Week 11 - Social Institutions

Social Institutions
- are organized sets of elements such as beliefs, rules, practices, and relationships which are
established with the aim of attaining social order. They are densely interwoven and enduring, and
are important structural components of modern societies. Without these institutions, the society
won’t last.
Non-State Institutions
- institutions that are not under the control of the government or by the State.
- strive to come up with services and other necessities which the members of the society need in
order for them to progress.
State Institutions
- institutions that are within the control of the State.

Both the state and non-state institutions are essential for the development of the society, and we are
unable to progress without either one of them.

Banks and Corporations

- One of the non-state institutions that serve an important purpose to the society
- They are an important part of the economic structure of the State.
Banks
- The society relies on banks when it comes to keeping their wealth.
- provide a safe place to save excess cash, known as deposits.
- do not merely store money or assets.
- They primarily make profit by lending a portion of the deposited money to corporations, who make
use of loans as capital for their businesses.
Corporations
- refers to legal entities which are established under state law that are designed to generate a
profit.
- They are an essential driving force for the economy of a state.
- They produce the products and services that we use in daily life. Moreover, they create millions of
jobs, which helps individuals to be able to fulfill their basic needs.
Religion
- another social institution that is not under the control of the government. The separation of
Church and State, allowed people in certain countries to practice religious freedom with
government interference.
- an essential part of a society, in a way that it has been the basis of most of the laws and rules of
governance among different states since ancient times.
- Before the laws were made, most societies relied on religion in order to establish norms which
helped maintain social order.
Cooperatives and Trade Unions
- are non-state institutions that play a major role in the economic development of the society. They
are directly involved with economic systems of production and distribution. Moreover, they also
influence the course and content of employment, as well as the social and economic policies.
- are established to ensure the welfare of the workers as well as the consumers. They look after
the interests of their members and ensure that the employers will not abuse them.
Trade Unions
- also regulate the working relationship between the unions and the employers.

Week 12: Cultural, Social and Political Institutions (Part 5)

Education as a Social Institution
Education
- is one of the important social institutions needed to ensure the progress of the society.
- is relevant in developing individuals, who make up our society. It upholds the basic human right to
be functionally literate. Moreover, it is also one way of transmitting culture to the younger
generations.
- begins from the moment a child is born. It begins as an informal process in which a child watches
others and learns by imitating them. As they grow up, they receive a more formal education,
starting with playschool. Once they reach grade school, they begin to focus on academic lessons.
And their education continues even after they finish their studies and attain a degree.
- education shapes the individuals.
- it is also affected by other social institutions. The quality of education that we receive may be
affected by the current state of economic institutions.
Formal, Non-Formal, and Informal Education
Formal Education
- is classroom-based, provided by trained teachers. It is a systematic, organized education model
that has structure and a given set of laws and norms.
- comes with a rigid curriculum, as well as objective, content, and methodology.
- It corresponds to the education process that is normally adopted by schools and universities.
Non-Formal Education
- refers to an education process that has a more flexible curricula and methodology compared to
formal education.
- tends to adapt to the interest and work pace of the students. Under non-formal education are
educative processes such as correspondence learning, distance learning, and open systems.
Correspondence Learning
- is a planned, systematized and individualized learning system that allows students to proceed at
their own pace, according to their interests.
Distance Learning
- is, according to B. Holmberg, “learning supported by those teaching methods in which, because
of the physical separateness of learners and teachers, the interactive, as well as the preactive
phase of teaching is conducted through print, mechanical, or electronic devices.”
- This is different from correspondence learning, in a way that in distance study, the student is at a
distance from the teacher for much, most or even all the time, during the teaching-learning
process.
Open Systems or Open Learning
- is “defined as those which offer students a measure of flexibility and autonomy, to study the
programmes of their choice when and where they wish, and at a pace to suit their
circumstances.”
Informal Education
- refers to education that does not correspond to an organized and systematic view. It does not
necessarily include the objective and subjects which we often encounter in the traditional
curricula.
- is learning that takes place outside of a classroom setting. An example of this would be visiting
museums or exhibits, or watching educational TV programs, etc.
- there is generally no control over the performed activities nor does it necessarily regard the
providing of degrees or diplomas. Informal education simply serves as a supplement for both
formal and non-formal education.
Productive Citizenry
 - Educational institutions play an important role in building productive citizenry for the development
of society
- The society needs productive citizens in order for it to become more progressive in the future.
That is why it is essential for the individual to be nurtured and achieve skills which they can use to
contribute to society.
- The main goal of educating individuals is to help them grow up and develop essential
competencies which they will need to become productive citizens in the future.
Self-Actualization and Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Actualization
- is the need for personal growth and development that exists throughout your life. People who are
self-actualized tend to work hard in order to achieve growth and become the kind of person that
they want to be in the future. Simply put, it refers to the person’s need to reach his or her full
potential.
- It is the highest level in Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs.
- Abraham Maslow believed that human motivation comes from the individual’s ability to seek
fulfillment and change through personal growth.
- According to Maslow, individuals strive for higher needs once their lower-level needs have been
fulfilled.

