Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.

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Unit
Control Systems

1 Concepts SIA GROUP

Part-A
Short Questions with Solutions
Q1. Define open loop control system.
Ans: The open loop control systems is the system which the output has no effect on the input or Control Action. The block
diagram of open loop control system is shown in figure.

Figure: Open-Loop Control System

In open loop control systems, the command input is passed through the reference transducer to generate reference input
and this reference input is again passed through the controller to generate actual input signal and this is again passed to the plant
where the actual processing is performed to generate the desired output.
Q2. Define closed loop control system.
Ans: The closed loop control system is the systems in which the output has an effect on the input signal. The block diagram of
closed loop control system is shown in figure.

Figure: Closed Loop Control Systems

First the command input is passed through the reference transducer to generate the reference input. This reference input is
further passed through error detector where the error signal is generated by comparing the reference input and output . The error
signal thus generated is passed through the controller to generate the actual input signal, which is further processed to the plant
to achieve the desired output. However, if the output achieved does not match the required criteria, then it is again fed back to
error detector through feedback element and the process is repeated till the satisfactory results are achieved.
Q3. Explain the following terms with respect to closed loop control systems,
(i) Plant
(ii) Reference input
(iii) Error detector
(iv) Controller.
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(a)
(i) Plant
It is a unit where actual processing is performed. The input to the plant is the control signal generated by the controller.
The plant performs the necessary action on this signal and generates the desired output which is called as controlled signal.

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1.2 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
(ii) Reference Input 4. Open loop systems are less accurate than the closed loop
The input variable applied to a plant of the control systems.
system is known as reference input. It is a signal 5. Open loop systems are unreliable as the desired output
taken from an external energy source to produce a will not be achieved when there is a disturbance.
desired output. The output from the system is known 6. Open loop systems will be much affected by noise hence
as controlled output. All the inputs and outputs of a these systems are less sensitive.
system should be well defined regarding the system
Q6. Explain the limitations of closed loop system
information.
over open loop system.
Ans:
Limitations of Closed Loop System Over Open Loop System
1. The closed loop system is complicated to construct and
Figure expensive whereas the open loop systems are easier to
(iii)
Error Detector construct and less expensive.
The function of error detector is to generate error
2. Because of the feedback present in the closed loop
signal. There are two inputs to the error detector i.e.,
system, the response of the system may become
the feedback signal and the reference signal. The error
oscillatory.
detector generates an output which is the difference of
these two signals. This error signal is fed to the controller 3. The feedback present in the closed loop system decreases
for the necessary control action. the overall gain of the system.
(iv) Controller 4. Stability is a big factor of consideration for closed loop
The controller modifies and amplifies the error signal so system and the system may become unstable but the
that, the signal is a bit modified. Now a modified signal open loop systems are stable.
is obtained by the controlled action of controller. The 5. For closed loop systems, any change in output effects
modified signal is then passed to the plant for output the input of the system but in case of open loop system
rectification so as to reduce the error signal. the output is independent of input.
Q4. List the advantages of feedback system. 6. The output measurement is essential for the operation
Ans: of closed loop system and for open loop system it is not
Advantages of Feedback System essential.
1. The variations in the output caused due to external 7. The error detector is essential in closed loop systems
disturbances are corrected automatically. whereas, it is absent in case of open loop systems.
2. The system with feedback control are more accurate Q7. Human being is an example of closed loop
than open loop control. system. Justify your answer.
3. The feedback systems are less affected by noise than Ans:
systems without feedback. A closed loop system basically consists of a feedback
4. The desired output can be achieved by using feedback loop which continuously feeds a part of the output signal to
systems.
the input of the system. The reference signal (input signal) is
5. The feedback systems are more reliable than systems
compared with the fed signal and the error is corrected until a
without feedback.
desired response is achieved.
6. These systems are less sensitive to disturbances and
Human being is a good example of a closed loop system.
changes in environment.
Every activity accomplished by him resembles a closed loop
7. The transient response and steady state error can be
controlled by using feedback systems. system. Each action forms a part (element) of the closed loop
system.
Q5. List out the limitation of open loop systems Suppose a person is trying to reach out for a cup of
over closed loop systems. coffee placed on the dining table. The position of the cup on the
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(a) table can be taken as the reference. The eyes which observes
Limitations of Open Loop Systems Over Closed Loop the position of the cup compares it with the position of hands.
Systems The error in the position is then fed to the brain. The brain
1. The open loop does not has a feedback path. manipulates the error so that the position of hands are adjusted.
2. Due to the absence of feedback path, the variation in The process of continuous comparison lasts until the position
the output caused due to external disturbances are not of the hands are at appropriate height for holding the cup.
corrected automatically. In this case, the human brain acts as a controller, the
3. When there are changes in output due to disturbances, hands behave as an open loop system and the eyes acts as a
the system does not follow the changes in input in order feedback element. The closed loop system representing this
to correct the output. activity of human being is shown in figure.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.3

Figure
Q8. Explain the terms static systems and dynamic systems.
Ans:
Static Systems
Static systems are those systems in which the output depends only on the input at that particular instant. It does not depends
on the past or future values of inputs. Static system have no memory storage elements. The best example of a static system is a
resistive network as shown in figure (1).

Figure (1)
The equations governing the static system does not contain any differentials or integrations.
V = IR
Dynamic Systems
Dynamic systems are those systems in which the output at any time depends not only on the input at that time but also on
input at other times. A dynamic system has memory storage elements. An example of a dynamic system is the network consisting
of inductors or capacitors as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)
The equations governing the dynamic system contains any differential and integral terms.

V=L

Q9. Define single variable and multivariable control systems.

Ans:
Single Variable and Multivariable Control Systems
Single variable control system is a system with single input and single output whereas a system with multiple inputs and
outputs is often referred to as a multivariable control system.
In relatively simple control systems we need only one output quantity which may be position, speed, voltage, current,
frequency etc. Such systems are called single variable systems. In many practical applications more than one variable is encountered
(multivariable) example, speed as well as direction of an automobile driving system, a number of variables like temperature,
pressures and fluid flows are required to be controlled in chemical plants. Such systems with multiple inputs and outputs are
referred to as multivariable system.

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Figure: Block Diagram of Multivariable Control System

Q10. Define regenerative and degenerative feedback control systems.

Ans:
Regenerative and Degenerative Feedback Control Systems
In regenerative feedback control system, the output is fedback with a positive sign whereas in a degenerative feedback
control system, the output is fedback with a negative sign which is also referred as negative feedback.

Figure (1): Regenerative Feedback Control System

Figure (2): Degenerative Feedback Control System

The transfer function in the case of regenerative feedback control system and degenerative control system is given by,
C (s) G(s) C (s) G(s)
= , =
R(s) 1 − G (s) H (s) R(s) 1 + G (s) H (s)
The negative sign in the denominator indicates the possibility of infinite output for a finite input which is the condition
of instability.
Regenerative feedback is also used for increasing the loop gain of the feedback system.
Q11. What is feedback?
Ans:
Feedback
Feedback is the control action in which the output is compared with the reference input and an error signal is generated
which is given to the input based on which the appropriate controlling action can be implemented. In general there are two types
of feedbacks. They are:
(i) Positive feedback
(ii) Negative feedback.
Q12. What is a mathematical model of a physical system? Explain briefly.
Ans:
Mathematical model of a physical system is nothing but the mathematical representation of the physical model through the
use of appropriate physical laws. The dynamic response of a system is obtained by solving the mathematical model of a physical
system for various input conditions. The mathematical model of a system is linear if it obeys the principle of super position and
homogeneity which implies that if a system has responses y1(t) and y2(t) to any two inputs x1(t) and x2(t) respectively then the
system response to the linear combination of these inputs a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t) is given by the linear combination of the individual
outputs a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Where, a1 and a2 are constants.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.5
Mathematical models of most physical systems are characterized by differential equations. For a system a mathematical
model is said to be linear time invariant if the differential equations has constant coefficients.
On the other hand a model is time-varying if the coefficients of differential equation describing the system are functions
of time. The differential equations of a linear time-invariant system can be arranged into different forms for the convenience of
analysis. The “transfer function” of the system is one such model for the analysis of single input single output system. The transfer
function of the system is defined as the ratio of Laplace transform of output to the Laplace transform of input with zero initial
conditions. On the other hand when a system has multiple inputs and outputs, the “vector matrix notation” may be convenient.
Q13. Write force (torque) - current analogy between mechanical and electrical system.
Ans:
The force (torque) - current analogy or the indirect analogy between mechanical and electrical system is tabulated below.
Mechanical system Electrical system
Translational Rotational
Force, F Torque, T Current, i
Mass, M Inertia, J Capacitance, C
. dX . dθ
Velocity, X = Angular velocity, θ = = ω Current,
dt dt

Displacement, x Angular displacement, q Flux linkage, φ

1
Friction constant, B Torsional friction constant, B Inverse of resistance,
R
1
Spring constant, K Torsional spring constant, K Inverse of inductance,
L
Q14. Write force (torque) - voltage analogy between mechanical and electrical system.

Ans:
The force (torque) - voltage analogy or the direct analogy between mechanical and electrical system is tabulated below.
Mechanical system Electrical system
Translational Rotational
Force, F Torque, T Voltage, V
Mass, M Inertia, J Inductance, L
. dX . dθ
Velocity, X = Angular velocity, θ = = ω Current,
dt dt

Displacement, x Angular displacement, q Charge, q

Friction constant, B Tortional friction constant, B Resistance, R
 1
Spring constant, K Torsional spring constant, K Inverse capacitance  
 C

Q15. What are the drawbacks of the block diagram reduction technique?
Ans: Model Paper-II, Q1(b)
Drawbacks of the Block Diagram Reduction Technique
1. Applicable to linear time invariant systems only.
2. No information is given about the physical construction of the system.
3. The block diagram representation of a system is not unique.
4. Application of this reduction technique is somewhat tedious.
5. At every stage, block diagram has to be redrawn

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Q16. Define signal flow graph Q19. Define the following,
Ans: Model Paper-I, Q1(b) (i) Forward path
Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of (ii) Loop
relationship between the variables of a set of linear algebraic (iii) Non-touching loop.
equations. It consist of a network in which nodes representing
each of the system variables are connected by direct branches. (iv) Forward path gain.
Signal flow graph is a diagram that represents a set of (v) Loop gain.
simultaneous linear algebraic equations. The signal flows only Ans:
in one direction. The direction of signal flow is indicated by (i) Forward Path
an arrow placed on the branch and the multiplication factor
It is the path from input node to output node.
is indicated along the graph. If signal flow graph is used to
represent a control system, then a gain formula called Mason’s (ii) Loop
gain formula is used to obtain the relationship among the system It is the path which originates and terminates at the same
variables. node.
Q17. Define the following, (iii) Non-touching Loop
(i) Node Two loops are said to be non-touching if they don’t
posses the common node.
(ii) Branch
(iv) Forward Path Gain
(iii) Input node
It is the product of the branch gains encountered in the
Ans:
traversal of the forward path.
(i) Node
Example : G(s) = G(s).
It represents a system variable of all incoming signals
(v) Loop Gain
at the node.
It is the product of branch gains encountered in traversing
Example : R(s), E(s), C(s)
the loop.
(ii) Branch
Q20. Explain the properties of signal flow graphs.
A branch is directed line segment joining any two
nodes. A signal travels along the branch from one node Ans:
to another node in the direction indicated by the branch Signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the
arrow and in the process gets multiplied by the gain of relationship between the variables of a set of linear algebraic
branch. equations.
Example : H(s), G(s), I. . .
(i) Are applicable to linear time invariant systems only.
(iii) Input Node
(ii) Consists of a network in which nodes representing each
An input node is one with only outgoing branches. This of the system variables are connected by direct branches.
node is also known as source node.
(iii) The signal flows only in one direction and the direction
Example : R(s)
of the signal flow is indicated by an arrow placed on the
Q18. Define the following, branch and the multiplication factor is indicated along
(i) Output node the graph.
(ii) Chain node (iv) The variable or signal is represented by a node in a signal
(iii) Path flow graph and the value of the variable is an algebraic
sum of all signals entering at the node and is available
Ans: to all the branches leaving that node.
(i) Output Node
(v) Signal flow graph of any given system is not unique.

It is the node with only incoming branches. For
conversion C(s) is extended with unity by multiplying Q21. How do you construct a signal flow graph from
factor. This is also known as sink node. equations?

Example : C(s). Ans:
(ii) Chain Node From the set of system algebraic equations,

It is the node with both incoming and outgoing branches. (i) Represent each variable in algebraic equations as a
(iii) Path separate node.
It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction (ii) By using the property of signal flow graph, that the value
of branch arrow such that no node is traversal more than of any variable (node) is equal to the algebraic sum of
once. entering signals which are connected to that node.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.7
(iii) Coefficients of the variables in the algebraic equations are to be represented as the branch gains, which are connecting
nodes in the signal flow graph.
(iv) Show the input and output variables as separate nodes i.e., input node (source) and output node (sink) respectively.
Q22. Explain the need of Mason’s gain formula for any system reduction.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(b)

Need for Mason’s Gain Formula

1. By using Mason’s gain formula, we can directly find the overall transfer function of the system from the signal flow graph.
2. It gives the transfer function directly in a short and simple way instead of using the block diagram reduction technique
which is a very lengthy procedure of reducing the block diagram step by step.
3. It gives the transfer function of both complex as well as simple systems.
4. This method is very time saving and simple.
5. For its applicability, it is essential to draw a signal flow graph of the given system.
Q23. Explain the practical applications of servo-motors.
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q1(a)
Servo-motor is also known as “control motor”. They are generally used in feedback control systems as an output actulators.
They are not used for continuous energy conversion unlike large industrial motors. They have a wide range of applications in
radars, computers, robots, machine tools tracking system, process controller etc.
There are two types of servomotors (i) A.C servomotors and (ii) D.C servomotors. Except for use in high power system.
A.C servomotors are generally preferred over D.C servomotors whereas, in high power systems D.C servomotors are used as
they have a better efficiency.
Applications of A.C Servomotor
A.C servomotors are preferred for low power applications and are widely used in instruments like servomechanisms,
remote positioning devices.
Process control systems, self balancing, recorders, machine tools etc.
It is also preferred for number of other applications wherein precise angular motion is necessary.
Applications of D.C Servomotor
D.C motors which are used in servo systems are called D.C servomotors. In order to have a very high torque to inertia ratio
the rotor inertia of a D.C servomotor is made as small as possible. These motors has a wide range of applications in instruments,
tape drives, printers, robot system, air craft control systems, electromechanical actuators, process controllers, numerically
controlled milling machine, disk drive etc.
Q24. List the advantages of field controlled D.C motor over armature controlled D.C motor.
Ans:
Advantages of Field Control Method Over Armature Control Method
1. In field control method, the copper losses are less when compared with armature control method.
2. Field control method gives good speed regulation, when compared with armature control method.
3. By using field control method, continuous operation can be achieved which is not possible with armature control method.
4. When compared with armature control method, the power consumed is less in field control method.
5. The speed of the machine can be increased in the ratio of 2 : 1 by using field control method which is not possible with
armature control method.
Q25. What are the differences between synchro transmitter and control transformer?
Ans: Dec.-15, (R13), Q1(b)

The differences between a synchro transmitter of control transformer are as follows,

Synchro Transmitter Synchro Control Transformer

1. The shape of rotor is dumb bell type. 1. The shape of rotor is cylindrical type.
2. The rotor is excited by an ac voltage. 2. The rotor induced e.m.f is used as an error signal.

