WATER POLLUTION & CONTROL

WATER POLLUTION

Water is essential for all forms of life on earth. We need several litres of water every
day for drinking and cleaning purposes. Unfortunately, at many places in our country,
we have not been able to provide clean, safe water for human consumption.
Contamination of drinking water by biological sources such as human and animal
fecal wastes and toxic wastes from industries and agricultural pesticides have often
caused deadly waterborne diseases and human deaths due to toxic chemicals.

EARTH'S WATER RESOURCES

Most of the water on earth is salt water of the seas (about 97%). It is too salty to be
of any use for drinking, agriculture and industrial purposes. The remaining - 3% is
fresh water. About 75% of fresh water is locked up in the polar ice-caps and in
glaciers and the remaining amount lies quite deep under the earth's surface as
underground water. The fresh water which we use comes to us from two sources :

i) Surface water (streams, rivers, lakes etc.)

ii) Ground water (water buried under the earth's surface.)

(i) Surface Water : It is estimated that of all the precipitation (rain water and snow)
that falls on the earth about one-third runs off the surface into streams and rivers.
Another one-third is absorbed by the plants and the remaining one-third seeps down
the soil as ground water.

Precipitation (rain or snow) that runs-off into streams, rivers and lakes is called
Surface Water.

Surface water has a natural tendency to clean itself because it contains certain
organisms that break down pollutants into harmless substances.

(ii) Ground Water : Ground water (wells and springs) is often the only source of
water supply especially in villages and small owns. The ground water can move over
large distances by virtue of the large empty space available below the earth's
surface. This way if some impurities seep into the ground water at one point, they
may be observed at a different point far removed from the point of source. However,
suspended impurities and bacterial contamination are removed by the soil material
which acts as an absorbent and water filter.

TYPES OF WATER POLLUTANTS (FRESH WATER POLLUTION)

Water pollution is any physical, chemical or biological change in a water body that
has an undesirable effect on living organisms. It is basically caused by two factors :
industrialization and population explosion.

The problem of water pollution is complicated by the great solvent properties of

water- Any usage of water may be for washing, irrigation, flushing of sewage or
domestic waste, cooling and industrial purposes adds some undesirable impurities to
it. Fresh water pollution may be classified into two types : surface water pollution and
ground water pollution. When pollutants enter a stream, river or lake it is known as
surface water pollution. If, however, the pollutant seeps into the ground and enters
an aquifer, it is called ground water pollution.
Surface Water Pollution

Often two types of sources of water pollution are considered, i.e., point and non-point
sources of water pollution.

Point source of water pollution is a well defined source that puts pollutants or
effluents (such as domestic or industrial waste) into different water bodies of fresh
water. This type of pollution sources can be effectively checked.

Non-point sources of water pollution are often scattered sources that are spread
over large areas. For example, the contaminated water that runs off from agriculture
forms, construction sites, abandoned mines, enters streams and lakes. Water
pollution in such a case is quite difficult to control.

Natural Sources of Water Pollution : The natural sources of water pollution are
listed below:

(i) Siltation (which includes soil, sand and mineral particles) is a common natural
phenomenon which occurs in most water bodies. Indiscriminate deforestation makes
soil loose and flood waters bring silt from mountains into streams, rivers and lakes.

(ii) The high concentration of fluoride ions (F) in natural waters is a serious health
hazard as concentrations beyond 0.7 parts per million (ppm), can cause fluorosis. In
India there are 12 fluoride states: Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, Gujarat, Karnataka,
Punjab, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar and Orissa. People in these states have shown a high percentage of dental
and skeletal fluorosis.

(iii) Vast regions in West Bengal have contamination of arsenic in the ground water.
Dinking of this water has caused Arsenicosis (arsenic poisoning), a particular type of
cancer in different parts of the body.

Artificial (Man-Made) Sources of Water Pollution : For hundreds of years rivers,

lakes, streams and seas have been used by mankind for flushing domestic (sewage
and waste water), industrial and agricultural wastes. Also, certain materials are
leached from the land by run-of water and enter the various water bodies. The
different artificial sources of water pollution are

(i) Sewage Pollution (Domestic waste and Animal Waste)

(ii) Industrial Pollution
(iii) Agricultural Pollution
(iv) Radioactive and Thermal Pollution

(i) Sewage : The sewage contains garbage, soaps, detergents, waste food,
human excreta and is the single largest sources of water pollution. Pathogenic
(disease causing) microorganisms enter the water system through sewage. Typhoid,
cholera, gastroenteritis and dysentery are commonly caused by dinking infected
water. Water polluted by sewage may carry certain other bacteria and viruses which
are resistant to treatment and so can have serious ill effects on human health. Some
of these pollutants, like the organic matter, are oxygen demanding substances. They
are responsible or de-oxygenation of water-bodies which is harmful for aquatic life.
Other ingredients which enter the various water bodies are the plant nutrients, i.e.,
nitrates and phosphates. They support growth of algae, commonly called algal bloom
(blue-green species). This process is called eutrophication.