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

- is a five stage model, the highest being selfactualization
- But in order to get to this stage, the individual must first fulfill the lower basic needs, from
Physiological needs, Safety needs, Belongingness and Love, and Esteem
People who are self-actualized are said to have the following characteristics:
1. They perceive reality efficiently and can tolerate uncertainty.
2. Accept themselves and others for what they are
3. Spontaneous in thought and action
4. Problem-centered (not self-centered)
5. Unusual sense of humor
6. Able to look at life objectively
7. Highly creative
8. Resistant to enculturation, but not purposely unconventional
9. Concerned for the welfare of the humanity
10. Capable of deep appreciation of basic life-experience
11. Establish deep satisfying interpersonal relationships with few people
12. Peak experiences
13. Need for privacy
14. Democratic attitudes
15. Strong moral/ethical standards
- Everyone is capable of reaching self-actualization. However, there are those who are hindered by
their failure to meet lower level needs. According to Maslow, only one in a hundred people
become fully self-actualized because society tends to reward motivation based on esteem, love
and other social needs.
- But while self-actualization is the highest in the hierarchy of needs, Maslow did not equate it with
perfection. Self-actualization simply involves achieving one’s potential.
Primary Education as a Human Right
- Human Rights have been established to ensure that the basic needs of people are met. An
example of this would be the right to education
Mass Illiteracy
- which is caused mainly by poverty, is one of the global issues which are affecting the progress of
the society.
- It is for this reason that universal primary education has become an imperative for addressing the
worldwide problem that is eradication of poverty.
- Education has become increasingly important in the 20th century. As we progress in technology
and other aspects of knowledge, people continuously need to acquire more competencies which
will help them grow to become productive citizens of the society.
- Moreover, education has become a fundamental requirement for social justice. Education is
increasingly becoming a determinant of living standards nowadays. Countries that have access to
the skills and knowledge provided by education are more advanced and tend to be more
progressive compared to those who have no access.
- Society needs to have capable individuals to ensure its continuous progress. Education has been
regarded by all societies as a means for growth, not just for the individual but to the society as
well.

Week 14: Cultural, Social and Political Institutions (Part 6)

