to experience considerable disturbance
due to torsion, swelling and contamination
by the drilling fluid,
 But these disadvantages are not there if the
coring is conducted in hard, intact, rocky
strata.
 However, if a double tube barrel is used, the
core is protected from the circulating fluid.
 Most core barrels are capable of retaining
cores up to a length of 2 m.

=>cutting element (core bits) may consist of Schematic diagram of core barrels (a)
diamonds, tungsten carbide inserts or chilled Single tube, (b) Double tube (with coring
shot. bits at the bottom).
 Rock Core Recovery

 The recovery ratio Rr, is defined as the percentage ratio

between the length of the core recovered and the length of the
core drilled on a given run
 It is related to the quality of rock encountered in boring, but it
is also influenced by the drilling technique and the type and
size of core barrel used.
 Generally the use of a double tube barrel results in higher
recovery ratios than can be obtained with single tube barrels.
 A better estimate of in-situ rock quality is obtained by a
modified core recovery ratio known as the Rock Quality
Designation (RQD)

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation

Rock Core Recovery

 R = Sum of length of cores recovered ∗ 100

Total length drilled
 Similar to rock recovery ratio

 Quality of rock mass, stability, skill of operator, choice of core barrel

ROCK QUALITY DESIGNATION(RQD)

 Modified rock core recovery

 Lengths > 100mm considered

 RQD = Sum of length of cores recovered having length>100mm ∗ 100
Total length drilled
 Rock fracturing degree no idea on joint alteration, or rock strength or
groundwater conditions

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 7

4
Relation of RQD and in-situ Rock Quality
(Peck et al., 1974)

RQD Type Qa (N/sqmm)

0-25 Very poor <3
25-50 Poor 3-6.5
50-75 Fair 6.5-12
75-90 Good 12-20
90-100 Excellent 20-30

• Cracks while drilling fit up and add

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 7

5
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

 Indirect method : From surface measuring certain physical properties

interpret the subsurface soil properties

 Based on changes in the gravitational, magnetic, electrical,

radioactive or elastic properties of the different elements of the subsoil

 Gravitational, magnetic and radioactive properties minor change

near surface
 Resistivity method based on the electrical properties and the seismic
refraction method based on the elastic properties widely used

ADVANTAGES: simple, fast, economical, portable instruments, large

area easily investigated
APPLICATIONS: subsurface soil, mineral ores, geologic structures,
grouundwater studies

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 7

6
 Methods

 Gravimetric, magnetic, electrical, seismic, radioactive, geothermal

 Gravimetric- density based  oil and mineral exploration
 Magnetic  magnetic field intensity less accurate

• Two methods of exploration which are some times useful are :

1. Seismic Refraction Method,
2. Electrical Resistivity Method.
7
7
 Electrical methods

Principle

 Electric methods are based on the factthat the sub-

surfaceformation, structures, ore deposits, etc. possess different
electrical properties.

 Numerous and versatile applications  groundwater

studies, subsurface structures and many others.
 Properties considered: electrical resistivity, dielectric constant

 Types: electrical resistivity method, electromagnetic methods, self

potential methods and induce polarization method
 Subsurface soil exploration electrical resistivity method used

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 7

8
 Electrical resistivity method

 Principle:

The electrical resistivity's(ρ) of subsurface formation vary from one another

if they are inhomogeneous and are studied with the help of resistivity method.

 ρ ( unit Ωm-Ohm metre) depends on water content, compaction, and

composition( low for saturated silt, high for loose dry gravel or solid rock)

 Driving four metal spikes to serve as electrodes into the ground along a
straight line at equal distances

 2 arrangements of electrodes possible:

(1) Wenner arrangement and
(2) Schlumberger arrangement

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 7

9
Electrical resistivity method

Wenner
arrangement
Electrical
profiling
Lateral profiling
Electrical
resistivity
method Schlumberger
arrangement
Electrical
sounding
Vertical profiling

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 8

0
Electrical resistivity method methods

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 8

1
 Electrical Profiling
 Also known as lateral electrical investigation. In this process,

 the electrode array placed at equal spacing , is moved from place

to place, as a whole along the chosen traverse and the ρ value at each
of these stations is determined.
 The changes in ρ indicates lateral variations in the subsurface
corresponding to a certain depth.