(ii) Industrial Waste : Many industries are located near rivers or fresh water
resources. These industries discharge their untreated effluents into the rivers.
Most of the industries discharge highly toxic heavy metals such as chromium,
arsenic, lead, mercury etc., along with hazardous organic and inorganic wastes
(like acids, alkalis, cyanides, chlorides etc.) For example, river Ganges, receives
wastes from textile, sugar, paper and pulp mills, tanneries, rubber and pesticide
industries. Most of these pollutants are resistant to breakdown by microorganisms
(non-biodegradable) and chemically polluted water damages the growth of crops and
is unsafe or dinking purposes.

Factories manufacturing plastic, caustic soda and some fungicides and pesticides
release mercury (a heavy metal) along with other effluents in the nearby water body.
Mercury enters the food chain through bacteria, algae, fish and finally into the human
body.

(iii) Agricultural Waste ; Manure, fertilizers, pesticides, wastes from farms,

slaughterhouses, poultry farms, salts and silt are drained as runoff from agricultural
lands. The water body receiving large quantities of fertilizers (phosphates and
nitrates) or manures becomes rich in nutrients which leads to eutrophication and
consequent depletion of dissolved oxygen. Consumption of water rich in nitrates is
bad or human health especially for small children.

Pesticides (DDT, dieldrin, aldrin, malathion, carbaryl etc.) are used to kill insect and
rodent pests. Toxic pesticide residues enter the human body through drinking water
or through food chain (biomagnification). These compounds have low solubility in
water but are highly soluble in fats. For example, the concentration of DDT in river
water may be very low but some fish over a period of time accumulate so much of
DDT that they become unit or human consumption. The use of pesticides in our
country is increasing very rapidly.

Some of these chemicals which are highly toxic become metabolized by animals that
graze on fields. Therefore, these poisonous chemicals have been often observed in
the human food chain. The presence of these chemicals in humans even in minute
amounts can cause hormonal imbalance and may lead to cancer.

(iv) Physical Pollutants : Physical pollutants can be of different types. Some of

them are discussed below :

a) Radioactive wastes : Radionuclides found in water are radium and potassium-

40. These isotopes originate from natural sources due to leaching from minerals.
Water bodies are also polluted by accidental leakage of waste material from uranium
and thorium mines, nuclear power plants and industries, research laboratories and
hospitals which use radioisotopes Radioactive materials enter human body through
water and food, and may be accumulated in blood and certain vital organs. They
cause tumours and cancer.

b) Thermal Pollution : various industries, nuclear power plants and thermal plants
require water for cooling and the resultant hot water is often discharged into rivers or
lakes. This result in thermal pollution and leads to the imbalance in the ecology of
the water body. Higher temperature lower the dissolved oxygen level (which is very
essential for marine life) by decreasing the solubility of oxygen in water. Fish and
other aquatic organisms can be killed by a sudden change in water temperatures.

c) Oil Pollution : From time to time we hear the news of accidental spill of crude oil
and other related products into marine waters by oil tankers. Besides these
accidental spills, oil refineries, oil exploration sites and automobile service centers
pollute different water bodies. Oil slick which floats on the water surface causes
death of marine life and severely affects the ecosystem of the ocean.

Ground Water Pollution

In most of our villages and many townships, ground water is the only source of
drinking water. Therefore, pollution of groundwater is a matter of serious
concern. Groundwater gets polluted in a number of ways, like practice of dumping
raw sewage on soil, pollutants contained in seepage pits and septic tanks
cause pollution of groundwater (Fig. 2). The porous layers of soil hold back solid
particles while the liquid is allowed to pass through. The solid contaminants are
generally absorbed by the soil and are thus retained. However, soluble pollutants are
able to mix with the groundwater. Since the movement of groundwater through the
porous rock is very slow, pollutants which get mixed with the groundwater are not
readily diluted. Furthermore, groundwater does not have access to air (in contrast
to surface water). Therefore, oxidation of pollutants into harmless products in
the groundwater does not occur.

