Topics in Algebra Solution: Sung Jong Lee, Lovekrand - Github.io November 6, 2020
Topics in Algebra Solution: Sung Jong Lee, Lovekrand - Github.io November 6, 2020
November 6, 2020
1. Adapt the second proof given of Sylow’s theorem to prove directly that if p is a prime
and pα | o(G), then G has a subgroup of order pα .
Proof. If the order of group is 2, then the result is trivial. So we assume that the result
to be true for all groups of order less than o(G). Suppose there is a subgroup H 6= G such
that pα | o(H), then we are done. So we assume that there is no H 6= G, a subgroup of G
satisfying pα - o(H). Recall the class equation which states that
X o(G)
o(G) = z +
o(N (a))
a6∈Z
o(G) X o(G)
p| =⇒ p | =⇒ p | z.
o(N (a)) o(N (a))
a6∈Z
Now by applying Cauchy’s theorem on Z(G), there is an b ∈ Z with order p. Let B = (b).
Consequently, G/B is a group of order with pα−1 as a divisor. By our induction hypothesis,
there is a subgroup P of G/B with order pα−1 . Let P = {x ∈ G : xZ ∈ P }. Then
P ' P/B, so that P is a subgroup of G with order p(α−1)+1 = pα . Now our induction
process is completed and P is the desired subgroup of order pα .
2. If x > 0 is a real number, define [x] to be m, where m is that integer such that
m ≤ x < m + 1. If p is a prime, show that the power of p which exactly divides n! is given
by
n n n
+ 2 + ··· + r + ··· .
p p p
1
Proof. The power of p which exactly divides n! equals to the power of p in prime
fac-
n
torization of n!. That is, the number of times that p divdes n!. Note that is
pr
thenumber r
of distinct
integers
less than n, which are multiples of p . Thus, the sum
n n n
+ 2 + · · · + r + · · · gives the total number of times that p divides n!. Hence
p p p
proved.
3. Use the method for constructing the p-Sylow subgroup of Spk to find generators for a)
a 2-Sylow subgroup in S8 .
Solution. We follow the method used in Lemma 2.12.2. By dividing {1, 2, · · · , 8} into 2
clumps:
let σ = (1, 5)(2, 6)(3, 7)(4, 8). Set P1 be a subgroup of order 2n(2) = 23 = 8 isomorphic to
a subgroup of S4 , that is, P1 = ((1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 3)). Let P2 = σ −1 P1 σ = ((5, 6, 7, 8), (5, 7)).
Set T = P1 P2 . Note that σ 2 = e, σ 6∈ T and σ −1 T σ = T . Let P = {σ j ·t : t ∈ T, 0 ≤ j ≤ 1}.
Then P is a subgroup of order 2 · 26 = 27 , an 2-Sylow subgroup of S8 . i.e,
is an 2-Sylow subgroup of S8 .
b) a 3-Sylow subgroup in S9 .
let σ = (1, 4, 7)(2, 5, 8)(3, 6, 9). Set P1 be a subgroup of order 3n(1) = 3 isomorphic to a
subgroup of S3 , that is, P1 = ((1, 2, 3)). Let P2 = σ −1 P1 σ = ((4, 5, 6)), P3 = σ −2 P1 σ 2 =
((7, 8, 9)). Set T = P1 P2 P3 . Note that σ 3 = e, σ 6∈ T and σ −1 T σ = T . Let P = {σ j · t : t ∈
T, 0 ≤ j ≤ 1}. Then P is a subgroup of order 3 · 33 = 34 , an 3-Sylow subgroup of S9 . i.e,
is an 3-Sylow subgroup of S9 .
4. Adopt the method used in Problem 3 to find generators for a) a 2-Sylow subgroup of
S6 . By the result of Problem 2, the order of 2-Sylow subgroup of S6 is 24 . We divide
{1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} into 3 clumps:
2
Let σ = (1, 3)(2, 4). Set P1 = ((1, 2)), P2 = ((3, 4)), P3 = ((5, 6)). Let T = P1 P2 P3 . Note
that σ 2 = e, σ 6∈ T and σ −1 T σ = T so that T is a subgroup of S6 . Define P = {σ j · t : t ∈
T, 0 ≤ j ≤ 1}. Then P is a subgroup of order 2 · 23 = 24 , an 2-Sylow subgroup of S8 . i.e,
is an 2-Sylow subgroup of S6 .
b) a 3-Sylow subgroup of S6 . By the result of Problem 2, the order of 3-Sylow subgroup
of S6 is 32 . We divide {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} into 2 clumps:
Let σ = (4, 5, 6). Set T = ((1, 2, 3)). Note that σ 3 = e, σ 6∈ T and σ −1 T σ = T . Define
P = {σ j · t : t ∈ T, 0 ≤ j ≤ 1}. Then P is a subgroup of order 3 · 3 = 32 , an 3-Sylow
subgroup of S6 . i.e,
is an 3-Sylow subgroup of S6 .