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Part-b
eSSAY Questions with Solutions

1.1 Open loop and closed loop control systems and their differences –
Examples of control systems

Q26. What is meant by open loop and closed loop control systems? Differentiate them.
Dec.-15, (R13), Q2(a)
OR
Explain the difference between systems with feedback and without feedback.
April/May-09, Set-2, Q1(a)
OR
Distinguish between open loop and closed loop control system.
Aug./Sep.-06, Set-2, Q1(b)
OR
Explain the differences between open loop and closed loop system.
Ans: (April/May-05, Set-4, Q1(b) | Nov./Dec.-04, Set-1, Q1(b))
A system which controls the output quantity by varying its input quantity is known as control system. In general, the
control system are classified in to two types. Systems with feedback are known as closed loop systems and the systems without
feedback are known as open loop systems.
Open Loop System Closed Loop System
1. Accuracy of this system depends upon the calibration 1. Due to the presence of feedback element, closed
of the input. loop system is more accurate.
2. Generally these systems are stable in operation. 2. The stability of these systems depends on the
design of feedback elements.
3. These are simple in construction. 3. These systems are complex in construction.
4. These systems require less components. So, these 4. These systems require more components. So,
systems are less costlier. these systems are more costlier.
5. These systems are less accurate and reliable. 5. These systems are more accurate and reliable.
6. Feedback is absent. 6. Feedback is present.
7. Variations in parameters greatly affects the output. 7. Effect of parameter variation is very less.
8. The time constant of open loop system is more. 8. The time constant of closed loop system is less.
Hence, speed of response is less. Hence, speed of response is very high.
9. The bandwidth of open loop system is small. 9. Bandwidth of closed loop system is greater than
open loop.

Q27. Illustrate at least three applications of feedback control systems.

Ans: Aug./Sep.-07, Set-1, Q1(a)

Feedback Control System

Figure (1)
General block diagram of typical feedback control system is shown in figure (1). It consist of error detector, control element
and feedback element.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.9
Function of error detector is to compare a signal obtain from feedback element with a reference input.
Control element gets actuated if there is any difference between reference input and controlled output and alters the
condition of the plant.
Feedback element provides feedback from output to error detector.
Applications of Feedback Control System
1. Home Heating Systems

Figure (2)
Figure (2) shows how feedback control system is used in home heating system. Temperature of house is measured by thermal
sensor and is given back to error detector through feedback. Error detector compare this temperature with desire temperature
and generates the error signal to operate the valve. If temperature is lower than desire value of the furnace is turned on and if
temperature is higher than the desire value, valve of the furnace is turned off. Here, the controller used is ON/OFF controller.
2. Automatic Tank-level Control System

Figure (3)
Figure (3) shows how feedback control system is used to control the level of liquid in tank. Here, float sense the liquid
level which is feedback element path. Slider of the potentiometer (error detector) is connected to the float. Another arm of
potentiometer is connected to desired liquid level (reference input). When ever there is change in liquid level, potentiometer (error
detector) generates error voltage which is proportional to change in liquid level. Motor which is control element is actuated by
error voltage.
3. Sample Data Control System

Figure (4)
Figure (4) shows sample data control system. Here, sampler samples the error signal e(t) for every T-seconds. Sampler
which is used here is electronic switch and output of sampler is discritize version of analog error signal which is train of pulse
of sampling frequency and strength of each pulse depends on error signal. The output signal u(t) is passed through data hold and
is then filter by digital filter according to control algorithm. This signal u(t) is used for manipulating plant.
Q28. Explain the traffic control system concepts using open loop as well as closed loop system.
Ans: April/May-08, Set-1, Q1(a)

The traffic control system concepts can be explained using the open loop and closed loop system.

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1.10 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Open Loop System
Any physical system in which the output does not have any effect on the input of the system is called as open loop system.
In traffic control system, the output is to control the flow of traffic. The traffic control system employs the use of traffic
lights or signals to control the flow of traffic. The traffic lights or signals are operated on a timely basis. The traffic flow is con-
fronted in a particular direction with the lights on the signal which are time dependent. The timing of the signal lights is adjusted
depending on the study made on the flow of traffic. The signal light turns red and green which are the inputs and the flow of
traffic is regulated which is the output. The representation of the traffic control system as an open loop system is shown below,

Figure (1): Open Loop Traffic Control System

The traffic control is not smooth and efficient since the traffic lights change by the preset time interval and are not depen-
dent on the density of traffic. The conclusion takes the form that the traffic control system employing open loop system is not an
efficient method since the flow of traffic is confined to a specified time and the density of traffic does not have any effect on the
timing of the traffic lights or signals.
Closed Loop System
Any physical system in which the output has an effect on the input of the system such that the desired output is achieved
is called as closed loop system.
Traffic control systems employing closed loop systems is much more efficient and helpful than open loop systems in
controlling the traffic. The main aim of the traffic control system is to maintain a smooth and efficient flow of traffic without any
sort of disturbance. This can be achieved by changing the traffic lights or signals not on the present time but on the measurement
of the density or volume of traffic. The output is the same to achieve smooth traffic flow but in closed loop system the measure-
ment of the density of traffic is carried out and the information is passed on to a computer and then signal lights are changed
according to the density of traffic.

Figure (2): Closed Loop Traffic Control System

The flow of vehicles will be smoother since the closed loop system changes the signal timings dynamically according to
the density of traffic.
Q29. Explain the temperature control system concepts using open loop as well as closed loop system.
Ans: (Aug./Sep.-08, Set-2, Q1(b) | Model Paper-I, Q2)

In a control system the output quantity is controlled by changing the input quantity. Temperature control system is an
example of control system.
Temperature Control Using Open Loop System
In open loop control system, the output quantity has no effect of the input quantity i.e., output is independent of the control
action.
The concept of temperature control using open loop system is explained with the help of figure (1) in which the temperature
of the electrical furnace is to be controlled. So, our aim is to obtain the desired temperature which is the output of system.

Figure (1): Open Loop Temperature Control System

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.11
The block diagram of the open loop temperature control system consists of relay control circuit, heating element, electric
furnace, sensor, A/D converter, interface and digital display.
Relay Circuit
The A.C supply input is given to the relay circuit and it controls the ON and OFF of the supply by adjusting the time of
the relay and then it is given to the heating element in the electric furnace.
Electric Furnace
After getting the supply from the relay circuit, the heating element in the electric furnace increases the temperature of the
system by generating heat.
Sensor
The sensor senses the heat generated by the heating element and then generates a corresponding analog signal and then
gives it to the A/D converter.
A/D Converter
The analog signal given by the sensor is converted into digital signal with the help of A/D converter and then finally this
signal is fed to digital display unit through an interface.
Digital Display
The digital display may be a computer or LCD display which displays the desired temperature after getting the signal
from A/D converter through an interfacing unit.
This output or the desired temperature depends on the time interval for which the supply to the electric furnace remains
ON. Any variation in the output temperature of the system will not automatically change the time setting of the relay due to
internal or external disturbances. In order to correct the output the time settings has to be done manually.
Temperature Control Using Closed Loop System
In closed loop system, the output quantity is effected by the input quantity i.e., the output is dependent on the control
action.
The above open loop system can be converted to closed loop system by adding controller, A/D converter and amplifier.
The concept of temperature control using closed loop system is explained with the help of block diagram shown in figure (2), in
which the temperature of electric furnace is to be controlled.

Figure (2): Closed Loop Temperature Control System

Relay Circuit
The A.C supply input is given to the relay circuit which controls the supply.
Electric Furnace
After getting the supply from the relay circuit, the heating element in the electric furnace increases the temperature of the
system by generating heat and this temperature is the actual temperature.
Sensor
With the help of the sensor the actual temperature is sensed and an analog signal is generated which is fed to the A/D
converter.
A/D Converter
The A/D converter converts the analog voltage into a digital signal and gives it to the controller.
Controller
A controller may be a digital control system or microprocessor. After getting signal from the A/D converter through an
interfacing unit, the controller compares the signal (actual temperature) with the reference input (desired temperature) and generates
an error signal. If any difference exist between the two signals then the signal is send through D/A converter and amplifier to
switch ON or OFF the relay.

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D/A Converter Examples
The digital signal given by the controller is converted (i) The resistance of windings in electrical machines will
to analog signal and gives the signal to the amplifier. vary with time because this resistance increases due to
Amplifier the increase in temperature because of copper losses in
the machine.
The amplifier amplifies the signal and gives the signal to
the relay to remain ON or OFF. Depending on the signal given (ii) The equation of the motion of a rocket in vertical height
by the amplifier the relay unit either increases or decreases the is an example of time-variant system because the mass
time settings so as to obtain the desired output. With this the of fuel which is to be burnt to develop the required thrust
variations in the output are automatically corrected and thus the will be decreasing.
output is effected by the input and depends on control action,
so it is a closed loop system. 3. Continuous (Analog) and Discrete (Digital) Control
Systems
1.2 Classification of control
systems Example

Q30. Explain the classification of control systems. Continuous (Analog) Control Systems
(May-13, (R09), Q1(a) | April/May-07, Set-1, Q1(a)) If in a particular system, all the system variables are
OR functions of time at every instant, then such a system is called
Explain various types of control systems with continuous system. A continuous time signal is shown in
examples briefly. figure (1).
Ans: (April/May-05, Set-4, Q1(a) | Nov./Dec.-04, Set-1, Q1(a))
Classification of Control Systems
1. Linear and Non-linear Control Systems
Examples
(i) A resistor is a linear element only for low values of
current, but it will become a nonlinear element for higher
values of current because of increase in temperature the
resistance changes.
(ii) An iron core coil has linear inductance only for low
values of current, but its inductance becomes nonlinear Figure (1)
for higher values of current, which causes saturation of
core. An example of a continuous system is the speed control
(iii) The systems which consists of non-linear devices like of a D.C motor using a tachogenerator feedback.
diodes, transistors and thyristors etc., are non-linear Discrete (Digital) Control Systems
systems.
If in a particular system, all the system variables are not
If any one of the non-linearities (friction, saturation, functions of time at every instant, then such a system is called
dead zone, hysteresis) present in the system, then the system discrete system. A discrete time signal is shown in figure (2).
will become a non-linear system.
In a linear system, the form of system output will not
depend on the magnitude of the input, but in non-linear systems
the form of the output may change with increase in magnitude.
When a sinusoidal excitation signal is applied to a linear system,
its output is also a sinusoidal signal with same frequency. But the
output of a non-linear system is non-sinusoidal with harmonics
for the same sinusoidal excitation signal.
2. Time-variant and Time-invariant Systems
Time-variant Systems
If one (or) more than one system parameters changes
with of time, then that system is known as time-variant system.
Time-invariant Systems Figure (2)
If the system parameters are fixed i.e., parameters of the To control the temperature of electric furnace with
system will not change with time, then that system is known as computer or microprocessor controlled system, is an example
time-invariant system. of discrete system.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.13
4. Deterministic and Stochastic Control Systems
Example
A ship-mounted naval gun, firing on a target which is on level for a mentioned gun angle, the firing of the gun should
reach the shells at the same spot. The output of this system is very certain because of various factors like roll and pitch of the ship
due to waves, small differences in shell sizes, shape and fire power. So, this type of system is an example of stochastic control
system.
5. Lumped Parameter and Distributed Parameter Systems
Examples
(i) Thermal systems (Heat flow) are distributed parameter control systems, because the parameters of the system (thermal
resistance and thermal capacitance) are distributed parameters.
(ii) The parameters (resistance, inductance and capacitance) of long transmission lines are distributed parameters, therefore
the power systems with long transmission lines are distributed parameter systems.
Q31. Distinguish between:
(a) Linear and non-linear systems
(b) Single variable and multi variable control systems
(c) Time-variant and time-invariant control systems
(d) Lumped and distributed control systems.
Give an example for each of the above.
Ans: Nov.-12, Set-3, Q1

(a) Linear and Nonlinear Systems

Linear Systems Non-linear Systems

1. The systems that satisfies the principle of 1. The systems that do not satisfy the principle
superposition are said to be linear systems. of superposition are said to be non-linear systems.
2. The response in a linear system does not 2. The response in a non-linear system may change
depend on the magnitude of the input. with an increase in the magnitude of the input.
3. When a sinusoidal excitation signal is applied 3. The output of a non-linear system is non sinusoidal
to a linear system, its output is also a sinusoidal with harmonics for the same sinusoidal excitation
signal with same frequency. signal.
4. Resistor, iron core coil are the examples of linear 4. Diodes, transistors and thyristors are the examples of
systems. non-linear systems.

(b) Single Variable and Multi-variable Control Systems

Single-variable Control Systems Multi-variable Control Systems

1. The control system with single input and single 1. The control system with multiple inputs and multiple
output are said to be single variable control outputs are said to be multi variable control system.
system.
2. It is also known as SISO systems. 2. It is also known as MIMO systems.
3. It has one desired input position and one actual 3. It has many desired input and actual output positions.
output position.
4. Example: Some control systems requires only one 4. Example: Some control systems requires more than one
output quantity such as position, speed, voltage, variable such as speed as well as direction of an auto-
current, frequency etc. mobile driving system.

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1.14 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
(c) Time-variant and Time-invariant Control Systems

Time-variant Control systems Time-invariant Control systems

1. The systems whose parameters changes with time, 1. The systems whose parameters are fixed i.e., which
then that system is known as time-variant system. does not changes with time. Then that system is
known as time-invariant system.
2. The system is independent whether the input and 2. The system parameters are independent of time but the
output are the functions of time or not. inputs and outputs are the functions of time.
3. The parameters are variant with time. 3. The parameters are fixed or constant or invariant with
time.
4. Example: Space vehicles whose mass is gradually 4. Example: Elements such as resistance, inductance and
decreases with time as it moves towards the space. capacitance are time-invariant systems.

(d) Lumped and Distributed Control Systems

Lumped Control Systems Distributed Control Systems

1. Lumped control systems are defined by the 1. Distributed control systems are defined by the partial
ordinary differential equations. differential equations.
2. The parameters are physically set apart i.e., they 2. The parameters are not physically set apart i.e., they
are placed at a specific location. are not placed at specific locations.
3. Example: The parameters such as resistance, 3. Example: The long transmission lines containing
inductance and capacitance etc., are lumped such as resistance, inductance etc., distributed
parameters. parameters.

Q32. Explain regenerative feedback.

Ans: Aug./Sep.-07, Set-4, Q1(a)

Feedback is a property of a system which allows sampling of a output portion back to the input.
Depending on the feedback signal generated, an error signal will be produced, based on which the necessary corrective
action will be taken to get the desired output.
Basically there are two types of feedbacks. They are,
(i) Regenerative
(ii) Degenerative.
Regenerative Feedback
When the feedback signal is fed with a positive sign, then it is said to be a regenerative or positive feedback. Regenerative
feedback is provided when both input and feedback signal are in phase with each other.
Consider a closed loop system shown in figure.

Figure
Where,
R(s) = Reference input
G(s) = Forward path gain
H(s) = Feedback gain
C(s) = Output.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.15
The transfer function of the system shown in figure is Hence, due to the mentioned characteristics of the
given by, negative feedback, we may conclude that negative feedback is
C (s) G(s) invariably preferred in closed loop systems.
= ... (1)
R(s) 1 − G (s) H (s) 1.3 Feedback characteristics,
However, due to some reason, if G(s) H(s) = 1 then effects of positive and negative
from equation (1), C(s) will be equal to infinity which means feedback
unstable system. Hence, in case of regenerative feedback, the
chances of system becoming unstable are more. Q34. How can you control the system dynamics by
using feedback?
The following are the characteristics of regenerative
feedback, Ans:
(i) It increases the gain of the system. A control system is defined as a system in which the
(ii) It is basically used to produce oscillations. elements are connected in a sequence to perform a specific
(iii) It is used when input and feedback signal are in phase function. The systems that employs the feedback path is known
with each other as closed loop system. The feedback is employed in control
(iv) It makes the system more liable to instability. systems because of the following reasons,

Q33. Why is negative feedback invariably preferred 1. The feedback provides accurate results, even in the
in closed loop systems? presence of non-linearities.
Ans: April/May-08, Set-1, Q1(b) 2. The system can be made stable (by using feedback) by
Closed Loop Systems keeping the sensitivity of the system small.