In recent years, modernization of agriculture has led to intensive use of

nitrogenous fertilizers. The nitrate salts being soluble in water are able to
penetrate through the soil into the groundwater. Drinking water containing
nitrates is harmful to humans especially to infants and causes a particular kind
of anaemia called methemoglobinemia. In the human digestive tract, nitrates
are converted into nitrites by certain bacteria. Nitrite ion combines with
haemoglobin (red blood cells used for carrying oxygen) and form a new complex
called methaemoglobin. This decreases oxygen carrying capacity of blood and
results in suffocation and changes in RBC of human infants. The removal of
nitrate ions from water is difficult since nitrate salts are soluble in water.

WATER POLLUTION AND SOME BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Eutrophication

The word eutrophication is derived from the Greek word which means well
nourished. “Eutrophication is a process by which a water body slowly
becomes rich in plant nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates due to soil
erosion and runoff from the surrounding land.”
These nutrients promote the growth of algae. Increasing human population,
intensive agriculture and rapid industrial growth have led to an increasing release of
domestic waste, agricultural residues, industrial wastes and land runoff into various
water bodies. Nutrients are released from organic wastes by aerobic (oxygen
requiring) bacteria. Dissolved oxygen is consumed in this process. Therefore,
as more and more organic matter enters a water body, greater is the de-
oxygenation of the water body and greater is the production of nutrients.
These nutrients fertilize an abnormal growth of algae and other large water plants
such as duckweed. As more plants grow, more die also due to oxygen
deficiency in the water body (i.e., de-oxygenation of water body). Such a water body
is said to be eutrophied.

Eutrophication of a water body results due to release of large amount of nutrients by

the action of aerobic bacteria on organic wastes entering a water-body naturally or
by human activity.

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD)

Aerobic bacteria use dissolved oxygen of water when converting organic

waste into nutrients.

The quantity of oxygen used up by microorganisms in breaking down organic

wastes in a water body is called its biological oxygen demand (BOD).

The greater the amount of organic waste in water body, greater is amount of
oxygen required to break it down biologically and, therefore, higher is BOD
value of water. The less polluted waters show comparatively low values of
BOD. This value is a good measure in evaluating the degree of pollution in a
water body. Its value is used as a criterion for managing water pollution of a
water body. An evaluation is made by determining oxygen concentration in a
water sample before and after incubation at 20°C in dark for 5 days.

Biomagnification

A variety of toxic chemicals move through food chains. Toxic pesticides may be
sprayed for controlling insect, pests, fungi, herbs, but they concentrate in the food
chain and harm non-target organisms e.g., DDT was sprayed in the U.S. to control
mosquitoes at a concentration expected to be harmless to other (non-target)
organisms like fish and birds.

DDT accumulated in marshes and plankton. Plankton was eaten by fish and fish had
a higher DDT concentration in its body. Further when birds ate fish, they accumulate
still higher concentration. This increase in concentration of accumulated toxic
chemicals as one goes higher in the food chain is termed Biomagnification.

Biomagnification has at times threatened the reproduction and survival of carnivores

(secondary consumers) who occupy the highest level of the food chain. Fig. 3 shows
increasing concentration of toxic chemical along food chain while, Fig. 4 shows
sequence of steps leading to eutrophication of water body. There are many
reasons which lead to manmade eutrophication of water body. The major causes
are shown in Fig. 5.
WASTE WATER TREATMENT

Pre-Treatment

The removal of solids from the incoming wastewater flow is accomplished in steps.
The first step involves physical separation of the solids by screening and by
gravity. The larger solids can be removed using screens and the heavy solids
can be removed using settling processes. The dissolved organic material (and
some of the lighter suspended solids) will remain in the sewage flow after primary
clarification. The first step in the solid’s removal process is screening to remove the
larger solids and "rags." After screening, a grit removal process is used to
separate the heavier inorganic solids like sand and inert organics like coffee
grounds from the flow. Rags can clog piping and pumps in downstream
processes. Grit can also cause clogging problems and can damage pumps.
Grit that isn't removed in the grit chamber will end up in the solids handling
system where it will eventually collect in the digesters. This will reduce available
digester capacity. These processes that remove inorganic solids are
collectively referred to as pre-treatment.

BAR SCREENS

A bar screen consists of a series parallel of steel bars that are placed vertically
in the influent flow channel. The bars are usually spaced about 10-20 mm apart.
In some cases, two sets of screens are placed in the channel the upstream
screen may have bars spaced 30-60 mm apart and the downstream screen will
have the normal spacing. The front screen is sometimes referred to as a "trash
screen". It is designed to catch large chunks of debris to avoid overloading the
smaller screen. As the screen gets clogged with rags the water level upstream
will rise. If the screen isn't cleaned regularly the upstream water level can back
up and flood the structure.