 If the current- electrode separation is more, then the depth of

investigation is more.
 Useful in detecting only vertical or steeply inclined structures
(such as vertical beds, faults and dykes) because, only then the measured
value ρ differ from place to place.

 If bed is horizontal ρ almost same depth-wise variation cannot

be known.
 Electrical Sounding

 Also described as ‗depth probing ‗electrical coring, etc.

 In this method, a number of ρ value are measured at the same place by

increasing the distance between the current electrodes each time
after taking reading.
 Successive increase in distance makes the current penetrate more and
• more deeply.
 Hence the change in ρ value measured indicate the vertical variations
• in the subsurface at the investigated point.

 Thus the sounding technique is useful in investigating only

horizontal or gently inclined structures. This is so because, under
such conditions only ρ value shows variation when the successive
readings are taken.
 Electrical Resisitivity Measurements
Apparatus:
- measuring unit with microprocessor
- power supply (generator or battery)
- multiplexer
- addressable electrodes
Electrical ResistivityMeasurements
Electrical Resisitivity Measurements
Electrical resistivity method

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 8

7
Application of Electrical Resistivity
Studies
• From the civil engineering point of view the ‘resistivity’ investigations
are useful in solving a number of geological problems. They are aimed at
 (i) foundation studies
 (ii) location of suitable building material
 (iii) ground water studies

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation

 Electrical Resistivity method- Pros and Cons
Advantages
 It is a very rapid and economical method.
 It is good up to 30m depth.
 The instrumentation of this method is very simple.
 It is a non-destructive method.
Disadvantages of this method are:
 It can only detect absolutely different strata like rock and water.
 It provides no information about the sample.

 Cultural problems cause interference, e.g., power lines, pipelines, buried

casings, fences.
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation
Seismic Methods
 Controlling Properties : Elastic property

Principle :

 Subsurface soil and rock formations bear different elastic properties

seismic waves have different velocities in different types of soils (or
rock)  waves refract at boundaries

 Artificial impulse produced either by detonation of explosive or

mechanical blow with a heavy hammer at ground surface or at the
shallow depth within a hole.

 Assumes that soil gets denser with depth and hence velocity of seismic
waves increase with depth.
 Geophones fixed at suitable intervals on the ground

90
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation
Seismic Methods

 Elastic waves : compressive waves, shear waves and surface waves

Compressive waves recorded

 These waves are classified as direct, reflected and refracted

waves.

 The direct wave travel in approximately straight line from the

source of impulse.
 The reflected and refracted wave undergoes a change in direction
when they encounter a boundary separating media of different
seismic velocities

 This method is more suited to the shallow explorations for

civil engineering purpose.
91
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation
Procedure

Detectors placed at varying distances along

same line on ground

Shock waves or impact waves produced at a

location.

Refracts at interfaces and reaches surface,

depending on velocity in each layer

Geophones record the first vibration of shock

waves and arrival time time distance curves
plotted

Converts it into electric signal and transmit to

recording unit

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 84

Geophone
 Refraction Vs. Reflection

 Seismic Refraction: the signal returns to the surface by

refraction at subsurface interfaces, and is recorded at distances much
greater than depth of investigation
 Seismic Reflection: the seismic signal is reflected back to the surface at
layer interfaces, and is recorded at distances less than depth of investigation

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation

Refraction Vs. Reflection
Refraction Vs. Reflection
Assumptions

 All soil layers are horizontal.

 The layer is sufficiently thick to produce a response.
 Each layer is homogeneous and isotropic.
 Velocity should increase with depth, following the Snell's law

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 9

7
Seismic Refraction Method

9
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 8
 Seismic Refraction Method
 The shock waves are picked up by geophones. In Fig. (a), point A is the
source of seismic impulse.
 The points D1 through D8 represent the locations of the geophones or
detectors which are installed in a straight line.
 Spacing of geophones: depend upon amount of detail required and the
depth to be investigated; Generally spaced such that total distance from
first to last geophone is 3-4 times the depth of investigation.