Any physical system in which the output has an effect on 3. The feedback is employed to make the system less noisy.
the input of the system such that the desired output is achieved Whenever an input is applied to a feedback control
is called as closed loop system. The output of the system is system, the elements in feedback path samples the output and
fedback to the input by a feedback path provided, and depending convert the signal as that of reference signal, which is known as
on this feedback the input can be altered or modified to achieve feedback signal. This signal is compared with reference signal in
the desired output. The closed loop system with feedback is as the error detector to produce an error signal. The error signal is
shown in figure. fed to a controller which modifies and amplifies the error signal
for better control. The modified error signal is further fed to the
plant (or) open loop system to obtain accurate results. Thus, the
feedback improves the performance of the system. The system
employing feedback is shown in figure.

Figure: Closed Loop Systems

Feedback is the control action in which the output
is compared with the reference input and an error signal is
generated which is given to the input based on which the
appropriate controlling action can be implemented. The Figure: Feedback System
feedback can be positive or negative. When the sign of the
Q35. Explain the effects of disturbance signals by
feedback signal is positive, the system is known as positive use of feedback.
feedback system and when the sign of the feedback signal is
negative, the system is known as negative feedback system. Ans: Aug./Sep.-08, Set-3, Q1(b)

The characteristics of negative feedback are, The disturbance signals are mainly of two types. They
are,
1. Negative feedback results in better stability in steady
state. The accuracy in tracking the steady state value (i) Internal disturbances
using negative feedback is the highest. (ii) External disturbances.
2. Negative feedback rejects all the disturbance signals that (i) Internal Disturbances
are encountered. The changes in output due to external
Internal disturbances are caused from the system itself
disturbances are corrected automatically.
due to the non-linearities present in it such as friction, dead zone
3. There is a reduction in gain with negative feedback at etc. Internal disturbance signals adversely effect the output of
the expense of better stability. the system.

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1.16 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
(ii) External Disturbances
External disturbances are caused by foreign agents such as high frequency noise in electronic applications, thermal noise
in amplifier tubes etc. These external disturbances also make the system output inaccurate.
In a system the disturbance signal can occur in,
(a) Forward path
(b) Feedback path or output signal.
Disturbance Signal Occurring in Forward Path
The disturbance signal occurring in forward path are due to the varying properties of forward path elements or due to
effect of surrounding conditions. Let us consider a system in which the disturbance signal Td (s) has been produced in the forward
path as shown in figure (1).

Figure (1)
The effect of disturbance signals can be determined from the ratio of C(s)/Td(s) for which considering R(s) = 0. Therefore
figure (1) is modified as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)
Now, there is a positive feedback and a negative input present for the system.
C (s) G2 (s)
∴ =
− Td ( s ) 1 − [G 2 ( s ) (−G1 ( s ) H ( s ))]

C (s) G 2 ( s)
=
− Td ( s ) 1 + G1 ( s ) G 2 ( s ) H ( s )
C (s) G2 ( s )
= [G1G2 H >>>1]
− Td ( s ) G1 ( s ) G2 ( s ) H ( s )
−Td ( s )
⇒ C(s) =
G1 ( s ) H ( s )
Hence, by selecting feedback element of proper values we can minimize the effect of disturbance signals as much as
possible.
Disturbance Signals Occurring in Feedback Path
In feedback path, the disturbance signals occur due to the non-linear behaviour of the feedback elements. Let us consider
a system in which the disturbance signal Td(s) has been produced in the feedback path as shown in figure (3).

Figure (3)

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.17
The effect of disturbance signal can be determined from the ratio of C(s)/Td(s) for which we need to consider R(s) = 0.
Therefore, figure (3) is modified as shown in figure (4).

Figure (4)
C (s) −G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H 2 ( s )
=
Td ( s ) 1 + G1 ( s )G2 ( s ) H 1 ( s ) H 2 ( s )

C (s) −1
= [ G1(s) G2(s) H1(s) H2(s) >>> 1]
Td ( s ) H1 (s)
Hence, the effect of disturbance signal on the output can be reduced by proper designing of the feedback element.
Disturbance Signal Occurring at the Output

Figure (5)
The system in which the disturbance signal has occurred at the output is shown in figure (5). Now, when R(s) is considered
to be zero, the system is reduced to as shown in figure (6).

Figure (6)
C (s) 1
∴ =
Td ( s ) 1 + G ( s ) H ( s )
Td ( s )
⇒ C(s) = [ GH >>> 1]
G(s) H (s)
Thus, by controlling the value of the feedback element H(s), the effect of disturbance signal at the output can be minimized.
Therefore, it is seen that the effects of disturbance signal can be decreased by the use of feedback.
Q36. What is the effect of positive feedback on stability?
(Refer Topic: Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain) Dec.-15, (R13), Q1(a)
OR
What are the effects of feedback on the performance of a system? Briefly explain.
Ans: April/May-06, Set-4, Q2(b)
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain
Consider an open loop system with open loop forward path transfer function G(s). The overall gain of this system is G(s).
Consider a closed loop system with open loop forward path transfer function G(s) and with feedback path transfer function
H(s), then the overall transfer function of the system.

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1.18 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

G(s) Hence, we can conclude that proper use of feedback

T(s) = can improve systems stability and it will be harmful to system
1 ± G(s) H (s)
stability if it is not applied properly.
Where ‘+’ sign is for negative feedback system and ‘–’ Effect of Feedback on Time Constant of a Control System
sign is for positive feedback system.
Consider an open loop system with open loop forward
For a practical control system, G and H are functions of
path transfer function.
frequency, so the magnitude of (1+ GH) may be greater than
‘one’ in one frequency range and less than ‘one’ in another range C (s) K
of frequency. Therefore, feedback will increase the system gain G(s) = =
R( s ) 1 + sT
in one frequency range and decrease the system gain in another
range of frequency. When this system is subjected to a unit step input, it’s
Effect of Feedback on Stability response can be determined as shown below,
Stability refers to the stable working conditions of a Here, the input r(t) = 1 (unit step input), then its Laplace
control system. A system is said to be stable if its output is transform R(s) = 1/s.
bounded (finite) for any bounded (finite) input.
Feedback can improve the stability of the system and
 K  K
C(s) =   R(s) = s (1 + sT )
on the other hand it can also cause a system that is originally 1 + sT 
stable to become unstable.
A B K
A system is unstable if its output is out of control. Let C(s) = + = ... (1)
us consider the feedback system shown figure (1) with ‘R’ as s 1 + sT s (1 + sT )
the input and ‘C’ as the output. A(1+sT)+Bs = K
s(AT+B) + A = K
By comparing ‘s’ coefficient on both sides,
AT + B = 0 ... (2)

Figure (1) By comparing constant terms on both sides,

The input-output relation for the above system is given A = K ... (3)
by, Substitute the value of A from equation (3) in equation (2)
C B = –AT = –KT ... (4)
=
R Substitute the values of A, B from equation (3) and
equation (4) in equation (1),
If GH = –1, then the output of the system is infinite for
any finite input, and the system is said to be unstable. Hence, K KT K K
feedback can cause a stable system to become unstable. C (s) = − = −
s 1 + sT s s + 1/ T
Now, let us consider the system with two feedbacks as
shown in figure (2). The response C(t) expression can be obtained by

applying inverse Laplace transform to C(s).

_
c (t) = K – K e–t/T = K(1 – e t/T )
c (t) = K(1 – e–t/T )
From the above c(t) expression it can be concluded that
T is the time constant of open loop system.
Figure (2)
Now, the feedback is introduced in the above open loop
The input-output relation for the above system is given by,
system with feedback path transfer function H(s) = α (constant)
C as shown in figure (3).
=
R
The inner loop feedback system is unstable since
GH = – 1.
The overall feedback system can be made stable by proper
selection of the outerloop feedback gain F. Hence, feedback
can stabilize an unstable system. The stability condition of any
closed loop system depends on the magnitude and phase of GH. Figure (3)

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.19
C (s) G (s) K / (1 + sT ) K −K
= = A = and B =
R( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s) K 1 + Kα 1 + Kα
1+ (α )
(1 + sT ) Substituting the values of A and B in the equation (5)
K K /T we get,
= =
1 + sT + Kα 1 + Kα 
s+  K /(1 + Kα) K /(1 + Kα)
 T  C(s) = –
s 1 + Kα 
C (s) s+ 
K /T  T 
=
R( s) 1 + Kα 
s+  The response c(t) expression can be obtained by applying
 T  inverse Laplace transform to C(s).
When the system is subjected to unit step input its
− (1+ Kα ) t
response can be obtained as shown below, K K
c(t) = – e T
Here, r(t) = 1, therefore its Laplace transform, (1 + Kα) (1 + Kα)
R(s) = 1/s
K /T
C(s) =
 1 + Kα  K 
− (1+ Kα ) t

s s + −
T  1 e 
T
c(t) =
 1 + Kα  
A B
= + ... (5)
K  
−t
s  1 + Kα 
s+  c(t) = 1 − e [T /( 1+ Kα )]

 T  1 + Kα  


From the above c(t) expression it can be concluded

⇒ C(s) = T
that the time constant of closed loop system is . For
(1 + Kα)
positive value of ‘α’ and K > 1, the time constant T /(1 + Kα)
K /T is smaller than T. i.e., the time constant of closed loop system
=
 1 + Kα   is smaller than the time constant of open loop system. Hence,
s s +   the feedback improves the time response of the system by
  T  decreasing the time constant of system.

Q37. Explain the linearizing effect of feedback.

 1 + Kα   K
⇒ C(s) = A s +    + Bs =
  T  T Ans: Aug./Sep.-07, Set-3, Q1(a)

Linearizing Effect of Feedback

 1 + Kα  K
s(A+B) + A   = ... (6)
 T  T The linearizing effect of feedback can be well understood
by considering a simple single-loop static system as shown in
Comparing coefficients of s on both sides in equation figure (1).
(6), we get,
A + B = 0 ⇒ B = – A In order to understand the linearizing effect, let us
assume the forward block function of the system to be non-
Comparing constants on both sides in equation (6), we
linear, expressed as,
get,
1 + Kα  K f(e) = e2.
A  =
 T  T
JK K NO
KK OO
T
A = J L P N
KK 1 + Kα OO
K T O Figure (1): Single-loop Static System
L P

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1.20 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

Figure (2): Input-output Characteristics of Single-loop System with Non-linear Forward Function Block
From figure (1),
r = Input signal
e = Error signal
c = Output signal
When the feedback loop is open, the system becomes an open loop system and we have,
e = r, c = f(e) = f (r) = r2
∴ c = r2

From the above relation and its graph (input Vs output), it can be observed that output of the system is a non-linear func-
tion of input.
Hence, an open-loop system (i.e., system without feedback) exhibits nonlinear input/output characteristics.
When the loop is closed (i.e., a feedback is introduced into the system) we have,
e = r – c
⇒ c = f(e) = (r – c)2
⇒ c = (r – c)2
On plotting a graph for above relation, we can observe that the input-output relation of a closed loop system is approximately
linear over a much wider range when compared to that of the open loop system i.e., input-output characteristics are linearized
due to feedback.
Therefore, introduction of a feedback into a system has a linearizing effect on its input/output relation.
Q38. Discuss the effect of feedback on noise.
Ans: May-10, Set-1, Q1(a)
Effect of feedback on Noise
Output of a system is affected due to presence of noise disturbances. Thus by providing a feedback, noise component in
the output can be reduced. This can be illustrated by considering two systems one without feedback as shown in figure (1) and
other one with feedback as shown in figure (2).

Figure (1) Figure (2)

Here,
X → Input signal
Y → Output signal
N → Noise disturbance
H → Feed back.
For the system without feedback shown in figure (1) the output is given as,
Y = G2 N ... (1)
Whereas for the system with feedback shown in figure (2) the output is given as,
G2
Y = N ... (2)
1 + G1G2 H

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.21
Therefore, by comparing equations (1) and (2) it can Equating the numerator to zero we get the poles and
concluded that, the effect of noise signal is reduced by factor equating the denominator to zero we get the zeros. Hence, poles
1 + G1 G2 H for feedback system. Thus the value of H is selected of a transfer function are defined as those complex frequencies
such that the value of (1 + G1 G2 H) is greater than one, which which makes the transfer function towards infinity and zeros
in turn improves the output signal. are those frequencies which make the transfer function zero.
Q39. Define transfer function and what are its Limitations
limitations? 1. It is applicable to only linear time–invariant systems.
(April/May-08, Set-2, Q1(a) | April/May-06, Set-2, Q1(a) | 2. It does not give any information regarding the structure
Nov./Dec.-04, Set-3, Q1(a) | April/May-03, Set-1, Q1(a)) of the system.
OR 3. External conditions loose its importance, as initial
Define transfer function and discuss its conditions are taken as zero.
limitations. Q40. Explain the advantages and features of transfer
Ans: Aug./Sep.-06, Set-3, Q1(a) function.
Transfer Function
(Aug./Sep.-07, Set-2, Q1(b) | April/May-07, Set-4, Q1(b) |
The transfer function is defined as the ratio of Laplace
transform of output to the Laplace transform of input under all Ans: Model Paper-I, Q3(a))
initial conditions as zero. Advantages and Features of Transfer Function
(i) The transfer function provides the mathematical models
of the system as well as the system components in terms
of simple algebraic expressions relating output to input.
C (s)
∴ G(s) = (ii) Transfer function is the basic tool for applying any
R(s) method to study the stability of the system.
Consider a generalized system where input is xi (t) and (iii) The response for any type of the reference input can be
output is x0(t). evaluated from the transfer function.
(iv) The entire system can be analysed in time domain by
xi (t) = an +an – 1 + ....... + a0 x0(t) finding inverse of the transfer function.

(v) On replacing the variable ‘s’ by , the differential

Xi (s) = an sn + an – 1sn­–1+ an–2sn–2+ .......+ao
equations governing the system can be obtained.
x0(t) = bm + bm–1 +.......+b0x0(t) (vi) From the transfer function, poles, zeroes and charac-
teristics equation can be found out which are useful for
finding the stability of the system.
X0(s) = bmsm + bm–1 sm–1+ bm–2sm–2 +.......+b0
1.4
Mathematical models –
X 0 ( s ) bm s + bm −1s
m m −1
+ ... + b1s + b0 Differential equations of
∴ G(s) = = − translational and rotational
X i (s) an s + an −1s + ... + a1s + a0
n n 1
mechanical systems and electrical
systems, Analogous Systems
 b b b 
bm  s m m −1 s m −1 + ... + 1 s + 0  Q41. Explain translatory and rotary elements of
 bm bm bm  mechanical systems.
=
 a a a  Ans: (Aug./Sep.-07, Set-1, Q1(b) | Model Paper-I, Q3(b))
an  s n + n −1 s n −1 + ... + 1 s + 0 
 an an an  The model of the mechanical system can be obtained
by using three basic translatory and rotary elements.
bm
Let, K = Translatory Elements
an
The three translatory elements are,

∴ G(s) =
[
K s +b m *
m −1 s
m −1
+ .... + b1* s + b0* ] 1. Mass
[s n
+ an*−1s n −1 + ..... + a1* s + a0* ] Mass is an energy storage element and the weight of the
translational mechanical system is represented by this element.
The unit of mass is kg. When a force is applied on the mass
K [( s + z1 ) ( s + z 2 )......... ] element a reaction force is developed by it which is always
∴ G(s) =
[(s + p1 ) (s + p2 )......... .] proportional to the acceleration of the body.