Societies
- are built by individuals who are united by certain beliefs.
Religion and Belief System
Religion
- is among the institutions that have relevant influence to our society today.
- is an institution that involves a set of beliefs and practices of a particular social group.
- can be organized into a group that has universal membership (called a church) or into an
exclusive group (called a sect).
-
Belief
- refers to a conviction or ideal of an individual or group accepted as real or true, regardless of the
lack of verifiable evidence.
 - The beliefs of religious groups affect the behavior of their members. It is important therefore to
know how the beliefs of a religion affect the actions of its members.
Emile Durkheim
- The sociologist Emile Durkheim defined religion as “a unified system of beliefs and practices
related to sacred things, that is to say, things set apart and forbidden – beliefs and practices
which unite into one single moral community.”
Sect
- on the other hand, refers to a type of religious group that is distinguished by having broken away
from a larger organization, usually a church.
- The church of a particular religion may be supported by the majority of the society. The sect, on
the other hand, usually challenges the norm of the majority.
- An example would be Christianity, from which numerous sects such as The Church of Jesus
Christ of Latter-Day Saints (Mormonism) have come out.
- Sociologists and other thinkers have different views towards religion.
Durkheim
- believed that religion is essential to social cohesion and solidarity. It holds society together by
means of a set of beliefs that the individuals hold in common.
Karl Marx
- on the other hand, believes that religion is something that the elites of the society use in order to
keep a hold on the working and lower classes. It is a tool that is being utilized by the powerful and
the wealthy to ensure the unequal status quo in the society. He considered abolition of religion as
part of the socialist revolution that would pave the way to communism.
Max Weber
- believed that religion is essential for economic development, something which can be observed
among predominantly Protestant Christian societies. He described how the specific religious
doctrine of predestination held by the Calvinists brought about specific economic behavior that
created early merchant capitalism. According to him, people behave based on what they think,
their religious ideas or otherwise. In the case of Protestants, their religious ideas influence
non-religious behavior – something which has the potential to create social change.
Auguste Comte
- proposed the secularization theory. According to him, the dominance of religion is part of the
theological phase of the development of society. The phase is characterized by mysticism, which
then transitions to the metaphysical phase, in which man already possesses abstract ideas. Soon
the society will ultimately arrive at the scientific phase whereby science and rationality will
dominate. This is the start of the secularization process.
Animism
- is a belief in numerous personalized, supernatural beings endowed with reason, intelligence,
and/or volition, that inhabit both objects and living beings and govern their existences.
- People who believe in Animism believe that everything has a soul and consciousness. The
natural world is a community of living personas, only some of whom are human.
- To most thinkers, Animism is not a form of religion, but rather an explanation of a phenomena. It
was not an attitude of mind towards the cause of the phenomena. It was rather philosophical
instead of religious.
- While Animism is not considered as religion, there are certain belief systems that are
influenced by it. Shintoism and Jainism are known to contain elements of animism.
Sir Edward Burnett Tylor
- According to the anthropologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor, animist thought serves as a starting
point for human religious development. Primitive societies relied on animism to explain the
occurrence of certain events and processes.
Monotheism
- refers to religious belief in the existence of one god, or the oneness of God. The most well-known
examples of this would be Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
- To monotheistic religions, there is the one real god that is believed to exist or, in any case, that is
acknowledged as such.
- The God of monotheism is conceived of as the creator of the world and of humanity; he has not
abandoned his creation but continues to lead it through his power and wisdom. Everything is in
the hands of God, and that includes the ethical and social order to which humanity ought to
conform.
Polytheism
- comes from the combination of Greek words poly + theoi, literally meaning many gods”.
- Simply put, polytheism is belief in multiple gods or divinities.
- Most of the ancient religions were polytheistic.
- Ancient Greeks and Romans were well-known for their belief in various gods and goddesses.
- Norse mythology tells numerous tales about the gods and goddesses of the Viking tribes, from
sky-god Odin and his wife Frigga to the god of thunder Thor.
- polytheistic religions continue to thrive today. Present-day polytheistic religions include Hinduism
and Shinto religion.
Institutionalized Religions
- refers to religious groups that seek to establish a system for actively believing in and engaging
God.
- The main religious groups that have integrated a religious belief and/or practice in their
community, society, government, etc., are considered as institutionalized religions.
- have existed throughout the years due to the fact that religion have been the building blocks to
most societies since the ancient times. There were such institutionalized religions whose power
influenced even the political institutions of the society. There are certain countries that have their
state religion, or a religious body that is officially endorsed by the state.
Theocracy
- Theocracy was one of the governments that Ancient Egypt was a form of theocracy, or a form of
government in which a country is ruled by ecclesiastical authorities.
- Theocracies exist today as well. The Vatican City is a Christian theocracy ruled by the Pope.
Islamic States are also a form of theocracy, and their governance are based on the teachings of
Islam.
Pharaoh
- was said to have the support of the god. This was the idea of divine kingship, in which the king
was the divine representative of a god on earth.
Separation of Church and State
- This means that the government cannot sponsor a religion, or require individuals to practice a
particular faith. One example of this would be the United states.
- Separation of Church and State is often heard especially at courts and among the media. This
was a famous misinterpretation of the First Amendment of the US Constitution.
The First Amendment:
“Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise
thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to
petition the Government for a redress of grievances.”