 As in the figure, if the source-geophone spacing is more than the

distance d1 which is the distance from the source to point B, the direct
wave reaches the geophone in advance of the refracted wave and the
time-distance relationship is
 represented by a straight line AB through the origin represented by A.
 If on the other hand, the source-geophone distance is greater than d1 ,
the refracted waves arrive in advance of the direct waves and the time-
distance relationship is represented by another straight line BC which
will have a slope different from that of AB.
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation
 Seismic Refraction Method

 When the distance exceeds a certain value (depending on the thickness of

the stratum), the refracted wave will be the first to be detected by the
geophone =>This is because the refracted wave, although longer than that
of the direct wave, passes through a stratum of higher seismic velocity.

 The slopes of the lines AB and BC are represented by 1/V1 and 1/V2
respectively, where V1 and V2 are the velocities of the upper and lower
strata respectively.
 Similarly, the slope of the third line CD is represented by 1/V3 in the third
strata.
 The general types of soil or rocks can be determined from a knowledge of
these velocities.
 The depth H1 of the top strata (provided the thickness of the stratum is
constant) can be estimated from the formula:

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation

 Seismic Refraction Method
 The thickness of the second layer (H2) is obtained from

 The procedure is continued if there are more than three layers.

If the thickness of any stratum is not constant, average thickness is taken.

 The following equations may be used for determining the depths H1 and
H2 in a three layer strata:
and

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation

 Seismic Refraction Method
 Range of seismic velocities in soils near the surface or at shallow
depths (after Peck et al., 1974)

• Table gives typical seismic velocities in various materials. Detailed

investigation procedures for refraction studies are presented by Jakosky
(1950).
Soil exploration, testing and evaluation
ations
 Depth and characterization of the bed rock surfaces,

 Buried channel location

 Depth of the water table

 Depth and continuity of the stratigraphy interfaces

 Mapping of faults and other structural features.

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 1

0
Advantages :
 Complete picture of stratification of layer upto 10m depth.
 Simple equipments and easy execution
 Little processing required
 Provides seismic velocity information for estimating material properties.
 Provides greater vertical resolution than electrical, magnetic, or gravity
methods.
 Data acquistion requires very limited intrusive activity
=> non-destructive.

Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 1

0
Disadvantages :
 Cannot be used when hard layer overlies soft layer
 Cannot be used in areas like concrete or bitumen
 Presence of buried conduits and services
 Cannot be used in frozen layers
 High cost
 Skilled labour

Soil exploration, testing and evaluation 1

0
 Role of geophysical methods in solving geotechnical
problems
 Gravitational and magnetic methods  in mining and petroleum engineering.
 Geotechnical  limited use for survey of unconsolidated sediments over the
dense bedrock.

 Magnetic method is applied to locate dikes, faults and buried pipes and other
concealed magnetic metal works.
 Seismic and resistivity methods :
 For dam and bridge sites, to locate depth of the solid rock
 For design of the underwater foundation
 For building sites to locate hard rock strata/ soft strata seismic method is
used.
 Slope design and the landslide investigation
 To locate the shallow deposits
 Ground water investigation
 In the insitu evaluation of concrete, geophysical methods are used to determine
uniformity of concrete.
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 96
ubsoil Investigation Report
 Last step in a soil investigation
 Borehole data, site observations and lab results
 Each bore hole-identified by code

 Mainly 4 parts: Project details; Results; Analysis and possible solution;

Recommendations (Allowable soil pressure and expected settlements)
 Borelog all details of the borehole depth, strata variation obtained,
properties of each strata, water table etc

 Subsurface profile data obtained from a series of boreholes vertical

section through ground along line of exploration Indicate boundaries of
strata, the classification of soil type, and main properties