5. If p is a prime number, give explicit generators for a p-Sylow subgroup of Sp2 .
6. Discuss the number and nature of the 3-Sylow subgroups and 5-Sylow subgroups of a
group of order 32 · 52 .
Solution. Let H be the 5-Sylow subgroup of given group G of order 32 · 52 . Note that
there are n5 = 1 + 5k 5-Sylow subgroup G. Since there is no k satisfying 1 + 5k | 9, the
conjugates of H is itself and hence H is normal in G. Let K be the 3-Sylow subgroup of
G. Then there are n3 = 1 + 3k 3-Sylow subgroup of G. The possible values of n3 are:
n3 = 1, 25. In particular, if n3 = 1, then K is normal in G. Hence, HK is abelian and
HK = G, so that G is abelian.
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7. Let G be a group of order 30. a) Show that a 3-Sylow subgroup or a 5-Sylow subgroup
of G must be normal in G.
Proof. For the sake of contradiction, assume that both 3-Sylow subgroups and 5-Sylow
subgroups of G are not normal in G. Let n3 and n5 denote the number of 3-Sylow subgroups
and 5-Sylow subgroups of G respectively. Note that n3 ∈ {1, 10} and n5 ∈ {1, 6}. In our
case, n3 = 10 and n5 = 6. n3 = 10 implies that there exists at least 20 distinct elements of
order 3 and n5 = 6 implies that there exists at least 24 distinct elements of order 5. Since
o(G) = 30, this is absurd. Hence, at least one of 3-Sylow subgroup or a 5-Sylow subgroup
of G must be normal in G.
b) From part a) show that every 3-Sylow subgroup and every 5-Sylow subgroup of G must
be normal in G.
Proof. It would be better if we prove c) first. Since from a), we know that there exists
a 3-Sylow subgroup P1 or a 5-Sylow subgroup P2 , at least one of them is normal in G.
Consequently P1 P2 is a subgroup of G, with order 15. Since [G : P1 P2 ] = 2, P1 P2 is normal
in G. Moreover, recall that any group of order 15 is abelian. We introduce a lemma:
Note that the group P1 P2 is normal in G with 3-Sylow subgroup P1 and 5-Sylow subgroup
P2 . As P1 P2 is abelian, P1 and P2 are normal in P1 P2 . Now applying the lemma, we have
that P1 and P2 are normal in G. Hence proved.
† Notification! Before heading to next problem, we introduce a new concept called ”semi-
direct product” of a group. Since this is not explicitly handled in the Herstein’s text, we
make some encounterance with this new concept to deal with other problems in a more
delicate manner.
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Lemma. Given groups H and K with a homomorphism given φ : K → A (H), where
k 7→ φk = Tk ∈ A (H), φk (h) = hTk = khk −1 , there is a semi-direct product group G based
on this information and vice-versa.
(⇐) Suppose h, h0 ∈ H and k, k 0 ∈ K. Observe that
(hk)(h0 k 0 ) = h”k”
where h” = hφk (h0 ), k” = kk 0 , (hk)−1 = φk−1 (h−1 )k −1 . So we have seen that every
group with semi-direct product structure depends on the information of homomorphsim
φ : K → A (H). (⇒) Conversely, with the information of φ : K → A (H), we can construct
a semi-direct product structure on G based on φ by:
for any h ∈ H, k ∈ K.
Proof. Note that G has a normal subgroup N of order 15. Let K be a 2-Sylow subgroup
of G. We can write G as semi-direct product of N and K, that is, G ' H oφ K. Now we
investigate the homomorphism φ : K → A (N ). Note that N ' Z15 so that A (N ) ' U15 .
Since order of the image of k 6= e ∈ K under φ must divide order of U15 by 2, φ(k)2 ≡
1 (mod 15), so that there are at most 4 possibilities of φ. Hence there are at most four
groups of order 30 upto isomorphism. Observe the following groups of order 30:
Note that
I in Z30 , there are only two elements of order 2,
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e) How many different non-isomophic groups of order 30 are there?
8. If G is a group of order 231, prove that the 11-Sylow subgroup is in the center of G.
Proof. Let H be a 11-Sylow subgroup of G. Then the number of distinct 11-Sylow subgroup
n11 must be form of 1 + 11k and n11 | 21, so the only case is n11 = 1. Hence H is normal
in G. Now consider the homomorphism φ of G on A (H) defined by g 7→ Tg ∈ A (H).
Note that A (H) ' Z10 , so that o(A (H)) = 10. Since gcd(231, 10) = 1, this group
homomorphism must be a trivial homomorphsim. Hence, Tg = I ∈ A (H) for all g ∈ G.