Simply put, the First Amendment gives the citizens the freedom to worship without interference from the
government. If anything, the separation of church and state was not even mentioned in the amendment. It
originated from a letter that Thomas Jefferson wrote back in 1802. He sent a letter to the Danbury
Baptist Association of Connecticut, in which he wrote the now famous phrase. Jefferson was actually
underscoring the First Amendment as a protection of the religious freedom of the people. There is no
official religion; everyone has the freedom to express their religious beliefs.

The Impact of Religion

- Religion has played an important role in the development of societies all over the world. They
have also been a great part of our history, its influence reaching even the State.
- In Europe, for instance, Catholicism was a strong political power especially throughout the Middle
Ages and even in the Renaissance.
- Its influence gave rise to important historical events like the Crusades and the Inquisition.
Protestantism, on the other hand, also attained political power in the form of Calvin’s Geneva,
Savonarola’s Florence, Cromwell’s England, and the early settlements in the New World.
- Islam’s influence is also felt in the laws that govern countries like Pakistan.
- Here we can say that religion also has an influence on the laws that the society has to abide by.
While religion is undoubtedly an important part of our society, some thinkers believe that it should
not go so far as to completely overtake governance of the society. It is important to keep in mind
the separation of the Church and State, and to ensure that no law can justify itself purely on the
basis of the authority of any religion or belief system.

Week 15: Cultural, Social and Political Institutions (Part 7)

Health as a Human Right
World Health Organization (WHO)
- defines health as “a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the
absence of disease or infirmity.”
- In their 1946 Constitution, the organization also stated that “the enjoyment of the highest
attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without
distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic, or social condition.”
- This was one of the basic rights that are in the International Human Rights Law. The human right
to health means that everyone, regardless of race, gender, or social status, has the right to the
highest attainable standard of physical and mental health. The right to health is an inclusive right.
Everyone has the right not just to access medical services, but also to other living conditions that
enable us to be healthy.
- This includes sanitation, adequate food, decent housing, healthy working conditions, and a clean
environment. Moreover, it also contains freedoms and entitlements. The freedoms include the
right to be free from non-consensual medical treatment (e.g., medical experiments and research
or forced sterilization), and freedom from torture and other cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment
or punishment.
The entitlements, on the other hand, include the following:
1. The right to a system of health protection providing equality of opportunity for everyone to enjoy the
highest attainable level of health;
2. The right to prevention, treatment, and control of diseases;
3. Access to essential medicines;
4. Maternal, child, and reproductive health;
5. Equal and timely access to basic health services;
6. The provision of health-related education and information;
7. Participation of the population in health-related decision-making at the national and community levels.
All of these health services, goods and facilities must be provided to all without any discrimination. Health
institutions have been established to ensure public health and to provide universal health services.
Without them, society’s progress will be hindered due to the individuals lacking in their basic need for
health.

Culture-Specific Syndromes and Illnesses

- Culture-specific syndrome or folk illness is defined as a combination of symptoms that are
considered to be a recognizable disease only within a specific society or culture.
- These folk illnesses are unique and affect a specific ethnic group or society. These diseases are
not recognized in other cultures, thus they are considered to be rare and exotic. It can be
attributed to cultural behavior patterns. Culture-specific syndromes are found in countries all over
the world. In the Philippines, for instance, illnesses such as binat and pasma do not have an
equivalent in other countries. There have been folk illnesses that have been documented as far
back to early explorers. Explorers such as Captain James Cook have described culture-bound
syndromes like the Malaysian amok.
While there has been no definite characteristics, scientists proposed certain criteria for culture
specific syndromes:
1. Must be a discreet, well-defined syndrome
2. Recognized as a specific illness in the culture
3. Disorder must be recognized, and sanctioned as a response to certain participants in the culture
4. Higher incidence or prevalence in the society where it is culturally recognized.
Systems of Diagnosis, Prevention and Healing
Western health systems
- are based on science and the skills of health workers standardized and learned from health
sciences schools. Patients are treated based on standardized diagnostic practices.
Traditional health systems
- refer to the healthcare beliefs and practices that have been established by indigenous people in
developing nations. This often reflects the concept that human beings function as an integral part
of nature. Traditional health systems are less intrusive compared to western health systems, and
make use of natural medicines such as herbs. Massages and mind/body practices which address
the physical, mental, and spiritual wellbeing of the patient are included as well.
Alternative health systems
- are defined as a number of practices which are beyond the scope of conventional medicine.
Alternative health approaches are based on a philosophy different from the conventional
medicine system. Examples of this include homeopathy and neuropathy.