An operator must rake the collected debris from a manually cleaned bar screen.
Manually cleaned bar screens are usually set at a 45° angle. This makes it
easier to rake the debris from the screen.

Automatically cleaned bar screens are designed with a set of rakes that are
chain-driven. These units will operate periodically to remove the rags and
deposit them in some type of container. The bar screen angle is usually between
60° and 90° on an automatically cleaned screen system.

The rags that are removed by screen must be hauled to a landfill for disposal.
However, some screen systems actually rake screens, grind or shred the rags,
and then return them to the waste flow. Incoming septic sewage can cause
corrosion problems with steel screens. Hydrogen sulphide formed by
anaerobic decomposition will attack metal bars. Bar screens should be
inspected several times a year for corrosion and bent bars. Repair and
replacement of bars is only maintenance issue for manually cleaned screens.
Automatically cleaned screens need to have weekly inspections to check the
conditions of the rake teeth and the chain drive.

COMMINUTORS AND GRINDER PUMPS

A comminutor is a device that is designed to shred rags and debris into small
pieces. It takes place of a bar screen. Debris collects on the cage of the
comminutor and a set of revolving teeth cut the rags up into pieces small enough
that they won't clog pumps and pipes. Grinder pumps or macerators, also grind up
debris as it flows through the pump. Comminutors or grinders will normally be
placed in parallel with a manually cleaned bar screen. The bar screen is usually
set up in parallel so it can be used when comminutor is down for service.

The advantage to chopping-up the rags is that it eliminates the need to collect
and landfill the debris. However, the chopped-up rags can still become a
problem in solids handling processes because they are now removed with
primary sludge. Like automatically cleaned bar screens, comminutors, and
barmminutors have higher maintenance cost than manually cleaned screens. The
most important item is inspection of cutting assembly. When cutting teeth get
worn, risk of jamming cutting assembly increases. If worn cutting blades are not
replaced and the unit suddenly becomes jammed, severe damage to gearbox
and shaft can occur.
GRIT CHAMBERS

The downward slope of a sewer line must be sufficient to maintain a minimum

velocity of 60 cm per second in pipe to prevent grit from settling in sewer lines.
This velocity is maintained until the flow enters the treatment plant. The grit is
removed from the flow as it passes through a grit chamber. The velocity in grit
chamber is reduced to about 30 cm per second so that heavier grit particles
will settle out and lighter organic material will stay in suspension and continue
on into the primary clarifiers. There are several different designs for grit chambers.

The first grit chambers were rectangular channels 100 – 200 m long.
A proportional weir at the effluent end of the channel would create a water depth that
reduced the velocity to 30 cm per second. There were usually two of these grit
chambers installed in parallel. Drop gates were used to isolate a channel so that the
collected grit could be shovelled or removed with a clamshell bucket. The grit that
comes out of the grit chamber may still have some organic material in it. It can be
washed to remove the organics in an effort to reduce objectionable odours. Grit
material should be maintained by using aerators to create a rolling flow in the tank.
The detention times are increased to 10-45 minutes. This also helps create
aerobic conditions in septic sewage which help in improving settleability of sludge
and increase both BOD and suspended solids removal in the primary clarifiers.
Aeration is achieved using diffusers located on the bottom of one side of grit
chamber. As rolling motion is established, grit collects at the bottom of tank.

Mechanical augers at the bottom of the grit chamber move the grit to one end of the
tank where grit slurry pumps can pump it out of the tank to a grit separator.
PRIMARY TREATMENT

Primary treatment is the next step in the wastewater treatment process. Pre-
treatment removed the rags and inorganic grit. Primary treatment will remove the
majority of the suspended solids that are present. This is another physical treatment
process. Grit chambers sort out the heavy grit and primary clarifiers remove heavy
organic solids in order to reduce the organic loading on the secondary processes.
Primary clarifiers are used to slow the velocity of the water to a point where organic
solids will settle to the bottom of the tank. This primary sludge is collected and sent
to the solids handling processes. Primary clarifiers also contain equipment that is
used to remove floating solids and greases from the surface. Lagoon systems and
some activated sludge processes like extended aeration will not utilize primary
clarification.

