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CHAPTER 5
PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS

Element:
 An element contains only one type of atoms.
 There are 118 known elements
 Out of these 94 elements occur naturally

Classification of Elements:
New elements and their properties were being discovered. To study all the elements, scientists classified the
elements based on their properties.

Döbereiner’s Triads: (Johann Wolfgang Döbereiner – 1817)

 Döbereiner arranged the elements with similar properties into groups.
 Each group had three elements. So he called the group as triads.
 When the three elements of a triad were written in the order of increasing atomic masses, the atomic mass
of the middle element was roughly the average of the atomic masses of the other two elements.
 Example:
o Atomic mass of Li = 6.9
o Atomic mass of K = 39.0
o Atomic mass of Na (middle element) = (6.9 + 39.0)/2 = 45.9/2 = 22.95
Group A Atomic Mass Group B Atomic Mass Group C Atomic Mass
Li 6.9 Ca 40.1 Cl 35.5
Na 23.0 Sr 87.6 Br 79.9
K 39.0 Ba 137.3 I 126.9
Limitations:
 Döbereiner could identify only three triads from the elements, so this classification was not useful.

Newland’s Law of Octaves: (John Newlands – 1866)

 John Newlands arranged the elements from Hydrogen to Thorium in the order of increasing atomic masses.
 He found that every eighth element had properties similar to that of the first.
 This was similar to the octaves in music. So, he called it the law of octaves.
 Example:
o Properties of lithium and sodium are similar. Sodium is the eighth element after lithium.

Limitations:
1. Newland’s Law of Octaves was applicable only up to calcium. After calcium every eighth element did not
have properties similar to that of the first.
2. Newland assumed that there were only 56 elements in nature. When new elements were discovered, they
did not fit in the law of octaves.
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3. In order to fit elements into his Table, Newlands adjusted two elements in the same slot.
o Example: cobalt and nickel
4. He also put some unlike elements under the same note.
o Example:
o Cobalt and Nickel are placed in the same column as fluorine, chlorine and bromine which have very
different properties than these elements.
o Iron, which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties, has been placed far away from these
elements.
5. With the discovery of noble gases, the Law of Octaves became irrelevant.
6. Newlands’ Law of Octaves worked well with lighter elements only.

Mendeléev’s Periodic Table: (Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeléev – 1872)

 Mendeléev examined the relationship between the atomic masses of the elements and their physical and
chemical properties.
 Among chemical properties, Mendeléev concentrated on the compounds formed by elements with oxygen
and hydrogen.
 He selected hydrogen and oxygen as they are very reactive and formed compounds with most elements.
 The formulae of the hydrides and oxides formed by an element were treated as one of the basic properties
of an element for its classification.
 He sorted out the elements with similar properties and observed that there occurs a periodic recurrence of
elements with similar physical and chemical properties.
 Mendeléev’s Periodic Law: The properties of elements are the periodic function of their atomic masses.
 Mendeléev’s Periodic Table contains vertical columns called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called ‘periods’.
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Achievements:
1. Elements with similar properties are grouped together.
a. Mendeleev placed some elements with a slightly greater atomic mass before an element with a slightly
lower atomic mass.
b. The sequence was inverted so that elements with similar properties could be grouped together.
c. Example:
i. Cobalt (atomic mass 58.9) is placed before Nickel (atomic mass 58.7)
ii.

2. Predicted the existence of some elements that had not been discovered.
a. Mendeléev left some gaps in his Periodic Table.
b. Instead of looking upon these gaps as defects, Mendeléev boldly predicted the existence of some
elements that had not been discovered at that time.
c. Mendeléev named them by prefixing a Sanskrit numeral, Eka (one) to the name of preceding element in
the same group.
i. Example:
1. Scandium - Eka–boron
2. Gallium - Eka–aluminium
3. Germanium - Eka–silicon
ii. The properties of the elements predicted by Mendeléev and those of the elements which were
discovered later were similar.

d. This shows the correctness and usefulness of Mendeléev’s Periodic Table.