1
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 96
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Contents of a subsoil investigation report
1. Scope of the investigation
2. Proposed structure
3. Location descriptions of the site,  structures nearby, drainage
conditions, vegetation and any other features unique to the site
4. Geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—, number of borings, depths of borings,
types of borings involved, and so on
6.A general description of the subsoil conditions, -from lab and field tests
7. The water-table conditions

8. Re commendations regarding the foundation, the allowable Bearing

pressure, and any special construction procedure that may be needed;
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
1
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 96
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Subsoil Exploration Report-Graphical
presentations

The following graphical presentations should be attached to the

report:
1. A site location map

2. A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to

the proposed structures and those nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations

1
Soil exploration,testing and evaluation 96
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 100

Example Table of
Contents for a
Geotechnical
Investigation
(Data) Report
 Field Tests

Field Test (In-situ Test) Common In Situ Testing Devices

 In-situ shear strength tests

 Standard Penetration Test

(SPT)
 Cone Penetration Test

(CPT)
 Dynamic Cone Penetration

Test (DCPT)
SPT
 Vane Shear Test (VST)
VST
 Dilatometer Test (DMT) PMT DMT
DCPT CPT
 Pressure meter Test (PMT)

 Settlement test

 Plate Load Test (PLT)

In bore holes
5
 Assignment No.1
• All construction projects are made on the soil. The soil has to take the weight
of the structures and the purpose of geotechnical investigations is to design
earthworks and foundations for structures, and to execute earthwork repairs
necessitated due to changes in the subsurface environment. From Geotechnical
point of view, discuss in details the concept, purpose, procedure and
interpretation of the following field tests:
1) Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
2) Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
3) The Pressuremeter Test
4) The Flat Dilatometer Test
5) Field vane Shear Test (VST)
6) Field plate Load Test (PLT)

Submission date (Hard & Soft copy):………….. Presentation date:……………

Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Since 1902
 SPT & Split- Barrel Sampling
 ASTM D-1586 (1997) with periodic revision since 1958.

Figure: Split barrel sampler for standard penetration test

instrumented split-barrel sampler

shoe split-barrel head (connects to rods) for taking energy measurements
 SPT & Split- Barrel Sampling
Components
 Drilling Equipment
• Inner diameter of hole 100 to 150 mm
• Casing may be used in case of soft/non-cohesive soils
 Split spoon sampler
 Drive weight assembly
• Falling Weight = 63.5 Kg
• Fall height = 76 cm
 Others Lifting bail, Tongs, ropes, screw jack, etc.

Procedure
1. The bore hole is advanced to desired depth and bottom is cleaned.
2. Split spoon sampler is attached to a drill rod and rested on bore hole
bottom.
3. Driving mass is dropped onto the drill rod repeatedly and the sampler is
driven into soil for a distance of 450 mm. The number of blow for each
150 mm penetration are recorded.
 SPT & Split- Barrel Sampling
 Procedure (Cont….)
N-value:
 First 150 mm penetration is considered as seating
penetration
 The number of blows for the last two 150 mm
penetration are added together and reported as N-value
for the depth of bore hole.
• The split spoon sampler is recovered, and sample is
collected from split barrel so as to preserve moisture
content and sent to the laboratory for further analysis.
• SPT is repeated at every 750 mm or 1500 mm interval
for larger depths
 Under the following conditions the penetration is
referred to as refusal and test is halted:
Split-barrel sample 2
a) 50 blows are required for any 150 mm penetration from Kurtulus
(2006 Univ. Texas-
b) 100 blows are required for last 300 mm penetration Austin)
c) 10 successive blows produce no advancement
 Standardization of SPT
Some of the important factors that affect reproducibility of the results are:
1. Variation in the height of fall of the drop weight (hammer) during the test
2. The number of turns of rope around the cathead, and the condition of the
manila rope
3. Length and diameter of drill rod
4. Diameter of bore hole
5. Overburden pressure
Discrepancies in the input driving energy and its dissipation around the sampler
into the surrounding soil are the principal factors for the wide range in N-values.
The theoretical input energy may be expressed as

Ein = W.h => Energy transferred to the driving

head and then to the sampler (Eout )
Where W = weight or mass of the hammer ranges from about 30 to 80 % of
h = height of fall energy input.
 Corrections to the Observed SPT Value
N or Nmeasured = raw SPT Resistance reported in blows per foot (bpf) per ASTM
D 1586. Note: in SI units, N is in units of blows/300mm.