Week 16- Social Stratification

Social Stratification
- The term social stratification refers to the division of large social groups into smaller groups based
on categories determined by economics.
- The society is a hierarchy of individuals with varying access to or control over basic economic
resources.
- Among sociologists, social stratification is often related to social standing, and it gives rise to
inequality in society. Members of the society are distinguished by their membership in and
relation to social groups and categories.
- In sociology, there are three different theoretical perspectives which can be used to further
examine social stratification. These are functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic
interactionism.
Functionalism Theory
- is a theoretical perspective that examines how various aspects of society contribute to ensuring
its stability and continued function. Functionalists believe that each aspect of society is essential,
and that social stratification is based on the intrinsic value of social activities or roles.
Conflict Theory
- is a more critical perspective towards social stratification. Conflict theorists often based their ideas
from the works of Karl Marx.
- According to Marx, social stratification is influenced by economic forces. Moreover, relationships
in society are defined by the factors of production. Society is divided between two classes: the
bourgeois (capitalists who own the factors of production such as resources, land and businesses)
and the proletariat (workers that provide the manual labor needed for production.
Bourgeois (bor·zhwaa)
- are the upper class, who gain wealth through the profits from their businesses.
Proletariat
- belongs to the lower classes, lacks power and influence, and the ones that experience more
hardships.
The inequalities in the society are the reason workers experience alienation, isolation, and misery due to
their social status. It is the inequalities brought about by social stratification which leads to conflict among
social classes.
Symbolic Interactionism
- perspective examines stratification from a micro level perspective. Symbolic interactionists
believe that social stratification is a system that groups people together, as it causes individuals to
interact with others within their own social class.
Systems of Social Stratification
- Sociologists distinguish between two primary social mobility systems, namely the closed and
open systems.
Two Primary Social Mobility Systems
Closed Systems
- impose rigid boundaries between social groups and limit interactions among members who
belong to different social groups or occupy different levels in the social hierarchy.
- tend to resist change, particularly in social mobility of its members.
Open Systems
- are based on achievement.
- This allows more flexibility in social roles, increased social mobility, and better interaction among
social groups and classes.
The following are some of the systems of social stratification:
Slavery System
- is an extreme form of social inequality in which some individuals are owned by others as their
property. The slave owner has full control over the slave – this includes violence and other forms
of abuse. A slave is a man who is regarded as a property of another by law. He is in lower
condition as compared with freeman, and is wholly without rights.
- Slave system has existed sporadically in countries across the world, most notable in the ancient
times. The most notable were the Greek and Roman societies which are based upon slavery, as
well as the southern states of the USA during the 18th and 19th centuries.
- In the Philippines, the slave system existed as far back as the pre-Hispanic period. Part of the
social hierarchy are the slaves or the alipin, which are classified into two: aliping namamahay
(household servants that have their own houses) and the aliping saguiguilid (slave workers
without a house). The alipin can earn their freedom or gain higher status by means of marriage,
 buying their freedom using their earnings, fulfillment of their obligations, or by extraordinary
accomplishments and bravery in battle.
Caste Systems
- are an example of a closed stratification system. Its system promotes belief in fate, destiny, and
the will of a higher spiritual power rather than the promotion of individual freedom. People born
into a caste society are socialized to accept their social standing.
Estate System
- meanwhile, is a stratification system that was associated with Feudalism. It has three important
characteristics: (1) It is legally defined, and each state had a status with legal rights and duties;
(2) It represents a broad division of labor with definite functions – the nobility are ordained to
protect all, while the clergy are to pray for all, and the commoners to provide food for all; (3) the
estates were all political groups.
Class System
- is a stratification system that is based on the ownership of resources and the individual’s
occupation or profession. Unlike the caste system, class systems base social status on
achievement rather than ascription. They are also more open in terms of social mobility. This
allows people to move from one social class to another and achieve higher status in life through
education and employment
Meritocracy
- refers to the stratification system that is determined by personal effort and merit. Here, the social
standing of an individual depends on his or her performance of a social role. High levels of effort
are aptly rewarded with advancement in social standing, while insufficient effort will lead to the
loss of social status.
Social Desirables
- There are a variety of factors that affect the stratification of a society. Among these factors are
desirables such as wealth, power, and influence. These three factors determine the stratification
in a society.
Wealth
- This is more than the money or income acquired. Wealth also includes property, from buildings
and houses to other forms of assets.