3. Noble gases could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing order.
a. Noble gases such as helium (He), neon (Ne) and argon (Ar) were discovered very late because they are
very inert and present in extremely low concentrations in our atmosphere.
b. When these gases were discovered, they could be placed in a new group without disturbing the existing
order of periodic table.

Limitations:
1. No fixed position can be given to hydrogen.
a. Similar to alkali metals:
i. Electronic configuration of hydrogen resembles that of alkali metals.
ii. Like alkali metals, hydrogen combines with halogens, oxygen and sulphur to form compounds having
similar formulae.
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b. Similar to halogens:
i. Like halogens, hydrogen also exists as diatomic molecules.
ii. Like halogens, it combines with metals and non-metals to form covalent compounds.

Therefore, Mendeleev could not assign a correct position to hydrogen in his Table.

2. Isotopes could not be placed in the periodic table.

a. Isotopes were discovered after Mendeléev had proposed his periodic classification of elements.
b. Isotopes of an element have similar chemical properties, but different atomic masses.
c. Isotopes could be placed in different slots because their atomic masses were different or they could be
placed in the same position because their chemical properties are the same.
d. Thus, isotopes of all elements posed a challenge to Mendeleev’s Periodic Law.

3. Atomic masses do not increase periodically.

a. Another problem was that the atomic masses do not increase in a regular manner in going from one
element to the next.
b. So it was not possible to predict how many elements could be discovered between two elements —
especially when we consider the heavier elements.
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The Modern Periodic Table:

Elements, when arranged in order of increasing atomic number, lead us to the classification known as the
Modern Periodic Table

Modern Periodic Law:

Properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic number.

Advantages of atomic number over atomic mass:

i. In 1913, Henry Moseley showed that the atomic number (Z) of an element is a more fundamental property
than its atomic mass.
ii. Atomic number gives us the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom and this number increases by one
in going from one element to the next.
iii. Prediction of properties of elements could be made with more precision when elements were arranged on
the basis of increasing atomic number.

Position of Elements in the Modern Periodic Table:

 The Modern Periodic Table has 18 vertical columns known as ‘groups’ and 7 horizontal rows known as ‘periods’.
 Groups:
o Groups in the Periodic Table have an identical outer shell electronic configuration.
o The elements present in any one group have the same number of valence electrons.
 Fluorine (F), Chlorine (Cl), Bromine (Br) belonging to Group 17 have ______ valence electrons.
 Lithium (Li), Sodium (Na), Potassium (K) belonging to Group 1 have _____ valence electrons.
o The number of shells increases as we go down the group.
 Periods:
o Atoms of different elements with the same number of occupied shells are placed in the same period.
o Elements of a period do not have the same number of valence electrons, but they contain the same
number of shells.
 Li, Be, B, C, N, O, F, and Ne are present in the second period. They have different number of
valence electrons but the same number of shells.
 Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S, Cl and Ar belong to the third period of the Modern Periodic Table, since the
electrons in the atoms of these elements are filled in K, L and M shells.
o Each period marks a new electronic shell getting filled.
o The number of valence shell electrons increases by one unit, as the atomic number increases by one unit
on moving from left to right in a period.
o Number of elements in a period:
Period Number of Elements
1 2
2 8
3 8
4 18
5 18
6 32
7 32
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TRENDS IN THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE:

1. Valency:
The combining capacity of an element is known as its valency.

How atoms combine:

 The outermost shell of an atom can accommodate a maximum of 8 electrons.
 An outermost-shell having eight electrons is called an octet.
 Atoms would react to achieve an octet in the outermost shell by sharing, gaining or losing electrons.
 The number of electrons gained, lost or shared to make the octet of electrons in the outermost shell gives
the combining capacity or valency of the element.

