Practical File

Class XII Physics

Experiment No 1

AIM: To determine resistivity of a wire by plotting a graph for

potential difference versus current.
APPARATUS: A conducting wire , Milliammeter, Voltmeter ,
Rheostat, one way key, and connecting wires
THEORY :
According to the Ohm's law, "The current flowing through a
conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its
ends provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions,
pressure) of the conductor remains the same."
If I be the current flowing through a conductor and V be the potential
difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's Law,
V=IR

where, R is the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance

of the conductor.R depends upon the material, temperature and
dimensions of the conductor.Also,
𝑙
𝑅=𝜌
𝐴

Here, ρ is the specific resistance or resistivity and is characteristic of

the material of wire.
Hence, the specific resistance or resistivity of the material of the wire,
πr²
𝜌=𝑅
𝑙
𝐴
𝜌=𝑅
𝑙
Or

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If 'r' is the radius of the wire, then the cross sectional area, A = πr².

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM ( To be drawn on first blank page)

OBSERVATIONS
LENGTH OF WIRE =
RANGE OF MILLIAMMETER=
RANGE OF VOLTMETER=
LEAST COUNT OF MILLIAMMETER=
LEAST COUNT OF VOLTMETER=

OBSERVATION TABLE

SNO POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE IN CURRENT ( IN

(VOLTS) MILLIAMP)
1

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 6

CALCULATIONS
Plot a graph between the potential difference across the wire (V) and
the current (I) flowing through it as shown.

SLOPE OF THE GRAPH=R

RESISTIVITY
πr²
𝜌=𝑅
𝑙
Here l is length of wire, r is radius of the wire

( leave space for calculations 7/8 lines)

RESULT
The resistance of the given wire is found to be--------------------ohm
Resistivity of the given wire is found to be --------------------------------------
---------------------------ohm -meter

PRECAUTIONS

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1. The voltmeter should be connected in parallel and the ammeter in
series with the circuit. It should be ensured that current enters at the
positive terminal and leaves at the negative terminal.
2. The key should be inserted only while taking observations, as
excessive flow of current causes unnecessary heating of the wire.
3. Zero error in measuring instruments (voltmeter, ammeter, metre
scale) must be taken cognizance of and should be eliminated in case of
ammeter and voltmeter by adjusting the pointer with the help of the
screw provided at the base of the needle, using a screw driver.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1. The wire used may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. The length of the resistance wire measured should be between one
terminal of voltmeter and the other. The lengths of ends wound around
the terminals of voltmeter, if included, would give error in measured
length.

Experiment No 2 START ON A NEW PAGE

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AIM: TO FIND RESISTANCE OF A GIVEN WIRE USING METER
BRIDGE

APPARATUS: A meter bridge, galvanometer, one way key, a

resistance box, a battery jockey, unknown resistance wire about 1
meter long, and connecting wires.

Theory: A meter bridge is the practical application of Wheatstone

bridge arrangement as shown in figure below. The four resistances
are connected to each other as shown and if the bridge is in balanced
state, i.e., there is no deflection in the galvanometer (G),

𝑃 𝑄
=
𝑅 𝑆

Here, we have the unknown resistance in one arm and the known
resistance in another. Considering that the resistance of wire
to be uniform we get that
𝑆 𝑙
=
𝑅 100 − 𝑙
where l is the length of the wire where there is zero deflection in the
Galvanometer

Circuit Diagram ( To be drawn on first blank page)

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Observations:
Least Count of Meter Scale : 0.1cm

S. No R(Ω) L(cm) (100-l) cm S= R(100-l)/

lΩ
1
2
3
4
5
Mean X

CALCULATIONS:
MEAN VALUE OF RESISTANCE=

LEAVE SOME SPACE FOR CALCULATIONS

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RESULT:
1. The unknown resistance of the given wire is found to be X = … …
Ω

Precautions
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of
taking observations.
4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
The circuit should be neat and tight
5. The connecting wires should be rubbed with sand paper
6. The jockey should be tapped on the wire and not slide.