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1.22 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

d2X Tj ∝
F ∝ a ∝
dt 2
d2X
F = Ma = M Tj =
dt 2

Figure (4)
Figure (1): Mass Element 2. Dashpot
2. Spring Dashpot represents the friction existing in rotational
It is also an energy storage element and this represents mechanical system when a torque is applied on an ideal
the elastic deformation of the body. When a force is applied frictional element dashpot, it develops an opposing torque
on the massless and frictionless spring, a reaction force is which is proportional to the angular velocity of the body.
developed by it which is proportional to the displacement of
the body. Tb ∝
F ∝ X
F = KX Tb =

Figure (5)
Figure (2): Spring Element
3. Dashpot 3. Spring
Dashpot or damper dissipates energy and this element Spring represents the elastic deformation of the body.
represents the friction existing in the mechanical system. When a torque is applied on a torsional spring having negligible
When a force is applied on the dashpot or the damper element moment of inertia and friction, it develops an opposing torque
a reaction force is developed by it which is proportional to the which is proportional to angular displacement of the body.
velocity of the body.
TK ∝ θ
F ∝
TK = Kθ
dX
F = B
dt

Figure (6)
Q42. Explain about mechanical translational
systems.
Ans:
Figure (3): Dashpot
The system in which motion of its elements occurs in a
Rotary Elements
straight line is called mechanical translational system.
The three basic rotary elements are,
Consider a simple mechanical translational system as
1. Moment of Inertia shown in figure. It consists of mass, spring (K) and a dashpot
Stores kinetic energy in rotational systems and represents (B) or damper. The force such system can be modified into
the weight of the mechanical rotational systems. It is denoted by electrical systems with analogues resistance, inductace and
‘J’. The opposing torque due to moment of inertia of an ideal capacitance. However, the electrical systems has voltage and
mass element is always proportional to the acceleration ‘α’ of currents as inputs. Hence, mechanical translational system are
that inertia. catogorized into two types as follows,

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.23
(i) Force voltage analogue
(ii) Force current analogue
For remaining answer refer Unit-I, Q14 and Q13.

T =T +T +T
J b k

Where,
Tj is the opposing torque due to moment of

inertia =

Tb is the opposing torque due to dashpot =

Tk is the opposing torque due to spring = Kq

Figure The free body diagram for the given rotational system
Q43. Explain about mechanical rotational systems. is shown in figure (2).
Ans:
The system in which motion of its elements occurs about
a fixed axis is called mechanical rotational system.
Consider a simple mechanical rotational system as
shown in figure (1). It consists of movable disc of moment
of inertia (J), dash pot (B) and spring (K). The torque of such Figure (2)
systems can be modelled into electrical systems with analogues The external torque (T) is acted on the inertial element of
elements conductance, inductance and capacitance. Since, the the system (J) which is opposed by the torque components due
mechanical rotational includes torque, these systems are cat-
to dashpot and spring i.e., B θo and Kq. The sum of the torques
egorized into two types as follows:
T-B θp -Kq is equal to J θp .
(i) Torque-voltage analogue
T–Bqo –Kq = Jqp
(ii) Torque-current analogue
Q44. Discuss the procedure to obtain the force-
The disc is attatched to the spring and dashpot on which voltage and force-current electrical analogous
the torque is applied.
circuit of mechanical systems.
For remaining answer refer Unit-I, Q14 and Q13. Ans: Model Paper-II, Q2(a)

Procedure to Obtain Force-Voltage Electrical Analogous

Circuit
The following are the procedure to obtain the force-
voltage electrical analogous circuit.
(i) In mechanical systems the series elements will have
same velocity. Therefore in electrical systems the series
elements must have same current.
Figure (1) (ii) Each node (mass) of the mechanical system must be
The external torque T which acts on the disc moves by represented as closed loop in the electrical system.
an angle (q) or angular velocity (w). Thus angular motion gets (iii) The number of mesh currents and system equations
opposed by the component of torque, spring and dashpot i.e. in electrical system must be equal to the number of
J θp , Kq and B θp respectively. velocities of nodes in mechanical system, as the number
The system can be analyzed by drawing free-body and of meshes in electrical system equals the number of
the mechanical network. It is also determined by the Newton’s nodes in mechanical system.
second law of motion. Which states that the sum of all individual (iv) The force applied and passive element connected to
torques acting on the system is equal to the product of moment the node in mechanical system must be replaced by
of inertia and angular acceleration. The force equations with analogous element (voltage source) at mesh in electrical
respect to angular displacement (q) is given by, system.

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1.24 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
(v) In mechanical system the element between two nodes (ii) Each node (moment of inertia) of the mechanical system
must be replaced by a common element between two must be represented as node in electrical system.
meshes in electrical system. (iii) The number of node voltages and system equations in
Procedure to Obtain Force-Current Electrical Analogous electrical system must be equal to the number of angular
Circuit velocities of nodes in mechanical system.
The procedure to obtain force-current electrical (iv) The torque applied and passive elements connected
analogous circuit are as follows, to the node in mechanical system must be replaced
(i) In mechanical systems the parallel elements will have by analogous element, (i.e., current source) at node in
same force. Therefore in electrical system the parallel electrical system.
elements must have same voltage. (v) In mechanical system the element between two nodes
(ii) Each node (mass) of the mechanical system must be (moment of inertia of mass) must be replaced by a
represented as node in electrical system. common element between two nodes in electrical
system.
(iii) The number of node voltages and system equations in
electrical system must be equal to the number of velocities Q46. Find the transfer function for the system given
of nodes in mechanical system. in figure below.
(iv) The force applied and passive elements connected
to the node in mechanical system must be replaced
by analogous element (i.e. current source) at node in
electrical system.
(v) In mechanical system the element between two nodes
must be replaced by a common element between two
nodes in electrical system.
Q45. Discuss the procedure to obtain the torque-
voltage and torque-current electrical analogous
circuit of mechanical rotational systems. Figure
Ans: Model Paper-III, Q3(a) Where,
Procedure to Obtain Torque-Voltage Electrical Analogous M is the mass of the system.
Circuit K is the spring deflection.
The following procedure are used to obtain torque- B is the coefficient of viscous damping.
voltage electrical analogous circuit.
Ans: (April/May-08, Set-4, Q1(b) | Model Paper-II, Q2(b))
(i) In mechanical systems the series elements will have
same angular velocity. Therefore in electrical systems Let,
the series elements must have same current. fk be the force acting due to spring constant ‘K ’
(ii) Each node (moment of inertia) of the mechanical system fb be the force due to damping.
must be represented as closed loop in electrical system. fm be the force due to mass (M) element.
(iii) The number of mesh currents and system equations in
electrical system must be equal to the number of angular
velocities of nodes in mechanical system.
(iv) The torque applied and passive elements connected
to the node in mechanical system must be replaced
by analogous element (i.e., voltage source at mesh in
electrical system).
(v) In mechanical system the element between two nodes Figure
(moment of inertia) must be replaced by a common Force due to mass, M i.e.,
element between two meshes in electrical system.
Procedure to Obtain Torque-Current Electrical Analogous f m =
Circuit
Force due to friction,
The following points illustrates the procedure to obtain
torque current electrical analogous circuit fb =
(i) In mechanical systems the parallel elements will have
Force due to elastic spring,
same torque. Therefore in electrical systems the parallel
elements must have same voltage. fk = KX

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.25
By Newton’s second law, X (s)
We need to determine the transfer function i.e.,
Force f(t) = Sum of individual forces acting on the F (s)
system. which is obtained by taking the Laplace of the differential
f(t) = fm + fb + fk equations.
These differential equations of the system are obtained
f(t) = + + KX ... (1) by force balance equations at node 1 and node 2.
Case (i)
Taking Laplace transform of equation (1), we get,
Considering node 1 as shown in figure (3).
F(s) = M.s2X(s) + B.s.X(s) + K.X(s)
Let fk = Opposing force offered by the spring
F(s) = X(s)[Ms2 + B.s + K]
due to elasticity.
The opposing forces are given by,
fk = KX1
∴ This is the required transfer function.
f b1 = B1
Q47. Find the transfer function for the following
mechanical system shown in figure,

Figure (3)
According to Newton’s second law,

Figure fk + f b1 = 0 ( There is no applied force at node 1)

Ans: Aug./Sep.-08, Set-1, Q1(a) KX1 + B1 (X1 – X) = 0

In the given system there are two nodes, node 1 is the Taking the Laplace of the above equation, we get,
mass and node 2 is the point at which damper and spring meets.
KX1(s) + B1sX1(s) – B1sX(s) = 0
Let, K = Stiffness constant of the spring
(K + B1s)X1(s) – B1sX(s) = 0
B1 = Damping coefficient
B1s
X1 = Displacement at node 2 ∴ X1(s) = X ( s ) ... (1)
B1s + K
X = Displacement at node 1 Case (ii)
Considering the node 2 as shown in figure (4).
Let, fm = Opposing force offered by mass m
fb1 = Opposing force due to friction which is
offered by the damper
The opposing forces are given by,
Figure (1)
We know that each node is represented by mass element fm =
but in this case we have two nodes and one mass element.
Hence, assuming a dummy mass element with M = 0 at the
meeting point of K and B1. Figure can now be modified as fb1 =
shown in figure (2),

Figure (2) Figure (4)

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1.26 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
As the sum of the applied forces is equal to the sum of opposing forces according to Newton’s second law.
∴ f (t) = fm + fb1

f(t) =

f(t) =

Taking Laplace transform of the above equation, we get,

F(s) = Ms2X(s) + B1sX(s) – B1sX1(s)

F(s) = X(s)[Ms2 + B1s] – B1sX1(s) ... (2)

Substitute the value of X1(s) from equation (1) in equation (2)

 B1s 
F(s) = X(s)[Ms2 + B1s] – B1s   X (s)
 B1s + K 

F(s) =

F(s) =

X (s)
∴ =
F (s)

X (s)
=
F (s)

X (s)
=
F (s)
Q48. Find the transfer function of the following system shown in figure.

Figure
Ans: April/May-09, Set-1, Q1(a)
The given system consists of two nodes i.e., masses M1 and M2. Let X1 and X be the displacements of masses M1 and M2
respectively.
The free body diagram of Mass M1 is shown in figure.

Figure: Free Body Diagram of Mass M1

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.27

The opposing forces acting on mass M1 are f m , f b , f k , fk , fb

1 1 1

f m1 = M1

f b1 = B1

f k1 = K1 X1

fb = =B

fk = K(X1 – X)
According to Newton’s second law, sum of these opposing forces must be zero.

⇒ f m + fb + f + f + f = 0
1 1 k1 b k

⇒ =0

Taking Laplace transform we have,

⇒ M1s2X1(s) + B1sX1(s) + K1X1(s) + Bs[X1(s) – X(s)] + K[X1(s) – X(s)] = 0
⇒ M1s2X1(s) + B1sX1(s) + K1X1(s) + Bs X1(s) – Bs X(s) + KX1(s) – KX(s) = 0
⇒ (M1s2 + B1s + K1 + Bs + K) X1(s) – (BS + K) X(s) = 0
⇒ [M1s2 + (B1 + B)s + (K1 + K)] X1(s) = X(s).(Bs + K)

⇒ X1(s) = ... (1)

Now, when mass M2 is considered, the forces acting on it are f m , f b , fb, fk and f(t).
2 2

The free body diagram of mass M2 is as shown in figure,

Figure: Free Body Diagram of Mass M2

fm =
2

f b = B
2 2

d
fb = B = B ( X − X1 )
dt
fk = K(X – X1)
According to Newton’s second law,

⇒ f m + f + f + f = f (t)
2 b2 b k

⇒ d2X dX d
M2 2
+ B2 + B ( X − X 1 ) + K ( X − X 1 ) = f (t )
dt dt dt

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1.28 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Taking Laplace transform, we have,
⇒ M2s2X(s) + B2s X(s) + Bs X(s) – Bs X1(s) + KX1(s) – KX1(s) = F(s)
⇒ [M2s2 + (B2 + B)s + K] X(s) – (Bs + K) X1(s) = F(s)
Substitute X1(s) value from equation (1), we get,

[M2s2 + (B2 + B)s + K] X(s) – (Bs + K) = F(s)

 [ M s 2 + ( B1 + B ) s + ( K1 + K )] [ M 2 s 2 + ( B2 + B ) s + K ] − ( Bs + K ) 2 
⇒ X(s)  1  = F(s)
 M 1s 2 + ( B1 + B ) s + ( K1 + K ) 
Therefore, the transfer function is given by,
X (s)
=
F (s)
Q49. Derive the transfer function for the following rotational mechanical systems shown in figure.

Figure
Ans: (Nov.-12, Set-1, Q1 | April/May-07, Set-3, Q1(a))

The free-body diagram of the given rotational mechanical system is shown in figure (1),

Figure
Assuming the clockwise direction as positive and anti-clockwise direction as negative, the torque equation from the above
free body diagram of rotational system can be written as,

or

... (1)
Where, J = Moment of inertia of disc (kg-m ) 2

B = Viscous friction coefficient (N-m per rad/sec.)

K = Stiffness of shaft (N-m/rad)

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.29
As we know that, the transfer function of a linear time- Case (i)
invariant system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace-transform Considering the moment of inertia J 1 as shown in
of the output variable to the Laplace transform of the input figure (a).
variable.
(Assuming all initial conditions as zero)
Y ( s)
i.e., Transfer Function, G ( s ) =
X ( s)
Where, Y = Output
X = Input
∴ In the above problem, Figure (a)

Input – Torque applied T( N - m) The opposing torques T j1 and TK are given as,
Output – Angular displacement θ (radian)
T j1 =
So, by applying the Laplace transform on both sides of
torque-equation i.e., equation (1) with zero initial conditions
we can obtain the transfer function for the given system. Tk = K(θ1 – θ)
As the sum of applied torques is equal to the sum of
Applying Laplace transform to each term of equation
opposing torques according to Newton’s second law.
(1), we get,
T(s) = J[s2θ(s)] + B[s θ(s)] + K[θ(s)] ∴ T = T j1 + Tk
T(s) = (Js2 + Bs + K) θ(s)
... (2) T = J1

T = J1
Q50. Find the transfer function of the following Taking Laplace of the above equation, we get,
system shown in figure.
T(s) = J1s2θ1(s) + Kθ1(s) – Kθ(s)
T(s) = θ1(s)[J1s2 + K] – Kθ(s) … (1)
Case (ii)
Considering the moment of inertia J2 as shown in
figure (b).

Figure
Ans: Aug./Sep.-08, Set-4, Q1(b)

Given that,
‘T ’ is the applied torque and it is the input of the system.
The angular displacement ‘θ’ is the output of the system.
Figure (b)
θ( s )
∴ We need to determine the transfer function i.e., These opposing torques are given as,
T (s)
Let,
T j2 =
J1, J2 = Moment of inertias
θ1 = Angular displacement of J1 Tb =
θ = Angular displacement of J2
Tk = K(θ – θ1)
T j1 be the opposing torque due to moment of inertia J1 From Newton’s second law,
Tk be the opposing torque due to elasticity
T j2 + Tb + Tk = 0 ( There is no applied torque)
T j2 be the opposing torque due to moment of inertia J2
Tb be the opposing torque due to friction =0

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1.30 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Taking Laplace of above equation, we get, Let,
f m1 be the force acting due to Mass (M ) element
1

θ(s)[J2s + Bs + K] – Kθ1(s) = 0
2
f m2 be the force acting due to Mass (M ) element
2

θ1(s) = ... (2) f b1 be the force acting due to Damping element (B )

1
Substituting the value of θ1(s) from equation (2) in equa-
f b2 be the force acting due to Damping element (B )
tion (1), 2

f k1 be the force acting due to Spring constant (K )

T(s) = 1

f k 2 be the force acting due to Spring constant (K )

2

T(s) = The free body diagram of Mass (M1) element is shown

in figure (2).
θ( s )
=
T (s)

Q51. Write the differential equations governing the

mechanical system shown in figure. Draw
the force-voltage and force-current electrical
analogous circuits and verify by writing mesh
and node equations.
Figure (2)
The force acting due to Mass (M1) element is given as,

f m1 = M1

The force acting due to Damping coefficient (B1) is given

as,

f b1 = B1
Figure
Ans: (Nov.-11, Set-4, Q8 | Model Paper-II, Q3)
The given mechanical system is shown in figure (1) ⇒ f b1 = B1 (X1– X2)

The force acting due to spring constant (k1) is given as,

f k1 = K1 (X1– X2)
According to Newton’s second law we have,

f m1 + f k1 + f b1 = 0

⇒ M1 (X1– X2) + B1 (X1– X2) = 0

d 2 X1
⇒ M1 + B1 (X1– X2) + K1 (X1– X2) = 0 ... (1)
dt 2
The free body diagram of Mass (M2) element is shown
Figure (1) in figure (3).