Calculating Valency:
i. If the number of valence electrons is less:
o The element loses electrons to achieve an octet.
o Valency = number of valence electrons
o Example: Hydrogen/ lithium/sodium atoms contain one electron each in their outermost shell,
therefore they lose one electron. So, they have valency of one.
o Calculate the valency of Magnesium:

ii. If the number of valence electrons is almost full:

o The element gains electrons to achieve an octet.
o Valency = 8 – number of valence electrons
o Example: Fluorine has 7 electrons in the outermost shell. Fluorine gains one electron to achieve the
octet. So, the valency of fluorine is one.
o Calculate the valency of Oxygen:

Trends:
i. While going from left to right in a period, the valency _____________________________________________
ii. While going down a group, the valency ___________________________________________________
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2. Atomic Size:
 Atomic size refers to the radius of an atom.
 The atomic size is the distance between the centre of the nucleus and the outermost shell of an atom.
 Example: The atomic radius of hydrogen atom is 37 pm (picometre, 1 pm = 10 –12m).

Trends:
i. Atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right along a period.
Reason: This is due to an increase in nuclear charge which tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus
and reduces the size of the atom.

ii. Atomic size increases down the group.

Reason: This is because new shells are being added as we go down the group. This increases the distance
between the outermost electrons and the nucleus. Therefore, the atomic size increases in spite of the
increase in nuclear charge.
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3. Metallic and Non-metallic properties:

Metals:
 Metals are electropositive in nature.
 They tend to lose electrons while forming bonds.
 Oxides of metals are basic.
 Example: Na and Mg

Trends:
i. Metallic character decreases across a period.
Reason: As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a period, the
tendency to lose electrons will decrease.
ii. Metallic character increases down a group.
Reason: Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons is decreasing
because the outermost electrons are far away from the nucleus. Therefore, these can be lost easily.

Non-metals:
 Non-metals are electronegative.
 They tend to form bonds by gaining electrons.
 Oxides of non-metals are acidic.
 Examples: Sulphur and Chlorine

Trends:
i. Non-metallic character increases across a period.
Reason: As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell electrons increases across a period, the
tendency to gain electrons will increases.
ii. Metallic character decreases down a group.
Reason: Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced by valence electrons is decreasing
because the outermost electrons are far away from the nucleus. Therefore, the tendency to gain electrons
decreases.

Semi-metal or Metalloid:
 A semi-metal or metalloid exhibits some properties of both metals and non-metals.
 In the Modern Periodic Table, a zig-zag line separates metals from non-metals.
 The borderline elements – boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony, tellurium and polonium – are
intermediate in properties and are called metalloids or semi-metals.
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1. Which of the following statements is not a correct statement about the trends when going from left to right
across the periods of periodic Table.
a. The elements become less metallic in nature.
b. The number of valence electrons increases.
c. The atoms lose their electrons more easily.
d. The oxides become more acidic.

2. Element X forms a chloride with the formula XCl 2, which is a solid with a high melting point. X would most
likely be in the same group of the Periodic Table as
(a) Na (b) Mg (c) AI (d) Si

3. Which element has

a. two shells, both of which are completely filled with electrons?
b. the electronic configuration 2, 8, 2?
c. a total of three shells, with four electrons in its valence shell?
d. a total of two shells, with three electrons in its valence shell?
e. twice as many electrons in its second shell as in its first shell?

4. What property do all elements in the same column of the Periodic Table as boron have in common?

5. What property do all elements in the same column of the Periodic Table as fluorine have in common?

6. An atom has electronic configuration 2, 8, 7.

a. What is the atomic number of this element?
b. To which of the following elements would it be chemically similar?
(Atomic numbers are given in parentheses.)
N(7) F(9) P(15) Ar(18)

7. The position of three elements A, B and C in the Periodic Table are shown below –
Group 16 Group 17
- -
- A
- -
B C
(a) State whether A is a metal or non-metal.
(b) State whether C is more reactive or less reactive than A.
(c) Will C be larger or smaller in size than B?
(d) Which type of ion, cation or anion, will be formed by element A?

8. Nitrogen and phosphorus belong to group 15 of the Periodic Table. Write the electronic configuration of
these two elements. Which of these will be more electronegative? Why?

9. In the Modern Periodic Table, calcium (atomic number 20) is surrounded by elements with atomic numbers
12, 19, 21 and 38. Which of these have physical and chemical properties resembling calcium?