Thus, ghg −1 = h for all g ∈ G, h ∈ H implying h ∈ Z(G).
9. If G is a group of order 385 show that its 11-Sylow subgroup is normal and its 7-Sylow
subgroup is in the center of G.
Proof. Let H be a 11-Sylow subgroup of G and n11 be the number of distinct 11-Sylow
subgroups. Since n11 = 1 + 11k | 35, the only possible case is n11 = 1 so that H is normal
in G. Now let K be a 7-Sylow subgroup of G and n7 be the number of distinct 7-Sylow
subgroups. Similarly above, the only possible case is n7 = 1 so that K is normal in G.
Now, consider a homomorphism φ : G → A (K). Since A (K) ' Z6 and gcd(385, 6) = 1, φ
is a trivial homomorphism so that K ⊂ Z(G).
10. If G is of order 108 show that G has a normal subgroup of order 3k , where k ≥ 2.
11. If o(G) = pq, p and q are distinct primes, p < q, show a) if p - (q − 1), then G is cyclic.
Proof. Let K be a q-Sylow subgroup of G. Then since pq - p!, K must be normal in G. Let
H be a p-Sylow subgroup of G. We can express G into semi-direct product of K and H, that
is, G ' K oφ H. Here φ is a homomorphism H on A (K). If p | (q−1), φ must be the trivial
homomorphism so that K ⊂ N (H). Since H ⊂ N (H) always, N (H) must be a subgroup
of G with more than p + q − 1 elements, that is, by Lagrange’s theorem, N (H) = pq, so
that H is normal in G. Consequently, G is product of two normal subgroups of orders
each relatively prime , hence abelian. Now apply the result of Problem 25 of Section 2.5.
Therefore, we can obtain an element of order pq and hence G is cyclic.
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Proof. We continue with the discussions above. Suppose p | (q − 1). Note that then
homomorphism φ : H → A (K) must be non-trivial. Since A (K) is cyclic with order
q − 1, it admits an unique subgroup of order p. As φ imbedds H on A (K), for any such
homomorphism φ and ψ, φ(K) = ψ(K). Now these two homomorphism gives isomorphic
semi-direct product. Hence, there exists a unique non-abelian group of order pq.
12. Let G be a group of order pqr, p < q < r primes. Prove a) the r-Sylow subgroup is
normal in G.
Proof. Let us denote an r-Sylow subgroup by Pr and let nr be the number of distinct
r-Sylow subgroups in G. Note that the possible values of nr are 1 and pq. Suppose nr = 1,
then Pr is clearly normal in G. If nr = pq, we claim that there is no normal q-Sylow
subgroup in G. Let Pq denote an q-Sylow subgroup of G. If Pq is normal G, then the
factor group G/Pq has order pr. We know that the r-Sylow subgroup Pr0 of G/Pq is normal
in its factor group. Hence there is a normal subgroup H of G satisfying H/Pq ' Pr0 so
that o(H) = qr. Note that the r-Sylow subgroup of H is normal in H, and since H is
normal in G, the r-Sylow subgroup of H is also normal in G. But this also implies that
Pr is normal in G, a contradiction. So the q-Sylow subgroup Pq is never normal in G. If
we denote nq as the distinct number of q-Sylow subgroup in G, the possible values of nq is
now r and pr. Suppose nq = r. Note that if nr = pq, there are pq(r − 1) distinct elements
of order r. Similarly, nq = r implies there are r(q − 1) distinct elements of order q. Note
that pq ≤ (q − 1)r in general. Hence
but this implies that there is no room left for elements of order p. This is absurd. Similar
method can be applied for the cases nq = pr. Hence, the r-Sylow subgroup must be normal
in G.
Proof. From a) we know that r-Sylow subgroup Pr of G is normal. Hence, considering the
factor group G/Pr , its order is pq. Now we know that every group of pq, q > p must admit
a normal q-Sylow subgroup Pq0 . Consequently, there is a normal subgroup H of G such
that H/Pr ' Pq0 , where o(H) = qr. Therefore, H is the required normal subgroup of order
qr.
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Proof. Let P be the p-Sylow subgroup of G. Note that p2 q - [G : P ]! = q!. Hence there is
a non-trivial normal subgroup of G contained in P .
Proof. Let np and nq denote the number of distinct p-Sylow and q-Sylow subgroups re-
spectivly.
Therefore, G must have either a normal p-Sylow subgroup or a normal q-Sylow subgroup.
15. Let G be a finite group in which (ab)p = ap bp for every a, b ∈ G, where p is a prime
dividing o(G). Prove
a) The p-Sylow subgroup of G is normal in G.
m
Proof. Let S = {x ∈ G : xp = e, for some m depending on x.} Then we know that S is
normal in G(by Problem 20 a), Section 2.6.) Let P be the p-Sylow subgroup of G. Clearly
P ⊂ S and P is normal in S. Therefore, P is also normal in G.