The solids that are present in the primary influent are classified as settleable and
suspended solids. Suspended solids represent all of the remaining particles. Some
of the solids are large enough and heavy enough that they will settle out very quickly.
These solids are called settleable solids. The settleable solids represent about 30-
60% of the total suspended solids. Primary clarifier removal efficiencies vary with
changes in flow, temperature or solids loading.

PRIMARY CLARIFIERS

Primary Clarifiers Remove

• 90-95% of the settleable solids
• 40-60% of the suspended solids
• 30-40% of the BOD

Sedimentation

Under these steps, the settleable solids are removed by gravitational settling. The
sludge formed at the bottom of the tank is removed either by vacuum suction or by
raking it to a discharge point at the bottom of the tank for withdrawal. The clear liquid
is known as over flow and contains no readily settleable matter.

The sedimentation operation in waste treatment application may be carried out in

rectangular horizontal flow, circular radial flow or vertical flow basins.

In rectangular tanks, feed is introduced at one end along the width of the tank and
over flow is collected at the surface, either across the other end or at different points
along the length of the tank. An endless conveyor scraps the floating material into a
screen trough while it also pushes the settled solids in to a sludge hopper.
In circular radial flow tanks, the feed is introduced through a central well and the
clarified effluent is collected at weirs along the periphery of the tank. The sludge
removal is affected by means of a rotary sludge scraper which forces the settled
sludge down a slopping bottom into a central hopper, from where it is withdrawn.

Vertical flow tanks are often used in small treatment plants, where the feed is applied
at a point in the bottom and the clarified fluid is collected at the top. A sludge blanket
is maintained at the lower part of the tank through which the suspension rises.

The Influent Zone is inlet to the clarifier. Water enters the end of a rectangular tank,
or the center of a circular or square tank. The influent zone is equipped with a baffle.
Circular tanks will have a collar-type circular baffle that directs the water down as it
enters the center of the tank. Rectangular tanks will have a perforated wall that
spreads the water laterally across the inlet end of the tank. The purpose of the baffle
is to prevent short-circuiting. Short-circuiting reduces the detention time in parts of
the tank causing solids to carry over into the secondary process and resulting in
uneven sludge distribution.

The Settling Zone represents the largest portion of the tank. The water velocity is
reduced to 1-1.5 cm per second and the detention time should be about 2 hours. The
problem is that the flow rises and falls during a 24-hour period. As the flow increases
the detention time decreases. Slowing the water down for this long allows the sludge
to settle to the bottom while the water is removed from the top of the tank.

The Skimming Zone is at the surface of the tank. Solids and greases that have a
specific gravity of less than 1.0 will float to the surface of the clarifier. A skimmer arm
is attached to the rake assembly. It skims the surface as the rake rotates. In a
rectangular tank the sludge rakes act as skimmers when the chain brings them to the
surface. Floating scum is deposited in a grease or scum trough. This grease and
scum must be properly land filled to prevent odour problems.

The Effluent Zone is the part of the tank where the settled water leaves to go to the
secondary treatment processes. In rectangular tanks the water leaves at the end
opposite the influent. In circular or square tanks, the water leaves at the edge of the
tank. A channel called the effluent launder collects the effluent flow and directs it to
the effluent piping. Weirs are installed along the edge of the effluent launder channel
to skim the water evenly off the surface of the tank. The most common type of
effluent weir is a V-notch (or saw-tooth) weir. A V-notch weir is a plate that has
notches, about 5-7.5 cm deep, cut in it every 15-20 cm. If the weir is clean and level,
it will remove water evenly all the way around the edge of the tank. This minimizes
the upward velocities near the effluent launder and improves removal efficiencies. If
the weir plate is not level or part of the weir becomes clogged with slime or debris,
short-circuiting will result because more water will pass over the low side or the clean
notches of the weir. Short-circuiting will cause poor settling and uneven sludge
blanket build-up. A baffle plate, a ring 15-20 cm inside the weir, is installed to prevent
floating solids from going over the weir.

The Sludge Zone is the bottom of the tank where the settled sludge collects and
compacts. Sludge blanket depth should be measured and sludge should be removed
at least every shift. Sludge rakes push the sludge to one end or the center of the
tank so that it can be pumped out. The rake drive is usually equipped with a torque
indicator. The torque indicator resembles the indicator on a torque wrench. A needle
moves across a graduated scale that indicates how much force is needed to move
the rake through the sludge. If too much torque is applied, a shear pin in the drive
shaft will break to prevent damage to the gearbox or drive shaft. A fluctuating torque
reading indicates uneven sludge build-up in the sludge zone. Short-circuiting in the
unit causes this uneven distribution of sludge.