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.31

Figure (3)
The force acting due to Mass (M2) element is given as,

f m2 = M2

The force’s acting due to Damping coefficients B1 and B2 are given as,

f b1 = B1 (X2 – X1)
And

f b2 = B2

The forces acting due to spring constants K1 and K2 are given as,
f k1 = K1 (X2 – X1)
f k 2 = K2 X2
According Newton’s second law, we have,
f m2 + f b1 + f b2 + f k1 + f k 2 = f(t)

⇒ M2 (X2 – X1) + B2 + K1(X2 – X1) + K2 X2 = f (t) ... (2)

On replacing the displacements by velocity in equation’s (1), (2) and (3), governing the mechanical system we have,

M1 + B1 (V1 – V2) + K1 ∫(V1– V2) dt = 0 ... (3)

M2 + B1(V2 – V1) + B2 V2 + K1 ∫(V2 – V1) dt + K2 ∫V2.dt = f(t) ... (4)

The mechanical translational systems of figure (1) can be represented as force-voltage and force-current electrical analogous
circuit in the following way,
Force-voltage Electrical Analogous Circuits
Step 1
The two nodes of mechanical translational system shown in figure (1) are represented as Mesh-1 and Mesh-2 in the elec-
trical systems.
Step 2
The force applied to the mechanical translational systems at node 2 is replaced by voltage source at mesh - 2. i.e., F → e(t)
Step 3
The elements Mass (M1), Damping coefficient (B1) and spring constant (K1) are replaced by inductance (L1), resistance
1
(R1) and inverse capacitance i.e.,
C1

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1.32 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

1
M1 → L1, B1 → R1, K1 =
C1
Similarly we have,
1
M2 → L2, B2 → R2, K2 =
C2
Step 4
The velocity v1 and v2 at node-1 and node-2 are replace by analogous elements i1 and i2 in electrical circuit i.e.,
v1 → i1 , v2 → i2
Step 5
As shown in figure (1), in mechanical translational systems the elements B1 and K1 are common between the nodes-1 and
node-2 and so they are represented as common elements between Mesh-1 and Mesh-2. The force-voltage analogous circuit is
drawn as shown in figure (4).

Figure (4)
Step 6
Applying KVL to figure (4), we have,
From Mesh-1,
1
L1 + R1(i1–i2) + ∫(i1–i2) dt = 0 ... (5)
c1
From Mesh-2,

L2 + R1(i2–i1) + B2.i2 + K1 ∫(i2–i1) dt + K2 ∫i2.dt = e(t) ... (6)

Force Current Electrical Analogy Circuits

Step 1
In force-current analogy, the two nodes of mechanical translational systems are represented as node-1 and node-2 electri-
cal systems.
Step 2
The force applied to the mechanical translational systems at node-2 is replaced by a current source at node-2 i.e.,
F → i (t)
Step 3
The elements Mass (M1), Damping coefficient (B1) and spring constant (K1) are replaced by Capacitance (C1), Inverse
 1   1
Resistor   and Inverse Inductance   i.e.
 R1   L1 
1 1
M1 → C1 , B1 → , K1 →
R1 L1
Similarly ,
1 1
M2 → C2 , B2 → , K2 →
R2 L2

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.33
Step 4
The velocities V1 and V2 at node-1 and node-2 remain same in force-current analogy. i.e.,
V1 → v1
V2 → v2
Step 5
As shown in figure (1), in mechanical translational system, the elements B1 and K1 are common between the nodes-1 and
node-2. The force-current analogous circuit is drawn as shown in figure (5).

Figure (5)
Step 6
Applying KCL to figure (5) , we get,
At node-1 ,
1
C1 (v1 – v2) + ∫(v1 – v2) dt = 0 ... (7)
L1
At node-2 ,
1 1 1
C2 (v2 – v1) + v2 + ∫(v2 – v1) dt + ∫v . dt = i(t) ... (8)
R2 L1 L2 2

Q52. Obtain the transfer function of the following system and draw its analogous electrical circuit.

Figure
Ans: (Aug./Sep.-07, Set-2, Q1(a) | April/May-07, Set-4, Q1(a))

The system is shown in figure (1),

Figure(1)

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1.34 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
The given system has two nodes. One is the mass ‘M’ Taking Laplace transform with zero initial condition,
and the other is the meeting point of both the springs. we get,
Let, K1X1(s) + K2[X1(s) – X(s)] = 0
Laplace transform of f(t) = L[f(t)] = F(s) (K1 + K2) X1(s) = K2 X(s)
Laplace transform of x = L[X] = X(s) K2 X ( s)
X1(s) = ... (4)
Laplace transform of x1 = L[X1] = X1(s) K1 + K 2
Substituting the value of X1(s) from equation (4) in
X (s)
The required transfer function is, equation (2), we get,
F (s)
[Ms2 + K2]X(s) – K2X1(s) = F(s)
Free body diagram of mass M is as shown in figure(2).
 K2 
[Ms2 + K2]X(s) – K2   X(s) = F(s)
 K1 + K 2 
 2 K 22 
 Ms + K 2 −  X ( s) = F ( s)
 K1 + K 2 

 Ms 2 K1 + Ms 2 K 2 + K1K 2 + K 22 − K 22 
Figure(2)   X ( s ) = F(s)
 K1 + K 2 

fm =  Ms 2 [ K1 + K 2 ] + K1K 2 
  X ( s ) = F(s)
 K1 + K 2 
f k 2 = K2(X – X1)
∴ The transfer function of the system is,
By Newton’s second law, we have, X (s)  K1 + K 2 
=  2 
fm + f k 2 = f(t) F ( s )  Ms ( K1 + K 2 ) + K1K 2 
Analogous Electrical Circuit
+ K2(X – X1) = f(t) ... (1)
The differential equations governing the system are,
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions, d 2 X + K (X – X ) = f(t)
we get, M 2 1
dt
Ms2 X(s) + K2 [X(s) – X1(s)] = F(s) (From equation (1) and (3))
K1X1 + K2(X1–X) = 0
[Ms2 + K2] X(s) – K2 X1(s) = F(s) ... (2)
Free body diagram at node (1) is, Replacing the displacements by velocity in the above
equations, we get,
Assuming a dummy mass element with M = 0.

fm = 0 =0

f k1 = K1 X1
= f(t) ... (5)
f k 2 = K2 (X1 – X)

∫ ∫
K1 v1dt + K 2 ( v1 − v )dt = 0 ... (6)

Force-Voltage Analogous Circuit

The F-V analogous circuit will have 2 meshes since there
are 2 nodes. The elements connected to node (1) and node (2)
are represented by their analogous elements forming closed
Figure(3) paths. The F-V analogous elements are,
By Newton’s second law, we have, f(t) → e(t) M → L K1 → 1/C1
fm + f k + f k 2 = 0 v → i K2 → 1/C2
1

⇒ K1X1 + K2(X1 – X) = 0 ... (3) v1 → i1

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.35
The F-V analogous circuit is shown in figure (4)

Figure(4)
Applying KVL to the above circuit,

i.e., = e(t) ... (7)

= 0 ... (8)

Force-Current Analogous Circuit

The F-I analogous circuit will have 2 nodes. The elements are connected to their respective nodes by their corresponding
analogous elements. The F-I analogous elements are,
f(t) → i(t) M → C1 K1 → 1/L1
v → v K2 → 1/L2
v1 → v1
The F-I analogous circuit is as shown in figure (5)

Figure(5)
Applying KCL to the above circuit.

= i(t) ... (9)

= 0 ... (10)

Q53. Write the differential equations governing the mechanical rotational systems shown in figure.

Figure
Nov.-12, Set-2, Q1(b)

OR

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1.36 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
For the mechanical system shown below obtain the torque-voltage and torque current electrical
analogous system.

Ans:
Consider the following mechanical rotational system shown in figure (1).

Figure (1)
In the system shown, there are two nodes J1 and J2
Let,
J1, J2 = Moment of inertia of masses
B1, B2 = Rotational frictional coefficient
K1, K2 = Stiffness of the springs
T = Applied torque
θ1, θ2 = Angular displacements
ω1, ω2 = Angular velocities
T j1 , T j2 = Opposing torques due to moment of inertia

Tb1 , Tb2 = Opposing torques due to friction

Tk1 , Tk 2 = Opposing torques due to elasticity

The differential equations of the system are obtained by torque balance equations at node 1 and node 2
Case (i)
Considering the node 1 as shown in figure (2),

Figure (2)
The opposing torques are given by

T j1 = J1

Tb1 = B1

Tk1 = K1 (θ1–θ2)
According to Newton’s second law the sum of the applied torque is equal to the sum of the opposing torques.
∴ T = T j1 + Tb1 + Tk1

T = J1 + B1 + K1 (θ1–θ2) ... (1)

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.37
Case (ii) Step 1
Considering node 2 as shown in figure (3). The two nodes of the mechanical system are represented
as two meshes in the electrical system.
Step 2
The torque ‘T ’ applied to the mechanical system at node
1 is replaced by voltage source at mesh 1 i.e.,
T → V(t)
Figure (3)
Step 3
The opposing torque are given by
The elements moment of inertia J1, coefficient of friction
T j2 = J2 B1 and spring constant K1 are replaced by inductance, resistance
and capacitance in the electrical circuit i.e., J1 → L1, B1 → R1,
K1 → 1/C1, and similarly J2 → L2, B2 → R2, K2 → 1/C2.
Tb2 = B2 Step 4
The angular velocities ω1 and ω2 at node 1 and 2 are
Tk 2 = K2 θ2 replaced by analogous elements i1 and i2 in electrical circuit i.e.,
ω1 → i1 and ω2 → i2.
Tk1 = K1 (θ2 – θ1)
Step 5
According to Newton’s second law the sum of the ap- As shown in figure (1) in mechanical system the element
plied torque is equal to the sum of the opposing torques. K1 is common between node 1 and 2. Therefore in electrical
system the element 1/C1 is common between mesh 1 and mesh
∴ T j2 + Tb2 + Tk 2 + Tk1 = 0 2. Now the torque-voltage analogous circuit can be drawn as
shown in figure (4).
J2 + B2 + K2 θ2 + K1 (θ2 – θ1) = 0 ... (2)

Replacing angular displacement θ with angular velocity

ω then

= ω Figure (4): Torque-voltage Analogous Circuit

From the Kirchhoff’s voltage law, the equations of mesh
θ =
1 and mesh 2 are given as,
Substituting this in equations (1) and (2), we get,
1
T = J1 + B1 ω1 + K1
L1 + R1 i1 +
C1 ∫
(i1 − i2 ) = V(t) ... (5)

1
L2 + R2 i2 + = 0
T = J1 + B1 ω1 + K1 ... (3) C2
... (6)
J2 + B2 ω2 + K2 =0 These equations resembles the equation (3) and
equation (4) of the mechanical system.

J2 + B2 ω2 + K2 Torque-current Electrical Analogous Circuit

The torque-current electrical analogous circuit can be
... (4)
drawn with the help of following steps.
The mechanical rotational system of figure (1) can be Step 1
represented as torque-voltage and torque-current electrical The two nodes of the mechanical system are represented
analogous circuit in the following way. as two nodes in the electrical system.
Torque-voltage Electrical Analogous Circuit Step 2
The torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit can be The torque ‘T ’ applied to the mechanical system at node
drawn with the help of following steps, 1 is replaced by current source at node 1 i.e., T → i(t)

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1.38 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Step 3
The elements moment of inertia J1, coefficient of friction B1 and spring constant K1 are replaced by capacitance, resistance
and inductance in the electrical circuit i.e. J1 → C1, B1 → 1/R1, K1 → 1/L1, and similarly J2 → C2, B2 → 1/R2, K2 → 1/L2
Step 4
The angular velocities ω1 and ω2 are replaced by analogous elements V1 and V2 at node 1 and node 2 in the electrical circuit
i.e., ω1 → V1 and ω2 → V2.
Step 5
As in mechanical system the element K1 is common between node 1 and node 2, therefore in torque-current analogous
circuit 1/L1 is common between node 1 and node 2.
Now, the torque-current analogous circuit can be drawn as shown in figure (5).

Figure (5): Torque-current Analogous Circuit

From the Kirchhoff’s current law, the equations of node 1 and node 2 are given as,
1 1
C1 +
R1
V1 +
L1 ∫ (V1 − V2 ) dt = i(t) ... (7)

1 1
C2 + V + ... (8)
R2 2 L2
These equations resembles the equation (3) and equation (4) of the mechanical system.
Q54. For the system shown below, write the differential equations of performance. Also draw the analogous
electric circuit.

Ans: May.-10, Set-2, Q1(b)

Consider the following mechanical rotational system shown in figure (1),

Figure (1)
In the system shown, there are three nodes J1, J2 and J3,
Where,
J1, J2, J3 → Moment of inertias
K1, K2, K3 → Stiffness of spring
T (t) → Applied torque
θ1, θ2, θ3 → Angular displacements
B1, B2, B3 → Rotational frictional coefficient

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.39

T j1 , T j2 , T j3 → Opposing torque due to moment of inertia

Tk1 , Tk 2 , Tk3 → Opposing torques due to elasticity

Tb1 , Tb2 , Tb3 → Opposing torques due to friction.
The differential equations of the system are obtained by torque balance equation at node 1, node 2 and node 3.
Case (i)
Consider the node 1 as shown in figure (2),

Figure (2)
The opposing torques are,

T j1 = J1

Tk1 = K1 (θ1 – θ2)

Tb1 = B
1

According to Newton’s second law, the sum of applied torque is equal to the sum of opposing torque.
∴ T1(t) = T j + Tk + Tb1
1 1

T(t) = J1 + K1(θ1 – θ2) + B1

⇒ T(t) = J1 + B1 + K1(θ1 – θ2) ... (1)

Case (ii)
Consider the node 2 as shown in figure (3),

Figure (3)
The opposing torques are given by,

T j2 = J2

Tk1 = K1 (θ2 – θ1)

Tk 2 = K2 (θ2 – θ3)

Tb2 = B2

According to Newton’s second law, we have,

∴ T j2 + Tk1 + Tk 2 + Tb2 = 0

J2 + K1(θ2 – θ1) + K2(θ2 – θ3) + B2 =0

⇒ J2 + B2 + K1 θ2 – K1 θ1 + K2 θ2 – K2 θ3 = 0

⇒ J2 + B2 – K1 θ1 + (K1 + K2) θ2 – K2 θ3 = 0 ... (2)

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1.40 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Case (iii)
Considering the node 3 as shown in figure (4),

Figure (4)
The opposing torques are given by,

T j3 = J
3

Tk 2 = K (θ – θ )
2 3 2

Tk3 = K θ
3 3

Tb3 = B
3

According to Newton’s second law,

T j3 + Tk 2 + Tk3 + Tb3 = 0

⇒ J3 + K2 (θ3 – θ2) + K3 θ3 + B3 =0

⇒ J3 + K2 θ3 – K2 θ2 + K3 θ3 + B3 =0

⇒ J3 + B3 – K2 θ2 + (K2 + K3) θ3 = 0 ... (3)

Analogous Electrical Circuit

The mechanical rotational system of figure (1) can be represented in electrical analogous circuit in the following two
ways,
(i) Torque – Voltage Electrical Analogous circuit
(ii) Torque – Current Electrical Analogous circuit.
(i) Torque–Voltage Electrical Analogous Circuit
The torque-voltage electrical analogous circuit can be drawn with the help of following steps,
Step-1
Three nodes of the mechanical system are represented as three meshes in the electrical system.
Step-2
The torque ‘T’ applied to the mechanical system at node-1 is replaced by voltage source at mesh-1 i.e., T → V(t).
Step-3
The elements moment of inertia J, coefficient of friction B1 and spring constant K are replaced by inductance, resistance
and capacitance in the electrical circuit.
1
i.e, J1 → L1 ; K1 → ; B1 → R1
C1
1
J2 → L2 ; K2 → ; B2 → R2
C2
1
J3 → L3 ; K3 → ; B3 → R3
C3
Step-4
The angular velocities ω1, ω2 and ω3 at nodes are replaced by analogous loop currents i1, i2 and i3.
Step-5
As shown in figure (1) in mechanical system the elements K1 and K2 are common between node 1 and 2, node 2 and 3.
1 1
Therefore in electrical system the element and is common between mesh 1 and 2, and mesh 2 and 3 respectively.
C1 C2

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.41

Figure (5): Torque-Voltage Analogous Circuit

From Kirchoff’s voltage law, the equation of mesh 1, mesh 2 and mesh 3 are give as,

These equations resembles equations (1), (2) and (3) of the mechanical system.
(ii) Torque-current Analogous Circuit
The torque-current analogous circuit will have 3 nodes. The elements are connected to their respective node by their
corresponding analogous elements. The T-I analogous elements are,
1 1
T (t) = i (t) ; J1 → C1; K1 → ; B1 →
L1 R1
1 1
J2 → C2; K2 → ; B2 →
L2 R2
1 1
J3 → C3; K3 → ; B3 →
L3 R3
The T-I analogous circuit is as shown in figure (6),

Figure (6): Torque-Current Analogous circuit

Applying KCL to the node 1, node 2 and node 3 of above circuit, we get,

These equations resembles equations (1), (2) and (3) of the mechanical system.