Prestige
- the respect or admiration that comes from success, achievement, rank, or other favorable
attributes.
Power
- the ability to accomplish something, regardless of the opposition of others.
Social Inequality
- With social stratification, the society is divided into different classes. This social division reflects
an unequal distribution of status, wealth, and power within society and results in individuals and
groups occupying varying positions of influence and power. This leads to what is now called
social inequality.
- Social inequality is characterized by unequal opportunities and rewards for different social
classes in a society. Understanding this concept requires knowledge on social class and
stratification.
- Sociologists have different perspectives regarding social class.
Karl Marx
- considered class as an essential characteristic based on the economic structure of society.
Max Weber
- defined social stratification through the concept of status, which he defined as the esteem or
social honor given to certain individuals or groups.
Warner, Meeker, and Eels
- proposed the concept that class is influenced by cultural factors such as lifestyle and
consumption patterns. Lifestyle choice defines the identity of the individual. This serves as a
basis for social prestige apart from occupation and wealth.
Nevertheless, social inequality is not limited to social classes’ access to social, political, and symbolic
capital. There are other aspects of social inequality which must be addressed as well.
Gender Inequality
- Gender refers to the culturally-imposed characteristics which define masculinity and femininity.
This is not to be confused with sex, which refers to the biological or anatomical differences which
distinguish males from females.
- The concept of gender identity refers to how a person identifies himself or herself as belonging to
a particular gender. It is particularly important when it comes to determining gender roles.
However, societies tend to define stratification through gender identity. It also defines social
hierarchy, as well as creates limitations and divisions among social groups.
Ethnic Minorities
Ethnicity
- is the feeling of affinity or loyalty towards a particular population, cultural group, or territorial area.
This is different from;
Race
- which refers to a group of people who share a common ancestry.
Social inequality affects ethnic minorities in various forms such as racism, prejudice, and discrimination.
Racism
- is defined as the belief that characteristics and abilities can be attributed to people simply on the
basis of their race and that some racial groups are superior to others.
Prejudice
refers to holding of stereotypes – preconceived views which are often based on faulty generalizations
about members of a race or particular ethnic or other groups. Lastly, discrimination
- is the action or behavior of a dominant social group which has a negative impact on other
members of the society which do not belong to that group.
PWDs and Other Minorities
- There are certain groups which can be considered as part of the minority, such as persons with
disabilities (PWDs), elderly, and communities living in remote areas. They also face social
inequality, in the form of discrimination, as well as other social issues such as the lack of access
to resources and opportunities. The PWDs often have problems finding employment, and more
often than not they experience treatment that is different from the more capable co-workers.
Communities living in isolated areas are not often given the access to basic services from
electricity to clean water supply. There is also religious discrimination, which affects not just the
sects but the institutionalized and mainstream religions as well.
Global Inequality
- Social inequality affects societies on a global scale. The world is defined by differences in wealth
and poverty nowadays. The unequal distribution of wealth, power and prestige on a global basis
is called global stratification. This results in what is referred to as global inequality. It causes
varying lifestyles and opportunities among the nations.
There are various theories that explain global inequality
Market-oriented theories
- like the modernization theory, for instance, claims that existing cultural and institutional barriers
are the cause of poverty in low-income countries. Moreover, societies develop in fairly predictable
stages through which they become increasingly complex. Political and social changes must take
 place in order for these societies to develop. Poverty can only be eliminated by means of
overcoming or adjusting cultural values.
Dependency theories
- are used to explain the failure of non-industrialized countries to develop economically in spite of
investment from industrial countries. These theories claim that global poverty is caused by the
exploitation of poor countries by the wealthy ones. There is a cycle of structural and economic
dependency in which low-income countries rely on high-income countries for infusion of economic
capital.
World-Systems Theory
- which was proposed by Immanuel Wallerstein. The theory focused on the relationship among
the “core”, “peripheral” and “semi-peripheral” countries in the global economy. The core states are
the geographically-advantaged areas of the world, while the peripheral areas are the least
developed and are continuously exploited by the core for their cheap labor, raw materials, and
agricultural production. Lastly, the semi-peripheral areas are both exploited by the core and also
take part in the exploitation of peripheral areas at the same time.
State-Centered Theories
- focus on the role of governments in fostering economic development. It emphasizes the role of
the government in civil society. They are the ones to regulate distribution of resources to protect
the workers. The global stratification reflects the increasing social inequality worldwide. This may
lead to a growing rift between the rich and the poor.