Failure to remove sludge often enough will result in anaerobic conditions and gas
build-up in the sludge. The sludge can become septic, releasing gas bubbles, and
float to the top where it can be difficult to remove. It can also result in increased
odour problems.

ADVANCED WASTE WATER TREATMENT

The effluent from a typical secondary treatment plant still contains 20-40 mg/L BOD
which may be objectionable in some streams. Suspended solids, in addition to
contributing to BOD, may settle on the stream bed and inhibit certain forms of
aquatic life. The BOD if discharged into a stream with low flow, can cause damage to
aquatic life by reducing the dissolved oxygen content. In addition, the secondary
effluent contains significant amounts of plant nutrients and dissolved solids. If the
waste water is of industrial origin, it may also contain traces of organic chemicals,
heavy metals and other contaminants.

Different methods are used in advanced waste treatment to satisfy any of the
several specific goals, which include the removal of (i) suspended solids (ii) BOD
(iii) plant nutrients (iv) dissolved solids and (v) toxic substances. These methods may
be introduced at any stage of the total treatment process as in the case of industrial
waterways or may be used for complete removal of pollutants after secondary
treatment.
REMOVAL OF SUSPENDED SOLIDS

This treatment implies the removal of those materials that have been carried over
from a secondary treatment settler. Many methods were proposed of which two
methods were commonly used. The two methods are microstraining and chemical
coagulation followed by settling and mixed media filtration.

Microstraining: It is a special type of filtration procedure which makes use of filters

oven from stainless steel wires with opening only 60-70 µm across to remove very
small particles. High flow rates and low back pressures are normally achieved.

Coagulation and flocculation: The object of coagulation is to alter these particles

in such a way as to allow them to adhere to each other. Most colloids of interest in
water treatment remain suspended in solution because they have a net negative
surface charge that causes the particles to repel each other. The intended action of
the coagulant is to neutralise that charge, allowing the particles to come together to
form larger particles that can be more easily removed from the raw water.

The usual coagulant is alum [Al 2(SO4)2 • 18H2O], though FeCl3, FeSO4 and other
coagulants, such as polyelectrolytes, can be used. Anhydrous ion (III) sulphate can
also act as effective coagulant similar to aluminium sulphate. An advantage with
iron (III) sulphate it that it works over a wide range of pH.

Filtration: If properly formed, the addition of chemicals for promoting coagulation

and flocculation can remove both suspended and colloidal solids. After the flocks are
formed, the solution is led to a settling tank where the flocks are allowed to settle.
While most of the flocculated material is removed in the settling tank, some flock do
not settle. These flocks are removed by the filtration process, which is usually carried
out using beds of porous media such as sand or coal. The current trend is to use a
mixed -media filter which consists of fine garnet in the bottom layer, silica sand in the
middle layer and coarse coal in the top layer which reduces clogging.

REMOVAL OF DISSOLVED SOLIDS

The dissolved solids are of both organic and inorganic types. A number of methods
have been investigated for the removal of inorganic constituents from waste water.
Three methods which are finding wide application in advanced waste treatment are
ion-exchange, electrodialysis and reverse osmosis. For removal of soluble organics
from waste water the most commonly used method is adsorption on activated
carbon. Solvent extraction is also used to recover certain organic chemicals like
phenol and amines from industrial waste waters.

Ion exchange: This technique has been used extensively to remove hardness, and
iron and manganese salts in drinking water supplies. It has also been used
selectively to remove specific impurities and to recover valuable trace metals like
chromium, nickel, copper, lead and cadmium from industrial waste discharges.
The process takes advantage of the ability of certain natural and synthetic materials
to exchange one of their ions. A number of naturally occurring minerals have
ion exchange properties. Among them the notable ones are aluminium silicate
minerals, which are called zeolites. Synthetic zeolites have been prepared
using solutions of sodium silicate and sodium aluminate. Alternatively, synthetic ion-
exchange resins composed of organic polymer with attached functional groups such
as (strongly acidic cat ion exchange resins), or - COO-3-SO H+- H+ (weakly acidic
cation exchange resins or -N+(CH 3)3OH- (strongly basic anion exchange resins) can
be used. In the water softening process, the hardness producing elements such as
calcium and magnesium are replaced by sodium ions. A cat ion exchange resin in
sodium form is normally used. The water-softening capability of cat ion exchange
can be seen when sodium ion in the resin is exchanged for calcium ion in solution.