SOURCES OF ERROR
1The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of
cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting
screws,may affect the measurement.
3 . The resistances of end pieces/metal strips may not be
negligible.
4 The length measurements l and l_ may have error if the
metre bridge wire is not taut and along the scale in the metre
bridge.
5 Parallax error should be avoided while taking reading of
galvanometer.

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 Experiment No 3
AIM: To verify the laws of combination of resistances in series using
a metre bridge.
Apparatus: A metre bridge, a sensitive galvanometer, two different
resistances (carbon or wire-wound resistors), a resistance box, a
jockey, a rheostat, a plug key, a cell or battery eliminator, thick
connecting wires

Theory
When two resistances R1 and R2 are connected in series, the
resistance of the combination RS is given by
RS = R1 + R2

Circuit Diagram (left side)

Observations:
Least Count of Meter Scale : 0.1cm

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TABLE 1 FOR determining R1

S. No R(Ω) L(cm) (100-l) cm R1= R(100-

l)/ l Ω
1
2
3
Mean

TABLE 2 FOR determining R2

S. No R(Ω) L(cm) (100-l) cm R2= R(100-

l)/ l Ω
1
2
3
Mean

TABLE 3 FOR determining RS

S. No R(Ω) L(cm) (100-l) cm RS= R(100-

l)/ l Ω
1
2
3
Mean

CALCULATIONS:
MEAN VALUE OF SERIES COMBINATION OF RESISTANCE
RESULT:
The value of R1 and R2 are found to be __________ Ω .
The value of series combination is found to be__________ Ω which
obeys the laws of series combination of resistances

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Precautions
1. All the connections and plugs should be tight.
2. Jockey should be moved gently over the metre bridge wire.
3. The plug in the key (K1) should be inserted only at the time of
taking observations.
4. Null points should be in the middle of the wire (30 cm to 70 cm).
The circuit should be neat and tight

SOURCES OF ERROR
1The metre bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section.
2. Effect of end resistances due to copper strips, connecting
screws,may affect the measurement.
3 . The resistances of end pieces/metal strips may not be negligible.
4 The length measurements l and l_ may have error if the metre
bridge wire is not taut and along the scale in the metre bridge.

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 Experiment 4
Aim: To Determine Resistance of a Galvanometer By Half-deflection
Method And to Find its Figure of Merit

Apparatus: A Weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or

battery eliminator, two (10,000 Ω and 200 Ω) resistance boxes, two
one-way keys, a rheostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter
of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper
Theory:

Circuit Diagram

Observations:
For galvanometer resistance

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 S.No R(Ω) n( n/2 S(Ω) 𝑮 (𝛀)
number of 𝑹𝑺
=
division) (𝑹 − 𝑺)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Mean G:
TABLE FOR Figure of Merit
EMF of cell : 2V Galvanometer resistance =

S.No R(Ω) n ( number of 𝑬

𝒌=
division) (𝑹 + 𝑮)𝒏
(𝑨/𝒅𝒊𝒗)

1
2
3.

Mean value of k=

Result : The galvanometer resistance is found to be -------------- Ω and

figure of merit is found to be _______ A/div

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Precautions

1 Key K1 should be inserted only after high value of R has been

taken out from resistance box otherwise galvanometer coil may burn.
2. Adjust R such that deflection in galvanometer is of even division so
that θ/2 is more conveniently obtained.
3. Emf of the battery should be constant.
4. Use as high values of R as practically possible. This ensures
correct value of G.
5. All the connections and plugs in the resistance box should

be tight.

Sources of error

1. The screws of the instruments may be loose.

2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean.
3. The EMF. of battery may not be constant.
4. The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size.

Experiment No 5
AIM:
To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by
plotting a graph between angle of incidence and the angle of
deviation.

Apparatus
Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil,
half-metre scale, office pins, graph paper and a protractor.

Theory
The refractive index in) of the material of the prism is given by

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where, Dm angle of minimum deviation and A angle of the prism.

Diagram

NOTE :THIS SHEET WILL BE MADE AND PASTED BY THE

STUDENT NO NEED OF MAKING DIAGRAM
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Observations
Angle of prism ‘A’ =……

Calculations
Plot a graph between angle of incidence ∠i and angle of deviation ∠D
by taking ∠i along X-axis and ∠D along Y-axis. From this graph, find
the value of single of minimum deviation Dm corresponding to the
lowest point of the graph.