Week 18: Social, Cultural, and Political Changes

Change
- Change is said to be the only permanent thing in the world. The societies of today are no exception – they
may develop and last for a long time, but there is also the possibility of a drastic political, cultural, or social
change in the near future. There are a variety of factors which can serve as catalysts in changing societies.
Social, Cultural, and Political Change
- Social and political changes are relevant parts of the development of the society. both have a
great impact on the lives of individuals all over the world, in different times. This is evident in the
differences between the generations – people who were born in the 1960s live a lifestyle that is
different from those who were born in the 1990s and in the new millennium. This is due to the
social, political, and cultural changes that have occurred during those time periods.
- First, we must understand what social change and cultural change are. These two words are
often used interchangeably, but sociologists argue that these terms have different meanings.
Robert MacIver and Charles Page
Social Change
- refers to transformations that alter the roles and status of people as well as the structure and
organization of society and its institutions. It is the transformation of culture and social structure
over time.
Cultural Change
- refers to the dynamic process in which the living cultures of the world change and adapt to
external or internal forces.
Sources of Social and Cultural Change
- There are a variety of factors that serve as catalysts for social, cultural, and political change.
Certain processes drive the society into change.
Innovation
- the process of introducing new ideas, things, and methods in society. It leads to social change
when new ideas begin to spread throughout a society through diffusion.
 - An example of significant social change caused by technology is the introduction of mobile
phones. When it was first introduced in the 1990s, many people believed that it was not going to
be as popular as landlines and mail due to its expensiveness and bulky design. But with
technological innovations came the introduction of compact and more affordable mobile phones,
which the society immediately accepted.
Diffusion
- the spread of certain elements from one group to another in society. An idea, object, or process is
introduced and becomes widely accepted in society, causing social change.
- Aside from technology, social change was also brought by the spread of new ideas, ideologies,
and views. One great example would be the recognition of women’s rights. During the Industrial
Revolution, the emergence of factories led to the need for greater workforce, and so women were
being hired as well as men. This gave women a greater role in the workplace as well as in
society, as they are no longer confined to housework. This led to more relevant events in history,
such as the recognition of women’s right to suffrage and their right reproductive health.
Acculturation
- refers to the process in which individuals and groups learn aspects of a culture that is not their
own. Immigrants, for instance, have to learn the language prevalent in the country they live in,
and adapt to a different lifestyle.
Assimilation
- the process in which the individual or group fully adopts another culture, often leading to the loss
of their native culture.
Social Contradiction
- a process that takes place when two social groups or classes are so different that a compromise
between them is impossible. In Conflict Theory, the structure of the society consists of the
contradicting capitalist and working classes. Contradiction can occur when new ideas are
introduced. It can also happen when social change affects a certain social class. This eventually
leads to a social tension, which in turn may bring about conflict between social classes.
- There have been numerous instances in which social change was brought about by social
contradictions and tensions. In the United States, the issue of slavery sparked the civil war
between The Union and the Confederate States of America in 1861. In the Philippines, the social
tension brought about by political issues caused the peaceful uprisings now known as EDSA 1
and EDSA 2.
Political Change
- takes place when there is a significant disruption that leads to the alteration in the way power and
authority are exercised in a state.
- Sometimes this change entails a shift in the relationship between the government and those who
are governed.
- Significant circumstances often bring about political change in a state. For instance, extreme
political changes such as the change in the system of government, are often caused by a
revolution. A revolution is, according to the political scientist Theda Skocpol, a “rapid and basic
transformation of a society’s state and class structures that are accompanied and in part carried
through by class-based revolts from below.” It is classified into two primary forms: political
revolution and social revolution. Political revolution results in the change of government, but does
not alter other aspects of society. Social revolution, on the other hand, leads to a large scale
change in the society, from the government and other institutions to the social structures.
New challenges to human adaptation and social change
- A progressive society requires social change. However, there are challenges which we must
overcome in order to ensure this.