Three types of corrections are normally applied to the observed N values. They
are:
1. Hammer efficiency correction
2. Drill rod, sampler and borehole corrections
3. Correction due to overburden pressure

1. Hammer Efficiency Correction, Eh

• SPT is standardized to some energy ratio Re
• Bowles (1996) suggests that the observed SPT value N be reduced to a
standard blow count corresponding to 70 % of standard energy.
• Terzaghi, et al., (1996) suggest 60 %.
• The standard energy ratio may be expressed as:
𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀𝐀 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄 𝐭𝐭𝐭𝐭 𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒𝐒, 𝑬𝑬𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐𝒐
𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆 =
𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈𝐈 𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄𝐄, 𝑬𝑬𝒊𝒊𝒊𝒊
 Corrections to the Observed SPT Value
1. Hammer Efficiency Correction, Eh
 Energy is dissipated in some fraction during the impact, and the output energy is
usually in the range of 50% to 80% of energy input.
For rope pully system with safety hammer 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬�
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 = 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔


 The N-value is standardized for 60 % energy output. For other hammers, the N-
value may be corrected in ratio of their energy input.
𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬� % 𝑹𝑹𝒆𝒆𝒆𝒆
𝑵𝑵𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬𝑬 𝑵𝑵 or 𝑵𝑵𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 = 𝑵𝑵
𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔 𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎𝒎

Different types of hammers are in use for driving the drill rods. Two types are
normally used in USA. They are (Bowles, 1996) :
1. Donut with two turns of manila rope on the cathead with a hammer efficiency
Eh = 0.45.
2. Safety with two turns of manila rope on the cathead with a hammer efficiency
as follows:
 Rope-pulley or cathead = 0.7 to 0.8;
 Trip or automatic hammer = 0.8 to 1.0.
Corrections to the Observed SPT Value
SPT Hammer Types

Pinweight Safety
hammer

Donut hammer Automatic

hammer
 Corrections to the Observed SPT Value

Calibration of SPT Hammer & System

Modified after Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)

Hammer Type Operation Method Typical Range of

Energy Ratios
Pinweight Manual 30 - 40
Donut Manual 40 - 55
Safety Manual 50 - 75
Automatic Auto 45 - 95
 Corrections to the Observed SPT Value
2. Drill Rod, Sampler and Borehole Corrections (Bowles, 1996).
a) Drill rod length correction factor (Cd)
Length (m) Correction factor (Cd)
> 10 m 1.0
4 – 10 m 0.85 – 0.95
> 4.0 m 0.75
b) Sampler correction factor (Cs)
• Without Liner Cs=1.00
Dense sand, clay = 0.80
• With liner
Loose sand = 0.9
c) Bore hole diameter correction factor (Cb)
Borehole diameter Correction factor (Cb)
60 – 120 mm 1.0
150 mm 1.05
200 mm 1.15
 Corrections to the Observed SPT Value

3. Correction Factor for Overburden Pressure in Granular Soils, CN

𝟏𝟏�
𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗. 𝟕𝟕𝟕𝟕 𝟐𝟐
The CN as per Liao and Whitman (1986) is 𝑪𝑪𝑵𝑵 =
𝑷𝑷′𝒐𝒐
Where 𝑷𝑷𝑷𝒐𝒐 = effective overburden pressure in kN/m2
Ncor may be expressed as
Ncor= CNNEhCdCsCb = Fully corrected N value

Borehole diameter correction

Split spoon liner correction
 Ncor is related to the standard energy
ratio used by the designer Rod length correction
 Ncor may be expressed as N70 or N60 Energy correction
according to the designer’s choice. Overburden pressure correction
N60 ≈ Ncor

 CNN is the corrected value for overburden pressure only.