Proof. Consider Z(P ), the center of p-Sylow subgroup P . Since P is a p-group, Z(P ) is non-
trivial. Note that P N = G, P ∩N = (e). Then for all x ∈ Z(P ), x commutes with elements
of the form np ∈ G, where n ∈ N, p ∈ P so that x ∈ Z(G). Thus, (e) ( Z(P ) ⊂ Z(G) and
hence Z(G) is non-trivial subgroup of G.
16. If G is a finite group and its p-Sylow subgroup P lies in the center of G, prove that
there exists a normal subgroup N of G with P ∩ N = (e) and P N = G.
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Proof. Make use of Burnside’s transfer Theorem or Schur-Zassenhaus Theorem.
Proof. Note that gP g −1 = P for every g ∈ N (P ). That is, P is the unique p-Sylow
subgroup of N (P ). Now, choose g ∈ N (N (P )). From the fact that P ⊂ N (P ),
gP g −1 ⊂ gN (P )g−1 = N (P )
so that gP g −1 = P . Hence, N (N (P )) = N (P ).
18. Let P be a p-Sylow subgroup of G and suppose a, b are in the center of P . Suppose
further that a = xbx−1 for some x ∈ G. Prove that there exists a y ∈ N (P ) such that
a = yby −1 .
Proof. We consider the centralizer of a, C(a) in G. Note that P ⊂ C(a). We also know
that xP x−1 ⊂ C(y) since for p ∈ P ,
Thus, xP x−1 and P are p-Sylow subgroup of C(a). Hence, xP x−1 is a conjugate of P in
C(a), that is, xP x−1 = zP z −1 for some z ∈ C(a). Consequently,
(z −1 x)P (z −1 x)−1 =⇒ y = z −1 x ∈ N (P )
19. Let G be a finite group and suppose that φ is an automorphism of G such that φ3 is
the identity automorphism. Suppose further that φ(x) = x implies that x = e. Prove that
for every prime p which divides o(G), the p-Sylow subgroup is normal in G.
Proof. Note that if a group G admits a fixed point free automorphism of prime order, then
G is nilpotent(Thompson). Now consider the subnormal chain from the p-Sylow subgroup
to the group itself. Since every p-Sylow groups are characteristic, this Sylow subgroup
must be normal in every subgroup in the chain and hence in G.
20. Let G be the group of n × n matrices over the integers modulo p, p a prime, which are
invertible. Find a p-Sylow subgroup of G.
Solution. First we investigate the order of GL(n, Zp ). We begin filling the first row of the
matrix. Since it must be a non-zero vector, there are pn − 1 possibilities. Now filling the
second row, it can be every non-zero vector but the multiple of first row. Hence, there are
q n − q possibilities. For the third row, it can be the same but the linear combination of
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first and second row. That is, we must remove q 2 choices, so that we are left with q n − q 2
possibilities. Repeating the same process we arrive with:
n−1
Y
o(GL(n, Zp )) = (pn − pi ).
i=0
set of all upper triangular matrices H0 with diag(H0 ) = (1, 1, · · · , 1) is a p-Sylow subgroup
of GL(n, Zp ). Since H is finite and product of any two upper triangular with diagonal 1 is
always upper triangular with same diagonal components, H forms a subgroup of GL(n, Zp ).
We then calculate the order of H. Recall that the order of p-Sylow subgroup of GL(n, Zp )
n−1
Y
is given by pi . Now choose any elements of H. We can fill its i-th row with pi−1 choices,
i=0
n−1
Y
so that total of p · p2 · · · pn−1 = pi possibilities. Thus, H is the p-Sylow subgroup of
i=0
GL(n, Zp ).
21. Find the possible number of 11-Sylow subgroups, 7-Sylow subgroups, and 5-Sylow
subgroups in a group of order 52 · 7 · 11.
22. If G is S3 and A = ((1, 2)) in G, find all the double cosets AxA of A in G.
AeA = A = {e, (1, 2)}, A(1, 3)A = {(1, 3), (2, 3), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 2)}.
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23. If G is S4 and A = ((1, 2, 3, 4)), B = ((1, 2)), find all the double cosets AxB of A, B in
G.
AeB = AB = {id, (1, 2, 3, 4), (1, 3)(2, 4), (4, 3, 2, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3, 4), (1, 3, 2, 4), (1, 4, 3)},
A(1, 3)B = {(1, 3), (1, 2)(3, 4), (2, 4), (1, 4)(2, 3), (1, 3, 2), (3, 4), (1, 2, 4), (1, 4, 2, 3)},
A(1, 4)B = {(1, 4), (1, 2, 3), (1, 3, 4, 2), (2, 4, 3), (1, 4, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3, 4), (1, 2, 4, 3)}.
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