1.5 Block diagram reduction methods – signal flow graph – reduction using
mason’s gain formula
Q55. Explain the rules of block diagram reduction.
(April/May-09, Set-2, Q2(b) | April/May-07, Set-2, Q2(b) | April/May-07, Set-4, Q2(b))
OR

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1.42 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Explain the properties of block diagrams.
Ans: (Aug./Sep.-08, Set-4, Q2(b) | Aug./Sep.-07, Set-1, Q2(b))
The rules of block diagram reduction are shown in the following table.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.43

Q56. What are differences between block diagram reduction and signal flow graph reduction?
Ans: (April/May-08, Set-3, Q2(b) | Model Paper-III, Q2(a))

Differences between block diagram reduction and signal flow graph reduction are as follows.

Block Diagram Reduction Signal Flow Graph Reduction

1. Primary importance is given to the elements and 1. Primary importance is given to the variables
their transfer function. present in the system.
2. Each unit in the system is represented by a block. 2. Each unit is represented by a line segment.
3. The summing points and the take-off points are 3. The summing points and the take-off points have
separately represented. same representation.
4. Transfer function cannot be solved easily. 4. Using Mason’s gain formula the transfer function
can be easily solved.
5. Self loop concept does not exist. 5. In signal flow graph there is a possibility that self
looping exists.
6. The block reduction for large systems is quite 6. Its representation is the simple procedure to obtain
complicated and highly time consuming, the transfer function using Mason’s gain formula
requiring step by step procedure of drawing directly and time consumption is less as there is no
blocks after each and every reduction logic applied. repetitive procedure of drawing the signal flow
graph repeatedly for calculating the resultant
transfer function.
7. It is applicable to linear time invariant systems only. 7. It is applicable to linear time-invariant systems.

Q57. Explain the advantages of signal flow graph over block diagram reduction process.
Aug./Sep.-08, Set-1, Q2(a)
OR
What are the advantages of SFG over block diagram?
April/May-04, Set-1, Q1(b)
OR
Explain the advantages of signal flow graph representation over block diagram representation for a system.
Ans: Nov.-03, Set-4, Q1(a)

The following are the advantages of SFG over block diagram.

1. SFG is the simplest form of representation of a system as each unit of the system is represented by a line segment rather
than a block.
2. SFG consumes less time when compared to block diagram as the overall transfer function can be obtained in one single
step using Mason’s gain formula and hence computational efforts are also reduced.
3. There is no need to draw SFG in each step. Whereas in case of block diagram, we have to redraw the modified block
diagram in each step hence it is quite hectic.

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1.44 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
4. In case of SFG, use self loops apart from normal loops. But in case of block diagram, self loops does not exist.
5. In case of block diagram, there is a feedback path present from output to input. Whereas in SFG, there exist various
feedback loops instead of feedback paths.
6. Block diagram technique of a system can be applied successfully to simple systems. For complicated systems, the block
diagram technique becomes tedious, whereas SFG can be applied to simple as well as complicated systems.
Q58. Explain the need of signal flow graph representation for any system.
Ans: April/May-08, Set-1, Q2(b)
There are two ways of representing any system,
1. Block diagram representation
2. Signal flow graph representation.
In signal flow graph representation, the set of linear algebraic equations describing the system are represented by a graphical
method. In other words, the graphical representation of the variables of a set of linear algebraic equations representing the system
is called signal flow graph representation.
The need for signal flow graph representation for any system is illustrated below.
1. In signal flow graph representation, the transfer function of the system is obtained directly by using Mason’s gain formula
which is not so in the case with block diagram representation where various rules are to be followed to obtain the transfer
function and it also encounters a number of steps.
2. The computation process is very simple and less time consuming as the signal flow graph of the system need not be drawn
again and again as in the case of block diagram reduction technique where the block diagram has to be drawn after every
step.
3. Any complicated system or graph can be handled in a simple and systematic way by using the Mason’s gain formula to
find the transfer function.
4. The signal flow graph representation of any system does not contain any feedback path instead there are feedback loops.
The complete transfer function of the system can be found out from the signal flow graph easily.
Q59. State and explain Mason’s gain formula for the signal flow graph.
(April/May-08, Set-3, Q2(a) | Aug./Sep.-07, Set-4, Q2(a))
OR
Explain about Mason’s gain formula.
Ans: Nov./Dec.-04, Set-2, Q1(d)
Mason’s Gain Formula
The Mason’s gain formula is used to determine the transfer function of the system from the signal flow graph of the system.

If R(s) is Laplace Transform of input signal and C(s) if Laplace Transform of output signal, then transfer function of
system,
C (s)
T(s) =
R(s)

1 n
T(s) = ∑
∆ K =1
PK ∆ K
Where,

T(s) = Transfer function of the system

PK = Forward path gain of Kth forward path

n = Number of forward path.

∆ = 1 – [Sum of individual loop gains] + [Sum of products of gains of all possible combinations of two non-touching
loops] – [Sum of products of gains of all possible combinations of three-non- touching loops] + ....

∆K = Same as ‘∆’ and considering only non-touching part of signal flow graph of Kth forward path.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.45

Q60. Using block diagram reduction technique find the transfer function of the system shown below.

(Dec-10, Q2(b) | Model Paper-III, Q2(b))

OR
Determine the transfer function C(s)/R(s) for the following block diagram.

Ans: Aug./Sep.-08, Set-2, Q2(a) | April/May-07, Set-3, Q2(a)

Step 1
Moving the branch point before the block.

Step 2

Step 3
Moving the branch point ahead of the block.

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1.46 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Step 4
Eliminating the feedback path.

Step 5
Combining the blocks.

Step 6
Eliminating the feedback path.

G1 (G2 + G3 ) G1 (G2 + G3 )
1 + G2 + G3 1 + G2 + G3
⇒ =
G1 (G2 + G3 ) G2 H 1 1 + G1 + G3 + G1G2 H 1
1+ ×
1 + G2 + G3 (G2 + G3 ) 1 + G2 + G3

C (s) G1 (G2 + G3 )
∴ = is the required transfer function.
R ( s ) 1 + G2 + G3 + G1G2 H1
Q61. Find the closed loop transfer function of the following block diagram using reduction technique.

Ans: Dec.-15, (R13), Q2(b)

The given circuit is shown in figure (1),

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.47

Figure (1)
Now, moving the branch point shown with dotted line before the block G2, the block diagram shown in figure (1) is
modified as shown in figure (2).

Figure (2)
From figure (2), it is clear that, the blocks G2 and G3 are in series. Hence, cascading the blocks, the block diagram shown
in figure (2) is modified as shown in figure (3),

Figure (3)
From figure (3), it is clear that the blocks G2 G3 and G4 are in parallel. Hence, combining the blocks, the block diagram
shown in figure (3) is modified as shown in figure (4),

Figure (4)
Moving the branch point shown with dotted line in figure (4) ahead of the block (G2G3 + G4) the block diagram shown in
figure (4) is modified as shown in figure (5),

Figure (5)

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1.48 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
From figure (5), it is clear that, the blocks (G2G3 + G4) and H2 forms the feedback loop. Hence, eliminating the feedback
path, we have,
G2G3 + G4
Feedback loop =
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ). H 2

G2 G3 + G4
=
1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2

The block diagram shown in figure (5) is modified as shown in figure (6),

Figure (6)

G2 G3 + G4
From figure (6), it is clear that, the blocks G1 and are in series. Hence cascading the blocks, the
1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2
block diagram shown in figure (6) is modified as shown in figure (7),

Figure (7)
Eliminating the feedback loop in figure (7), we have,
 G1 (G2 G3 + G4 ) 
 
 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 
Feedback loop =
 G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )   G2 H 1 
1+  . 
 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2   (G2 G3 + G4 ) 

G1 (G2G3 + G4 ) G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
1 + G2G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2
= =
G1 G1G2 H 1
1+ .G2 H 1 1+
1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2
 G1 (G2G3 + G4 ) 
 
= 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 
1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 + G1G2 H 1 
 
 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 
G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
=
1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 + G1G2 H 1

G1 (G2G3 + G4 )
=
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1

The block diagram shown in figure (7) is modified as shown in figure (8),

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.49

Figure (8)
Eliminating the feedback loop in figure (8), we have,
G1 (G2 G3 + G4 ) G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
C 1 + (G G
2 3 + G 4 ) H 2 + G G H
1 2 1 1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1
= .1 =
R G1 (G2 G3 + G4 ) G1 (G2G3 + G4 )
1+ 1+
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1 1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1
G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1
=
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1 + G1 (G2G3 + G4 )
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1

G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
=
1 + (G2 G3 + G4 ) H 2 + G1G2 H 1 + G1 (G2 G3 + G4 )
C G1G2 G3 + G1G4
∴ =
R 1 + G2 G3 H 2 + G4 H 2 + G1G2 H 1 + G1G2 G3 + G1G4
Hence, the transfer function.

Q62. Simplify the block diagram for figure shown below and obtain the closed loop transfer function .

Verify the result by signal flow graph method.

Figure
Ans: May-10, Set-3, Q2

The given block diagram is shown below,

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1.50 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Step 1: Interchanging the summing points and modifying the branch points.

Step 2: Moving the take off point ahead of block G2.

Step 3 : Combining the blocks in cascade and eliminating the feedback loop.

Step 4 : Combining the feed forward paths.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.51
Step 5 : Reducing the blocks in cascade.
 G2   G4 
  × 1 +  × G3
1 + G2 H 2   G2 
G2 (G2 + G4 )
⇒ × × G3
1 + G2 H 2 G2

(G2 + G4 )G3
⇒
1 + G2 H 2

Step 6 : Eliminating the feedback loop.

(G2 + G4 )G3
C1 ( s ) 1 + G2 H 2
=
R1 ( s )  (G + G4 )G3 
1+  2 H3
 1 + G2 H 2 

C1 ( s ) (G2 + G4 )G3
=
R1 ( s ) 1 + G2 H 2 + (G2 + G4 )G3 H 3

Step 7: Combining the blocks in cascade.

Step 8: Eliminating the feedback loop.

G1G3 (G2 + G4 )
C ( s) 1 + G2 H 2 + (G2 + G4 )G3 H 3
∴ =
R( s ) G1G3 (G2 + G4 )
1+
1 + G2 H 2 + (G2 + G4 )G3 H 3

C ( s) G1G3 (G2 + G4 )
⇒ =
R( s ) (1 + G2 H 2 ) + (G2 + G4 )G3 H 3 + G1G3 (G2 + G4 )

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1.52 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
∴ The transfer function of the system is,
C ( s) G1G3 (G2 + G4 )
=
R( s ) (1 + G2 H 2 ) + G3 (G2 + G4 ) (G1 + H 3 )
Transfer Function using Signal Flow Graph Method
For the given block diagram, representing the input terminal, output terminal, each summing point and each branch point
by a node, the equivalent signal flow graph of the system is drawn as shown below.

Forward Path Gains

There are two forward paths in the signal flow graph, i.e., n = 2
Let the forward path gains be P1 and P2
Forward Path-1

Forward Path-2

Gain of forward path-1, P1 = G1 G2 G3

Gain of forward path-2, P2 = G1 G4 G3
Individual Loop Gains
There are five individual loops.
Let the individual loop gains be L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5

Loop-1

Loop-2

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.53

Loop-3

Loop-4

Loop-5
Loop gain of individual loop-1, L1 = – G1 G2 G3
Loop gain of individual loop-2, L1 = – G1 G4 G3
Loop gain of individual loop-3, L3 = – G2 G3 H3
Loop gain of individual loop-4, L4 = – G4 G3 H3
Loop gain of individual loop-5, L5 = – G2 H2
Two Non-touching Loop Combination
There is no possibility of obtaining either two non-touching loops or three non-touching loops. Hence, there is no scope
of finding the gain product of two non touching loops.
Calculation of ∆ and ∆K
∆ = 1 – [Sum of individual loop gains]
⇒ ∆ = 1 – [ – G1 G2 G3 – G1 G4 G3 – G2 G3 H3 – G4 G3 H3 – G2 H2]
⇒ ∆ = 1 + G1 G2 G3 + G1 G3 G4 + G2 G3 H3 + G3 G4 H3 + G2 H2
⇒ ∆ = (1 + G2 H2) + G1 G3 (G2 + G4) + G3H3 (G2 + G4)
⇒ ∆ = (1 + G2 H2) + (G2 + G4) (G1 G3 + G3H3)
⇒ ∆ = (1 + G2 H2) + G3 (G2 + G4) (G1 + H3)
As there is no part of the graph which is non-touching with the forward paths P1 and P2,
∆1 = ∆2 = 1
Transfer Function
Mason’s gain formula,
1 n
T = Σ P ∆K
∆ K =1 k
Here, n = 2
1 2
⇒ T = Σ P ∆K
∆ K =1 K
1
⇒ T = [P ∆ + P2 ∆2 ]
∆ 1 1
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1.54 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

P1 + P2 Forward Path-2
⇒ T = [ ∆1 =D2 = 1]
∆

G1G2G3 + G1G4G3
⇒ T =
(1 + G2 H 2 ) + G3 (G2 + G4 )( G1 + H 3 )

G1G3 (G2 + G4 )
⇒ T =
(1 + G2 H 2 ) + G3 (G2 + G4 )( G1 + H 3 ) Forward Path-3
Hence,
The result i.e., the transfer function obtained by signal
flow graph method matches with that which is obtained by block
diagram reduction technique.

Q63. Using Mason gain formula, find the transfer

function C/R for the signal flow graph shown
in figure.

Forward Path-4

Figure
Ans: May-13, (R9), Q2

The given signal flow graph is shown below, Forward Path-5

Forward Path-6
Figure
Forward Path Gains
There are six forward path in the signal flow graph (i.e.,)
n = 6.
Let the forward path gain be P1, P2, P3, P4, P5 and P6.
Forward Path-1

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.55
Gain of forward path-1, P1 = G1 G3 G7
Gain of forward path-2, P2 = G2 G4 G8
Gain of forward path-3, P3 = G1 G5 G8
Gain of forward path-4, P4 = G2 G6 G7
Gain of forward path-5, P5 = G1 G5 G6 G7 (– H2)
= – G1 G5 G6 G7 H2
Gain of forward path-6, P6 = G2 G5 G6 G8 (– H1)
= – G2 G5 G6 G8 H1
Individual Loop Gains
There are three individual loops.
Let the loop gain be L1, L2 and L3.