 The value of CN as per Eq. above is applicable for granular soils only.
 Whereas CN = 1 for cohesive soils for all depths.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Advantages Disadvantages
• Obtain Sample + Number • Energy inefficiency problems
• Simple & rugged device at • Discontinuous - only taken
low cost every 5 feet (1.5 m)
• Suitable in many soil types • Disturbed sample (index tests
only)
• Can perform in weak rocks
• The test results from SPT cannot
• Available (worldwide) be reproduced
• Not applicable in soft clays and
silts
• High variability and uncertainty
Disadvantage of SPT (Idriss & Boulanger 2008)

SPT Interval
missed of 5 feet
strata ! (1.5 m)
Static Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
 Cone Penetration Test Procedure
• Push the sounding rod with cone into the ground for some specified depth.
Then push the cone with friction sleeve (Jacket) for another specified depth (>
35 mm). Repeat the process with/without friction sleeve.
• Pushing rate = 2 cm/s (Std penetration rate)
• Mantle tube is push simultaneously such that it is always above the cone and
friction sleeve.
• Tip Load, Qc = Load from pressure gauge reading + Wt. of cone + Wt. of
connecting sounding rods
• Cone penetration resistance qc is obtained by dividing the total force Qc acting
on the cone by the base area Ac of the cone.

Qc
 Tip resistance  qc =
Ac x-sectional area off cone = 10 cm2
 Cone Penetration Test Procedure
 With friction sleeve  add its self weight as well  Qt = Qc + Qf
 In the same way, the local side friction fs is

Qf
 Friction resistance  f s =
Af surface area of friction sleeve

where Q=
f Qt − Qc : force required to the friction jacket.
Q t = the total force required to push the cone and friction jacket together in
the case of a mechanical pen.

10%
fs Cohesive
 Friction Ratio  Rf = Typical range 
qc %0 Granular
Where fs and qc are measured at the same depth. Rf is expressed as a percentage.
 Friction ratio is an important parameter for classifying soil.
CPT Results & Soil Classification

Figure: A typical sounding log Figure: A simplified classification chart

 Typical CPT Data
 The CPT has proved valuable for soil profiling as the soil type can be identified from
the combined measurement of end resistance of cone and side friction on a jacket. The
test lends itself to the derivation of normal soil properties such as density, friction
angle and cohesion.
 Correlation between SPT and CPT
 Meyerhof (1965) presented comparative data between SPT and CPT. For
fine or silty medium loose to medium dense sands, he presents the
correlation as

CPT Versus SPT

 CPT: Advantages over SPT
 Provides much better resolution, reliability

 Versatility; pore water pressure, dynamic soil properties

 CPT: Disadvantages
 Does not give a sample

 Will not work with soil with gravel

 Need to mobilize a special rig

 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
ADVANTAGES:
• Fast and continuous profiling
• Repeatable data
• Economical and productive
• Strong theoretical basis for interpretation
• More than one measurement (qc, fs, u)
• Additional sensors (e.g. seismic Vs & Vp)
fs
LIMITATIONS:
• Somewhat high capital investment
• Somewhat skilled operators
• No soil sample (during CPT)* u2
• Penetration restricted in gravels/cemented layers
(same as SPT)
qc
Basic Cone Parameters

Sleeve Friction
fs = load/2πrh

Pore Pressure, u2

Tip Resistance
qc = load/π r 2

Robertson, 2015
CPT Book

Comprehensive book
on CPT

1997
312 pages

135
 Robertson
& Cabal (Robertson)

CPT Guide
6th Edition
2015
(132 pages)

Download FREE copy from:

www.greggdrilling.com
www.cpt-robertson.com
www.geologismiki.gr

Free Webinars:
www.greggdrilling.com/webinars
Robertson, 2015
Example CPT pushing equipment
Example CPT pushing equipment

Small drill-rig
to push CPT
using anchor
(1 flight of
auger)
Questions?