Result

1. i-D graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases,

the angle of deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum
value (Dm ) and then starts increasing for further increase in
angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = ……..

Precautions

1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60°.

2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10
mm
4. Heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent
rays.
5. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.

Sources of error

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 1. Pin pricks may be thick.
2. Measurement of angles may be wrong.

EXPERIMENT 6

Aim
To find, the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between
u and v .

Apparatus
An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer
uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two
optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half
metre scale.

Theory
The relation between u, v and f for a convex lens is

where,
f = focal length of convex lens
u = distance of object needle from optical centre of the lens
v = distance of image needle from optical centre of the lens.
Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has
positive value. Hence, f comes positive.

Ray diagram

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Observations
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = …….cm

OBSERVATIONS

SN POSITIO POSITIO POSITIO OBJECT IMAGE

O N OF N OF N OF DISTANC DISTANC
LENS(IN OBJECT IMAGE E U IN CM E V IN CM
CM) NEEDLE NEEDLE
(IN CM) (IN CM)

Calculations
Calculation of focal length by graphical methods:
(u-v Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along
X’-axis and v along Y-axis. According to sign conventions, in this
case, u is negative and v is positive. Plot the various points for
different sets of values of u and v from observation table second
quadrant. The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as
shown in graph between u and v.
Draw a line OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i.e.,
bisecting ∠YOX’) and meeting the curve at point A. Draw AB and AC
perpendicular on X’- and Y-axes, respectively.
The values of u and v will be same for point A. So the coordinates of
point A must

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GRAPH TO BE PASTED ON LHS

Result
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined from the u-v
graph is _________cm

Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same
height as the centre of the lens.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a
distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.
3. The object needle should be placed at such a distance that only
real, inverted image of it is formed.
4. Index correction for u and v should be applied.

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2. Parallax removal may not be perfect.

EXPERIMENT 7

Aim
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling
microscope.

Apparatus
A glass slab, a travelling microscope, lycopodium powder.
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Theory
A slab is a piece of transparent material with rectangular faces. All
faces are transparent and opposite faces are parallel. The dimension
along with the light travels inside the slab is called its thickness.
A Travelling Microscope is a compound microscope fitted vertically on
a vertical scale. It can be moved up and down, carrying a Vernier
scale moving along the main scale.
In any position, the reading is taken by combining main scale and
vernier scale reading.

Diagram

Observations and calculations

Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope

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=……cm.

Result

Precautions

1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed.

2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid
back lash error.

Sources of error
The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

EXPERIMENT NUMBER 8

To find the focal length of a concave lens using a convex lens.

APPRATUS

An optical bench with uprights for holding the lenses and two
needles,a thin concave lens, a convex lens of focal length (~15 cm)
smaller than that of the concave lens, a metre scale

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Theory:

The focal length of a concave lens can be determined by introducing a

convex lens between the convex lens and the image needle. An image
can be obtained with first both lenses and then with only the convex
lens. The image formed by convex lens acts as a virtual object for the
concave lens, we can then use the lens formula to calculate the focal
length of concave lens

DIAGRAM

The focal length f of the concave lens can be calculated using the
formula,

Observations:

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S POSITION POSIT POSITION L2I POSITION OF L2 I FROM
N OF ION OF IMAGE =v IMAGE ‘(IN THE
O CONVEX OF NEEDLE ima NEEDLE CM ) FORMUL
LENS CONV I (IN CM) ge AFTER =U A
L1(IN CM) EX dist REMOVING
LENS am concave lens I
L2(IN ce ‘(IN CM)
CM)

Calculation:

Focal length of the concave lens by using

Mean (f) = ------cm

Result:

The focal length of the given concave lens is = ……………….cm

Precautions

1. Tips of the object and image needles should lie at the same
height as the centre of the lens and mirror.
2. Parallax should be removed from tip to tip by keeping eye at a
distance at least 30 cm away from the needle.

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 3. Lenses should be clean

Sources of error

1. The uprights may not be the vertical.

2 Parallax removal may not be perfect.

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