Loop gain individual loop-1, L1 = – G3 H1

Loop gain individual loop-2, L2 = – G4 H2
Loop gain individual loop-3, L3 = G5 G6(– H1) (– H2)
= G5 G6 H1 H2
Two Non-touching Loop Combinations
Loop-1 and loop-2 are two non-touching loop combinations.
Calculation of ∆ and ∆K
∆ = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3) + L1 L2
= 1 – ( – G3 H1 – G4 H2 + G5 G6 H1 H2) + (– G3 H1) (– G4 H2)
= 1 + G3 H 1 + G4 H 2 – G5 G 6 H 1 H 2 + G3 G 4 H1 H 2
∆1 = 1 – L2 = 1 – (– G4 H2)
= 1 + G4 H2
∆2 = 1 – 4 = 1 – (– G3 H1)
= 1 + G3 H 1
∆3 = ∆4 = ∆5 = ∆6 = 1
C
Transfer Function  
R
n
1
T =
C
R
=
∆ ∑P ∆
K =1
K K

Here, n = 6
1
T = ( P1∆1 + P2 ∆ 2 + P3 ∆ 3 + P4 ∆ 4 + P5 ∆ 5 + P6 ∆ 6 )
∆
G1G3 G 7 (1 + G 4 H 2 ) + G 2 G 4 G8 (1 + G3 H 1 ) + G1G5 G8 + G 2 G 6 G 7 − G1G5 G 6 G 7 H 2 − G 2 G5 G 6 G8 H 1
T =
1 + G3 H 1 + G 4 H 2 − G5 G 6 H 1 H 2 + G3 G 4 H 1 H 2

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1.56 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Q64. Obtain the transfer function using Mason gain formula for the signal flow graph shown in figure.

Figure
Ans: Nov.-12, Set-4, Q2

Given that,

Figure (1)
Forward Path Gains
There are four forward paths in the signal flow graph i.e., n = 4.
Let the forward path gains be P1, P2, P3 and P4.
Forward Path-1

Figure(2): Gain of Forward Path-1, P1 = G1 G2 G3 G4 G5

Forward Path-2

Figure(3): Gain of Forward Path-2, P2 = G6 G3 G4 G5

Forward Path-3

Figure(4): Gain of Forward Path-3, P3 = G1 G2 G3 G7

Forward Path-4

Figure(5): Gain of Forward Path-4, P4 = G6 G3 G7

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.57
Individual Loop Gains
There are five individual loops. Let the individual loop gains be L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5.
Loop-1
Loop gain of individual loop-1, L1 = G1 H1

Loop-2
Loop gain of individual loop-2, L2 = G3 H2

Loop-3
Loop gain of individual loop-3, L3 = G5 H3

Loop-4
Loop gain of individual loop-4, L4 = G4 G5 H4

Loop-5
Loop gain of individual loop-5, L5 = G7 H4

Two Non-touching Loops Combination

There are five combinations of two non-touching loops.
(i) Loop-1 and Loop-2
Gain product, L1L2 = G1H1 × G3H2

= G 1G 3H 1H 2
(ii) Loop-1 and Loop-3
Gain product, L1L3 = G1H1 × G5H3

= G1G5H1H3
(iii) Loop-2 and Loop-3
Gain product, L2L3= G3H2 × G5H3

= G3G5H2H3

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1.58 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
(iv) Loop-1 and Loop-4
Gain product, L1L4= G1H1 × G4G5H4

= G1G4G5H1H4
(v) Loop-1 and Loop-5
Gain product, L1L5 = G1H1 × G7 H4

= G1G7H1H4
Three Non-touching Loops Combination
There is only one combination of three non-touching loops.
Loop-1, Loop-2 and Loop-3
Gain product, L1L2L3= G1H1 × G3H2 × G5H3

= G1G3G5H1H2H3
Calculation of ∆ and ∆K
∆ = 1 – (Sum of individual loop gains) + (Sum of gain products of all combinations of two non-touching loops)
– (Sum of gain products of all combinations of three non-touching loops)
∆ = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 +L5) + (L1L2 + L1L3 + L2L3 + L1L4 + L1L5) – L1L2L3
∆ = 1 – (G1H1 + G3H2 + G5H3 + G4G5H4 + G7H4) + (G1G3H1H2 + G1G5H1H3 + G3G5H2H3 + G1G4G5H1H4 + G1G7H1H4)
– G1G3G5H1H2H3
∆ = 1 – G1H1 – G3H2 – G5H3 – G4G5H4 – G7H4 + G1G3H1H2 + G1G5H1H3 + G3G5H2H3 + G1G4G5H1H4 + G1G7H1H4
– G1G3G5H1H2H3
Now,
∆1 = ∆2 = ∆3 = ∆4 = 1 Since all the loops are touching all forward paths.
Transfer Function
Mason’s gain formula,
1 n
T = Σ PK ∆ K
∆ K =1
Here,
n = 4
1
T = (P1∆1 + P2∆2 + P3∆3 + P4∆4)
∆
G1G2G3G4G5 (1) + G6G3G4 G5 (1) + G1G2 G3G7 (1) + G6 G3G7 (1)
=
∆
C (s) G1G2G3G4G5 + G6G3G4G5 + G1G2G3G7 + G6G3G7
T = =
R( s) 1 − G1H1 − G3 H 2 − G5 H 3 − G4G5 H 4 − G7 H 4 + G1G3 H1H 2 + G1G5 H1H 3
+ G3G5 H 2 H 3 + G1G4G5 H1H 4 + G1G7 H1H 4 − G1G3G5 H1H 2 H 3

Q65. Find using Mason’s gain formula fo figure shown below.

Figure
Ans: May-10, Set-4, Q2(b)

The given network is shown in figure (1),

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.59

Figure (1)
The signal flow graph of the above network is as shown in figure (2)

Figure (2)
Forward Paths
1st Path

Let, P1 = Forward path gain of 1st forward path

P1 = G1 G3

∴ D1 = 1 ( All points of graph are touch by forward path-1)
2nd Path

Let, P2 = Forward path gain of 2nd forward path.

P2 = G1 G2
∴ D2 = 1 ( All points of graph are touch by forward path-2)
3 Path
rd

Let, P3 = Forward path gain of 3rd forward path.

P3 = G1 G3 G4 H2
∴ D3 = 1 ( All points of graph are touched by forward path-3)

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1.60 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
4th Path Q66. With the help of Mason’s gain formula find the
overall transfer function of the following signal
flow graph.

Let, P4 = Forward path gain of 4th forward path

Ans: Dec.-15, (R13), Q3(b)
P4 = G1 G2 G4 H2
Given that,
∴ D4 = 1
Individual Loops
1st Loop

Figure
Forward path gains
By inspection, it is clear that, there are two forward paths
Loop gain of first loop = L1 = G1 G3 H1 H2 in the signal flow graph. Therefore n = 2.
2nd Loop Let the forward path gains be P1 and P2.
Forward path - 1

C(s)

Figure (2): Gain of forward path-1, P1 = G1G2G3G4

Forward path - 2
Loop gain of second loop = L2 = G1 G2 H1 H2
Transfer function of the system
1
T (s) = (P ∆ + P2 ∆ 2 + P3 ∆ 3 + P4 ∆ 4) Figure (3): Gain of forward path-2, P2 = G1G2G6
∆ 1 1
Where, Individual loop Gains
∆ = 1 – ( L1 + L2) There are five individual loops, let the individual loop
= 1 – (G1 G3 H1 H2 + G1 G2 H1 H2) gains be L1, L2, L3, L4 and L5.

= 1 – G1 G3 H1 H2 – G1 G2 H1 H2 Loop -1: loop gain of individual loop-1, L1 = – G2G3H1

= 1 – G1 H1 H2 ( G2 + G3)
(G1G3 (1) + G1G2 (1) + G1G3G4 H 2 (1) + G1G2 G4 H 2 (1))
∴ T(s) =
1.1 – G1 H 1 H 2 (G2 + G3 )
(G1G3 + G1G2 + G1G3G4 H 2 + G1G2G4 H 2 ) Figure: Loop-1
=
1 – G1 H1 H 2 (G2 + G3 ) Loop -2: loop gain of individual loop-2, L2 = – G2H2

G1 (G2 + G3 ) + G1G4 H 2 + (G2 + G3 )

=
1 – G1 H 1 H 2 (G2 + G3 )
G1 (G2 + G3 )(1 + G4 H 2 )
T (s) =
1 – G1 H1 H 2 (G2 + G3 ) Figure: Loop-2

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.61
Loop -3: loop gain of individual loop-3, L3 = – G2G6H3

Figure: Loop-3
Loop -4: loop gain of individual loop-4, L4 = – G2G3G4H3

Figure: Loop-4
Loop -5: loop gain of individual loop-5, L5 = G5

Figure: Loop-5
Two Non touching loops combination
There are two combination of two non-touching loops.
(i) Loop-2 and Loop-5
Gain product, L2 L5 = – G2H2 × G5
= – G2 G 5 G 6 H 2
(ii) Loop-3 and Loop-5
Gain product, L3 L5 = – G2G6 H3 × G5
= – G2 G 5 G 6 H 3
Calculation of ∆ and ∆k
∆ = 1 – (Sum of individual loop gains) + (Sum of gain product of all combination of two non-touching loop)
∆ = 1 – (L1 + L2 + L3 + L4 + L5) + (L2 L5 + L3 L5)
∆ = 1 – (– G2 G3 H1 – G2 H2 – G2G6 H3 – G2G3G4 H3 + G5) + (– G2G5 H2 – G2G5G6 H3)
∆ = 1 + G2G3 H1 + G2 H2 + G2G6 H3 + G2G3G4 H3 – G5 – G2G5 H2 – G2G5G6 H3
The part of the graph which is not touching the forward path-2 is shown in below figure.

Figure
∴ ∆2 = 1 – G5
Now ∆1 = 1, since no part of the graph is not touching the forward path-1
Transfer function
According to Mason’s gain formula, the transfer function is given as,
n
1
T=
∆ ∑P ∆
k =1
k k

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1.62 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Here, n = 2

1 G1G2 G3G4 (1) + G1G2 G6 (1 – G5 )

T= (P1∆1 + P2 ∆ 2 ) =
∆ ∆
C (s) G1G2 G3G4 + G1G2G6 – G1G2G5G6
T= =
R ( s ) 1 + G2G3 H 1 + G2 H 2 + G2G6 H 3 + G2G3G4 H 3 – G5 – G2G5 H 2 – G2 G5G6 H 3

1.6 Principle of operation of DC and AC ServomotoR, Transfer function of D.C

servoMotor – A.C Servomotor

Q67. With its operating principle derive the transfer function of AC servo motor in control system.

Ans:

A.C Servomotor

The principle of operation of A.C servomotor is similar to that of three-phase induction motor. A.C servomotors are
generally two-phase squirrel cage induction type motors. The stator has two distributed windings. One is the control winding
and the other is the reference winding. These two windings are displaced from each other by 90° as shown in figure.

Figure: A.C Servomotor Representation

The voltage applied to the control winding will be 90° out of phase with respect to the voltage applied to the reference
winding. The current in the control winding will set up a flux and this flux will be 90° out of phase to the flux set up by the
current in the reference winding. Thus, a resultant rotating magnetic flux is setup in the air gap, which sweeps over the stationary
rotor. Due to this rotating flux, an e.m.f is induced in the rotor, which in turn produces a circulating current in the rotor. This
circulating current in the rotor will now set up a flux (rotor flux) which interacts with the resultant flux produced by the stator
and thus a torque is developed on the rotor. The effect of this torque is that the rotor starts rotating in the same direction as the
rotating magnetic flux.

Transfer Function of A.C Servomotor

For answer refer Unit-I, Q71.

Q68. With neat diagrams, explain the working of A.C and D.C servo motors.

Ans:

Working of A.C Servomotor

For answer refer Unit-1, Q67, Topic: A.C Servomotor.

Working of D.C Servomotor

D.C motors which are used in servo systems are called D.C servo motors. It is essentially an ordinary D.C motor except
with few variations in its constructional features. The D.C servo motors are used when quick response to control signals and
high starting torque is required. The figure shows the layout of D.C servo motor.

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.63
Ra La if

Va ia Eb Vf

Figure

When an electric current flows through the armature windings, the magnetic field is induced in it. This induced field
opposes the field which is set up by the permanent magnets. The difference in magnetic field produces a torque on the rotor. The
torque produced by the rotor will be constant throughout the rotation, since the field strength depends on the function of current.

The torque of the D.C servo motor is given as,

Tm(t) = Km Ia(t)

Where,

Tm – Torque produced

Ia – Armature current

Km – Motor’s torque constant.

Q69. Derive the transfer function for the field controlled D.C servomotor with neat sketch.

Nov.-11, Set-4, Q7

OR

Derive the transfer function of D.C servo motor. (May-10, Set-2, Q2(a) | May-10, Set-4, Q2(a))

OR

Explain the procedure for deriving the transfer function and derive the transfer function for servo.

Ans: Aug./Sep.-07, Set-3, Q2

D.C servomotor is essentially an ordinary D.C motor except with very few variations in its constructional features. It gives
quick response to control signals and possess low inertia and high starting torque.

The two different modes in which the D.C motor can be operated are,

1. Field control mode

2. Armature control mode.

Transfer Function of the Field Controlled D.C Servomotor

In the field control mode of D.C servomotor, the speed of the motor is changed by changing the flux of the motor and in
this mode the armature voltage is kept fixed.

For deriving the transfer function of the field controlled D.C servomotor, the following assumptions are made.

(i) Only the field circuit of the electrical system is considered.

(ii) The armature voltage is assumed to be constant.

Consider a field controlled D.C servomotor with, ef as the input voltage applied to the field and Rf and Lf are its field
resistance and field inductance respectively, if is the field current and the flux of D.C servomotor is varied by varying the field
current f as the flux and If are directly proportional to each other. This current produces a flux and the torque produced by this
flux is Tm. Jm and B are movement of inertia of the motor and coefficient of friction respectively. θm is the angular displacement
of the motor.

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1.64 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

Figure (1): Field Controlled D.C Servomotor

Applying Kirchoff’s law for the field circuit of the servomotor, we get,

ef = Rf if + Lf ... (1)

Applying Laplace transform to the above equation, we get,

Ef (s) = Rf If (s) + s Lf If(s)
Ef (s) = If (s) [Rf + sLf]

If (s) = ... (2)

The relationship between the torque developed by the motor Tm and the field current if is given by,
Tm ∝ if ... (3)
Since the armature current is kept constant, so the torque is directly proportional to the field current alone.
Tm = Kf if ... (4)
Where Kf represents motor torque constant
Applying Laplace transform to the above equation, we get,
Tm(s) = Kf If (s) ... (5)
The rotating part and load connected constitutes the mechanical system of motor. For the moment of inertia Jm and
coefficient of friction B, torque applied by the motor is given by,

Tm = ... (6)

Applying Laplace transform to the above equation, we get,

Tm(s) = Jm s2 θm(s) + B s θm(s)
Tm(s) = θm(s) [Jm s2 + B s]
Tm(s) = s θm(s) [Jm s + B] ... (7)
Equating equations (5) and (7), we get
Kf If (s) = s θm(s) [Jm s + B]
s( J m s + B )
If (s) = θm ( s ) ... (8)
Kf
Substitute the value of If (s) from equation (2) into equation (8),
s( J m s + B )
= θm ( s )
Kf
s( J m s + B )
Ef (s) = ( R f + sL f ) θm ( s )
Kf

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.65
s( R f + sL f )( J m s + B )
Ef (s) = θm ( s )
Kf
θm (s)
The transfer function of the system is given by
E f (s)
θm (s) Kf
∴ =
E f (s) s( R f + sL f )( J m s + B )

θm (s) Kf
= ... (9)
E f (s)  sL f   Jms 
Kf sR f  1 +  B  1 + B 
Let 
be represented   constant
Rbyf gain of the motor
Rf B
Kf
Kg i.e., Kg =
Rf B
Lf
Let be represented by time constant of field Tf
Rf
Lf
i.e., Tf =
Rf

Jm
Let
be represented by mechanical time constant
B
Jm
Tme i.e., Tme =
B
Substituting these values in the equation (9), the transfer function of the motor becomes,

... (10)
Block diagram of the field controlled D.C servomotor can be represented as shown in the following figure (2).