 - With the society’s development comes new challenges that everyone must face. One of these
challenges is global warming and climate change. These two terms are often used
interchangeably, as both refer to the extreme change in climate patterns all over the world.
- Climate change is defined as the change in the patterns of temperature, precipitation, humidity,
wind and seasons all over the world. It is the consequence of unchecked pollution when carbon
emissions caused by human activities enter the air. Moreover, these have dangerous effects on
the environment, as well as the economy and the well-being of individuals.
- Another challenge that society must overcome is migration. This refers to the movement of
people from one place to another for the purpose of temporary or permanent residence. This can
be Emigration (also called out-migration) which is the movement of people out of their country, or
Immigration which is the movement of people into a country that is not their native land. There is
also Internal migration, or movement of people within their country, such as moving from one city
to another.
- Migration leads to certain issues which often lead to social conflict. For instance, there are
countries which do not welcome immigrants because they are perceived to take away jobs from
the locals. There is also the matter of ethnicity and cultural differences, which often leads to the ill
treatment of immigrants.
Responding to social, political, and cultural change
- Social change has a great impact on society. Many of the changes that people have experienced
throughout history come with numerous challenges which must be overcome. It is for this reason
that people devised various ways of dealing with social, political, and cultural change through
involvement and collective action. These actions are what we need in order to respond to the
social, political, and cultural changes that are happening.
Inclusive Citizenship and Participatory Governance
Citizenship
- is defined as the legal state of being vested with the rights, privileges, and duties of a citizen. This
allows an individual to be a beneficiary of social welfare programs and other public services
provided by a State.
- There are different bases for citizenship in different states. In the Philippines, the 1987
Constitution recognizes a person as a Filipino citizen based on the following:
1. Those who are citizens of the Philippines at the time of the adoption of the 1987 Constitution;
2. Those whose parents, mothers or fathers are citizens of the Philippines;
3. Those born before 17 January 1973, of Filipino mothers, and who elect Philippine citizenship upon
reaching the age of majority; and
4. Those who undergo the naturalization process.
- Several views exist regarding the nature of citizenship as it relates to involvement in politics and
society. The view on inclusive citizenship believes that marginalized groups and individuals
should be empowered and included in the political processes. Deliberate views on citizenship
consider citizens as being involved in dialogue, information exchange, and decision making. Then
there is the different democratic view of citizenship which sees that the practice of one’s
citizenship is not limited to direct involvement in government, or public events – the citizen must
also be active in civil society and the private sector. Lastly, the cosmopolitan view of
citizenship extends citizenship beyond the state to regional and international levels.
- Inclusive view of citizenship continues to redefine the nature of citizen involvement. It implies a
citizenry that is engaged in governance. Participatory governance, according to the United
Nations Committee of Experts on Public Administration (CEPA), is one of the many public
institutional strategies that contribute to shared visions in planning, budgeting, monitoring and
accountability of development policies and programs. This allows citizens to participate in political
processes aside from elections.
New Forms of Media and Social Networking
New Media
- refers to the various forms of electronic communication made possible by digital or computer
technology. Examples are cable and satellite communications and the Internet.
Social Media
- refers to forms of electronic communication which facilitate social interaction and formation of
online communities through the exchange of user-generated context. This includes websites and
applications like social networks, forums, microblogs, and more.
- Media become a significant source of political change especially in modern times. Electronic
communication has altered the conduct of elections. E-campaigning is gaining popularity,
especially among the youth. Another innovation is the electronic voting (e-voting), which is now
practiced by countries like France and Germany in Europe and India and the Philippines in Asia.
Social Movements
- have occurred with the aim of creating social and political change by means of collective action.
There are three different kinds of social movements based on the type of social or political
change they are able to develop.
- Reform movement is a type of social movement which successfully introduced changes in the
political structures and processes of their respective societies. Revolutionary movement refers to
a kind of social movement that resulted in massive and deep changes in society and politics.
Lastly, religious movements aim to achieve better recognition of their religion.