REMOVAL OF NITROGEN

Nitrogen in raw wastewater is mostly organic and ammonia nitrogen (called Kjeldahl
nitrogen). Because nitrogen can exacerbate eutrophication in lakes and estuaries, it
must often be reduced in wastewater treatment plants. The most widely used
method of nitrogen removal is called biological nitrification or de-nitrification. First,
the nitrogen is converted into inorganic nitrate nitrogen using microbes. This occurs
in aeration tanks if the residence time is sufficiently high. Recall that carbonaceous
BOD is exerted first, and only when the easily oxidized carbon compounds are used
up will the nitrifiers begin the oxidation of nitrogen-containing compounds. If this
−
occurs, the end product is nitrate nitrogen, NO 3 . The process is thought to be in two
stages, with various groups of microorganisms responsible for different stages.
Simplified chemical equations describing this process are

Nitrosomonas
NH +4 +3 O2 →2 NO−2 +2 H 2 O+4 H +
Nitrobactor
2 NO−2 +O2 →2 NO−3
These reactions are slow and require long retention times in the aeration tank as well
as sufficient DO. The kinetics constants for the reactions are low, with very low
yields, so that net sludge production is limited and washout is a constant danger.

In cases where the effluent does not enter lakes or rivers, the production of nitrate
nitrogen is sufficient. In many cases, however, the nitrate nitrogen must be removed,
and this is also accomplished biologically.

Once the ammonia has been oxidized to nitrate, it may be reduced by a broad range
of facultative and anaerobic bacteria like Pseudomonas. This denitrification requires
a source of carbon, and methanol (CH3OH) is often used for that purpose.

REMOVAL OF PHOSPHORUS

Another nutrient that must often be removed is phosphorus, possibly the most
important chemical responsible for accelerated eutrophication.

Phosphate may be removed chemically or biologically. The most popular chemical

methods use lime, Ca(OH)2, and alum, Al2(SO4)3. Under alkaline conditions, the
calcium ion will combine with phosphate to form calcium hydroxyapatite, a white,
insoluble precipitate that is settled out and removed from the wastewater. Insoluble
CaC03 is also formed and removed and may be recycled by burning in a furnace:
−
CaC O3 —› CO2 + CaO

Quicklime, CaO, is then slaked by adding water and forming lime, that may be
reused:
CaO + H2O —› Ca(OH)2

The aluminium ion from alum precipitates as very slightly soluble aluminium
phosphate,

3+ 3−
AlPO
Al + PO 4 —› 4
and also forms aluminium hydroxide
Al 3+ + 3OH- —›
AlOH 3
which forms sticky flocks that help to settle out phosphates. Alum is usually added in
the final clarifier. The amount of alum needed to achieve a given level of phosphorus
removal depends on the amount of phosphorus in the wastewater.

DISINFECTION Due to the small size of bacteria it is not possible to ensure their
complete removal from water by physical and chemical means alone and for potable
water suppliers it is necessary to ensure the death of harmful micro-organisms by
disinfection. It is important to note the difference between Sterilization (the killing of
all organisms) and disinfection (the killing of harmful organisms) which is the
normal aim in water treatment.

Methods of Disinfection:

a) CHLORINE: Chlorine (and its compound) is widely used for the disinfection of
water because of the following advantages:
a) It is readily available, as gas, liquid or power
b) It is cheap
c) It is easy to apply to its high solubility.
d) It is very toxic to micro-organisms
e) It leaves a residual in solution, which while not harmful to man provides
protection to distribution system.
f) It has several secondary uses e.g., oxidation of iron manganese and H 2S,
destruction taste and odour.
g) It has some disadvantages

 It is a poisonous gas and must be carefully handled.

 It can give rise to taste and odour problems particularly in the presence of
phenols.
 suspended materials may shield bacterial from the action of the chlorine.
 Chlorine is a powerful oxidizing agent and will attack a wide range of
compounds thereby making it less available to attack microorganisms.
 Its effectiveness is pH – dependent. pH values of 7.2 are adequate.