Figure (2): Block Diagram Representation

Q70. Derive the transfer function for armature controlled D.C servomotor with neat diagram.
(Aug./Sep.-06, Set-2, Q2 | April/May-05, Set-3, Q2

Nov./Dec.-04, Set-1, Q2

Ans: Nov.-03, Set-2, Q2 | April/May-03, Set-3, Q2)

Transfer Function of the Armature Controlled D.C Servomotor

In armature control mode of D.C servomotor, the speed of the motor is changed by changing the armature voltage of the
motor and in this mode the field of the motor is kept fixed and hence field voltage is constant.
For deriving the transfer function of the armature controlled D.C servomotor the following assumptions are made.
1. Only the armature circuit of the electrical system is taken into account.
2. The field voltage is assumed to be constant.

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1.66 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Consider an armature controlled D.C servomotor with Equating equations (5) and (7) we get,
ea as the input voltage applied to the armature and Ra and La are
Ka Ia(s) = θm(s) [Jm s2 + Bs]
its armature resistance and armature inductance respectively ia
is the armature current. Since the field current is kept constant ( J m s 2 + Bs )
the motor output is governed by armature voltage va. The torque Ia(s) = θm ( s) ... (8)
Ka
developed by the motor is Tm. Jm and B are the moment of
inertia of the motor and coefficient of friction respectively. θm The relation between back e.m.f eb and the angular
is the angular displacement of the motor. displacement of the motor is given by,

eb ∝

eb = Ke ... (9)

Where, Ke represents back e.m.f constant.

Applying the Laplace transform to the above equation,
we get,
Eb(s) = sKe θm(s) ... (10)
Figure: Armature Controlled D.C Servomotor
Equating equation (2) and equation (8) we get,
Applying Kirchoff’s law for the armature circuit of the
servomotor, we get, ( J m s 2 + Bs )
= θm ( s )
Ka
ea = Ra ia + La + eb ... (1)
 E a ( s ) − Eb ( s ) 
Ka   = θm(s) [Jms2 + Bs] ... (11)
Applying Laplace transform to the above equation we get,  ( Ra + sL a ) 
Ea(s) = Ra Ia(s) + sLa Ia(s) + Eb(s) Substitute the value of Eb(s) from equation (10) in
Ea(s) = Ia(s) [Ra + sLa] + Eb(s) equation (11),
Ea(s) – Eb(s) = Ia(s) [Ra + sLa]
Ka = θm(s) [Jms2 + Bs]
E a ( s ) − Eb ( s )
Ia(s) = ... (2)
Ra + sL a
(Ra + sLa) θm(s) + Ke s θm(s) = Ea(s)
The relationship between the torque developed by the

motor Tm and the armature current ia, is given by,

= Ea(s)
Tm ∝ ia ... (3)
Tm = Ka ia  ... (4)  ( R + sLa )( J m s 2 + Bs ) + K a K e s 
θm(s)  a  = Ea(s)
Where, ‘Ka’ represents motor torque constant.  Ka 
Applying Laplace transform to the above equation, we get, θm (s)
The transfer function of the system is given by
Tm(s) = Ka Ia(s) ... (5) Ea ( s )
The rotating part and the load connected to the motor θm (s) Ka
constitutes the mechanical system of the motor. For the moment ∴ =
Ea ( s ) ( Ra + sLa )( J m s 2 + Bs ) + K a K e s
of inertia Jm and coefficient of friction B, the torque applied by
the motor is given by,
θm (s)
=
Tm = ... (6) Ea ( s )

Applying Laplace transform to the above equation, we get,

θm (s)
Tm(s) = Jms2 θm(s) + Bs θm(s) = ... (12)
Ea ( s )
Tm(s) = θm(s) [Jm s2 + Bs] ... (7)

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.67
La
Let be represented by time constant of armature Ta
Ra
La
i.e., Ta =
Ra
Jm
Let
be represented by mechanical time constant
B
Jm
Tme ,i.e., Tme =
B
Substituting these values in the equation (12), the transfer
function of the motor is given as,
θm ( s ) K a / Ra B Figure (1): A.C Servomotor Representation
= Speed-Torque Characteristics of A.C Servomotor
Ea ( s )  K K 
s (1 + sTa )(1 + sTme ) + a e  For answer refer Unit-I, Q70.
 Ra B 
Transfer Function of A.C Servomotor
Q71. Derive the transfer function for A.C servomotor. Let m1 be the slope of the characteristics of torque and
Explain about torque-speed characteristics of control voltage and m2 be the slope of the characteristics of
A.C servomotor. torque and speed.
From the characteristics shown in figures (2) and (3),
(Nov.-12, Set-1, Q2 | Model Paper-III, Q3(b))
the torque Tm of the motor is written as,
OR Tm = m1 VC – m2 wm
Derive the transfer functions of an A.C –m2 since the slope of the speed - torque curves is
negative.
servomotor.
Nov.-12, Set-2, Q2(a) As wm =
OR
∴ Tm = m1 VC – m2 ... (1)
Derive the transfer function for A.C servomotor.
(May-10, Set-1, Q2(a) | Nov./Dec.-05, Set-2, Q2(b)) Applying Laplace transform to the above equation, we get,
OR Tm(s) = m1 VC(s) – m2s θm(s) ... (2)
Derive the transfer function for A.C servomotor.
The rotating part of the motor and load connected to the
Explain about torque-speed characteristics.
motor constitutes the mechanical system of the motor. With
(April/May-07, Set-1, Q2 | April/May-06, Set-2, Q2 moment of inertia Jm and coefficient of friction B, the torque
Nov./Dec.-05, Set-3, Q2 | Nov./Dec.-04, Set-4, Q2 applied to the motor is given by,
Ans: April/May-04, Set-1, Q2 | April/May-03, Set-4, Q2)
Tm = Jm +B
A.C servomotor is essentially a two phase induction
motor except with variation in the constructional features of Applying Laplace transform to the equation, we get,
the rotor which is of drag cup type. It possess low inertia and
good accelerating characteristics and hence mostly preferred Tm(s) = Jms2 θm(s) + Bs θm(s)
for low power applications. Tm(s) = θm(s) [Jms2 + Bs] ... (3)
A.C servomotor is shown in figure (1). It has two
windings i.e. control and reference winding. The control voltage Equating equations (2) and (3), we get
VC is given as input voltage to the control winding through the m1 VC(s) – m2 sθm(s) = θm(s) [Jms2 + Bs]
amplifier. The fixed voltage Vf is given to the reference winding.
The phase difference between the fixed voltage and the control m1 VC(s) = θm(s) [Jms2 + Bs] + m2 sθm(s)
voltage is 90º. The torque Tm is developed because of the control
voltage. Jm and B are the moment of inertia of the motor and m1 VC(s) = θm(s) [Jms2 + Bs + m2s]
coefficient of friction respectively. The output θm is the angular θm ( s)
displacement of the motor and wm is the corresponding angular The transfer function of A.C servomotor is given by,
velocity. VC ( s )

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1.68 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

θm ( s)
∴ =
VC ( s )

θm ( s)
=
VC ( s )

θm ( s) m1
=
VC ( s )  Jms 
s ( B + m2 ) 1 + 
 ( B + m2 ) 
θm ( s) m1 /( B + m2 )
= ... (4)
VC ( s )  Jms 
s 1 + 
 ( B + m2 ) 
m1
Let term be represented by gain constant of motor Kg.
( B + m2 )
Jm
Let term be represented by time constant of motor Tm.
( B + m2 )
Therefore, by substituting these values in the equation (4), the transfer function of the A.C servomotor is given as,

θm (s) Kg
=
VC ( s ) s[1 + sT m ]

Q72. Draw the torque-speed characteristics of A.C servomotor and explain how it differs from normal
induction motor.
Ans: Nov.-11, Set-2, Q7(b)

Speed - Torque Characteristics of A.C Servomotor

The starting torque of the motor is proportional to the control voltage VC applied to the control winding, therefore, the
speed of the servomotor can be varied by varying the control voltage. With respect to the control voltages applied the torque of
the motor varies as shown in figure (1).

w ′6 > w ′5 > w ′4 > w ′3 > w ′2 > w 1′

Figure (1)

From figure(1), it can be seen that the torque characteristics are linear near zero values of the control voltage and for rest
of the values the torque characteristics are non-linear. The value of the torque decreases as the control voltage crosses zero and
the motor comes to a hault. Therefore, for the values of control voltages the speed-torque characteristics of the motor can be
plotted as shown in figure (2).

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.69
For the speeds near zero values the torque varies linearly and as the speed increases the torque-speed characteristics become
non-linear. The speed torque characteristics are stretched with the dashed lines to achieve linear approximation for deriving the
transfer function of the A.C servomotor.

Figure (2): Speed-Torque Characteristics

Differences between A.C Servomotor and Induction Motor

A.C Servomotor Induction Motor

1. The rotor is drag cup rotor in construction. 1. The rotor is either squirrel cage or phase wound
rotor in construction.
2. The rotor winding of an A.C servomotor has high 2. The rotor winding of an induction motor has high
resistance compared to its inductive reactance, inductive reactance compared to resistance,
X X
therefore ratio is very less. therefore ratio is high.
R R
3. Due to which the torque speed characteristics of an 3. Due to which torque speed characteristics of an
A.C servomotor is fairly linear as shown in figure. induction motor is highly non-linear shown
in figure.

Figure Figure
4. It has a negative slope throughout which makes 4. It has a positive slope which makes the system
the system stable. unstable.
5. The voltages applied to the stator windings are 5. The voltages applied to stator windings are
not balanced. balanced.

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1.70 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]

Q73. Explain the differences between A.C servomotor and D.C servomotor.
Ans:
A.C Servomotor D.C Servomotor
1. A.C servomotors are best suited for low power 1. D.C servomotors are generally used for large
applications and has a power output of about power applications and delivers high power
1
W to 100 W. output.
2
2. The efficiency of these motors is very less i.e., 2. The efficiency of these motors is high.
5 to 20%.
3. It has less maintenance as the commutators are 3. Due to the presence of commutator frequent
not present. maintenance is required.
4. Radio frequency noise is not produced. 4. Radio frequency noise is produced due to
brushes.
5. The operation of this servomotor is relatively 5. The operation of these servomotor is noisy.
stable and smooth.
6. A.C amplifiers used in these motors have no 6. Amplifier used in motors have a drift.
drift.
7. Stability problems are less. 7. Stability problems are more.

1.7 SynchroS
Q74. Explain the operation and working principle of synchro. Nov.-12, Set-2, Q2(b)

OR
Explain about synchro transmitter and receiver and derive the transfer function for synchro.
Ans: (April/May-09, Set-3, Q2 | Nov./Dec.-04, Set-3, Q2)
A synchro is an electromagnetic device or transducer, which converts the angular position of the shaft into electric signal.
Synchro consists of synchro transmitter and synchro receiver.
Synchro Transmitter and Receiver
The synchro transmitter and receiver form a synchro pair. A synchro transmitter is a unit where the mechanical input of
the rotor is converted into an electrical signal in the stator. A synchro receiver is a unit where the electrical input of the stator is
converted into angular displacement in the rotor. It is also referred as control transformer.
Construction of Synchro Transmitter and Receiver
Both the synchro transmitter and receiver consists of stator and rotor. They are very similar in their construction, only
the difference being that the rotor of the synchro receiver (or) synchro control transformer is of cylindrical type. The stator is a
stationary part of synchro and it is composed of laminated steel. To achieve balanced 3-φ winding, the stator part is slotted and
the windings of this stator are connected in star. The structure of these windings are concentric coil type structure. The basic
constructional features of synchro transmitter and receiver are shown in figure (a). (The construction of synchro transmitter
resembles the construction of 3-φ alternator).

Figure (a): Synchro Transmitter

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Unit-1 Control Systems Concepts 1.71

Figure (b): Synchro Receiver

The rotor is a rotating part of synchro. In order to maintain the uniform air gap it is designed cylindrical for synchro
receiver. For synchro transmitter, the rotor has a dumbbell shape. The rotor is wounded with many turns on it. At the end of these
turns the output or input terminals are connected with the help of brushes which rests on slip rings as shown in figure (a).
Operation of Synchro Transmitter and Receiver
The synchro transmitter functions in a similar way as that of single phase transformer and here the rotor coil behaves as
primary winding and the three stator coils behaves as secondary.
When an A.C voltage is supplied as an input to the rotor of the transmitter, then it results in the flow of magnetizing
current in the rotor. This magnetizing current generates a time varying flux and it varies sinusoidally and gets distributed in the
air gap. The time varying flux acting along the rotor coil develops a rotor magnetic field and as a result of this transformer action
voltages get induced in all the stator windings based on the angular position of stator axis with respect to the rotor.
Now the three induced e.m.f’s serves as input to the stator of the synchro control transformer. The operation of synchro
receiver is same as that of synchro transmitter. The mechanical angular displacement of the shaft of the rotor is the desired output.
A voltage signal is generated in the rotor in response to the e.m.f’s applied to the stator and with respect to the present state of
the rotor. Hence, this e.m.f produced runs the motor.
Transfer Function
Let, θ = Angle of rotation of the transmitter from electrical zero position.
γ = Angle of rotation of the receiver from electrical zero position.
Then, the torque produced by the synchro control transformer is given by,
Tr(t) = K[θ(t) – γ(t)] ... (1)
Taking the Laplace transform of the above equation
Tr(s) = K[θ(s) – γ(s)] ... (2)
Where k represents sensitivity of synchro error detector.
Let δ(s) = θ(s) – γ(s)
Where δ(s) is the angular displacement between two rotors
∴ Tr(s) = K[δ(s)] ... (3)
If J represents moment of inertia and B represents coefficient of friction of the synchro control transformer, then the torque
applied on the shaft of the receiver is given by,

Tr(t) = J +B ... (4)

Taking the Laplace of the above equation, we get,

Tr(s) = Js2γ(s) + Bsγ(s) ... (5)

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1.72 control systems [JNTU-Anantapur]
Equating equation (2) and equation (5), we get,
K[θ(s) – γ(s)] = Js2γ(s) + Bsγ(s)
Kθ(s) – Kγ(s) = Js2γ(s) + Bsγ(s)
Kθ(s) = Js2γ(s) + Bsγ(s) + Kγ(s)

Kθ(s) = γ(s)[Js2 + Bs + K]

γ(s) 2
K = [Js + Bs + K]
θ( s )

The above equation represents the transfer function of synchro.
Q75. Explain the synchro error detector with circuit diagram.
(Aug./Sep.-06, Set-1, Q2(b) | Nov./Dec.-05, Set-2, Q2(b) April/May-05, Set-4, Q2(b) | April/May-04, Set-4, Q2(b)

Ans: April/May-03, Set-1, Q2(b))

Synchro Transmitter and Receiver as Error Detector

The synchro transmitter and receiver combinedly acts in a pair and functions as error detector. The figure shows the
synchro transmitter connected to the synchro receiver directly through the windings.

Figure: Error Detector

The input is the angular position of the rotor given to the transmitter and the output of the transmitter is given as input
to the synchro control transformer. When the rotor positions of both transmitter and receiver are such that they perfectly
align with each other, then the rotor of control transformer induces zero voltage and such position is referred as electrical
zero position. In electrical zero position, the angular displacement between the rotors is 90º.
When the input voltage is given to the rotor of transmitter, then it gets excited and the circulatory or magnetizing
currents are generated. These currents have different magnitude but same phase. Because of the flow of magnetizing currents
in the stator windings of both synchro transmitter and receiver, an identical flux pattern is established in the synchro receiver
whose direction is same as that of the rotor synchro transmitter.

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