b) OZONE: Ozone (O3) is an allotropic form of oxygen produced by passing dry

oxygen or air through an electrical discharge by passing dry oxygen or air through an
electrical discharge (5000 – 20,000v, 50 – 500Hz). It is an instable, highly toxic blue
gas with pungent odour of new mown hay. A powerful oxidizing agent it is an efficient
disinfectant and useful in bleaching colour and removing tastes and odours. Like
oxygen it is only slightly soluble in water and because of its instable form it leaves no
residual. Unless cheap energy is available ozone treatment in much more expensive
than chlorination but it does have the advantage of good colour removal.
Other disinfectants include:

a) Heat : Disinfection by heat is very effective but costly and impairs palatability
of water by removing do and dissolved salts. No residual effect.
b) Ultraviolet and nuclear radiations : Microorganisms are fairly sensitive to
radiation damage due to the toxic effects of energy absorption their limited
use is the fact that radiation is readily absolved by water leaving a thin film.
No residual affect.
c) Silver : Colloidal silver was used by the Romans to preserve the quality of
water in storage jars, since at concentration of about 0.05mg/l, silver is toxic
to most micro-organisms. The cost becomes excessive for other than very
small suppliers.
d) Bromine : Bromine has similar disinfection properties, live chlorine and is
sometimes used in swimming pools where residual tends to be less irritating
to the eyes then chlorine residuals.

Water Softening

The reduction or removal of hardness from water is called as water softening.

For domestic water supplies the softening is done to reduce the soap consumption,
to ensure longer life to washed fabric, to lower the cost of maintaining plumbing
fixtures and to improve the taste of food preparations and improve palatability
(good taste). For industrial supplies softening is done for reducing scaling problems
in boilers and the interference in the working of dyeing systems. Usually, a total
hardness of 75 to 100 mg/l (as CaCO 3) would meet these requirements. The
magnesium hardness should not exceed 40 mg/l to minimize the possibility of
magnesium hydroxide scale in domestic water heaters. Calcium and magnesium
associated with bicarbonates are responsible for carbonate hardness and that with
the sulphates, chlorides and nitrates contribute to non-carbonate hardness. Normally
the alkalinity measures the carbonate hardness unless it contains sodium alkalinity.
The non-carbonate hardness is measured by the difference between the total
hardness and the carbonate hardness. Carbonates and bicarbonates of sodium are
described as negative non carbonate hardness. The temporary hardness or
bicarbonate hardness can be removed by boiling or by adding lime. The following
reactions take place by boiling:

Ca(HCO3)2 + Heat = CaCO3 ↓ + H2O + CO2 ↑

Mg(HCO3)2 + Heat = MgCO3 ↓ + H2O + CO2 ↑

As it is difficult to boil the water at large scale the addition of lime is done. The
following reaction takes place when lime is added to water,

Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 ↓ + 2H2O

Mg(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 ↓ + MgCO3 ↓ + 2H2O

The carbonates of calcium and magnesium are removed by sedimentation being

insoluble in water. The permanent hardness is removed by:
(i) Lime-soda process
(ii) Zeolite process
(iii) Demineralization or deionization process.
Lime-soda process

In the lime soda process lime and soda ash (Na 2CO3) are added which removes both
the temporary and permanent hardness. The additional reactions with soda are as
follows

MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 = CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2 ↓

Ca SO4 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 ↓ + Na2SO4
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 = CaCO3 ↓ + 2NaCl
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2 ↓

Using the above reactions, the hardness is removed in the lime soda plants.

Zeolite process

The lime soda method is a precipitation method in which some chemicals or

reagents are added to the water. In the zeolite process no such chemical is added
and the hard water is passed through a bed of special material called as the zeolite.
The zeolite has the property of removing calcium and magnesium from the water and
substituting sodium in their place by ion exchange phenomenon. Zeolites are
complex compounds of aluminium, silica and soda, sometimes synthetic and
otherwise natural. Natural zeolites are mainly processed from green sand
(glauconite). It has an exchange value of about 8000 gm of hardness per m3 of
zeolite. The common artificial zeolite is permutit. It has larger grains with white
colour. Permutit (SiO2 Al2O3 Na2O) has a high exchange value of 35000 to 40000 gm
of hardness per m3 of zeolite.

When hard water passes through a bed of permutit the following reactions take place

2SiO2Al2O3 Na2O + Ca(HCO3)2 = 2SiO2 Al2O3CaO + 2NaHCO3

2SiO2Al2O3 Na2O + CaSO4 = 2SiO2 Al2O3CaO + Na2SO4
2SiO2Al2O3 Na2O + CaCl2 = 2SiO2 Al2O3CaO + 2NaCl

Similar reactions take place with compounds of magnesium hardness can be

reduces to almost zero by this method. Due to continuous use of the zeolite the
sodium gets exhausted and then the zeolite has to be regenerated by passing a
solution of salt through it. The sodium in the brine (salt water) replaces the calcium
and magnesium in the exhausted zeolite which is thus restored and the calcium and
magnesium are discharged to waste with the wash water.

Demineralization or deionization process

The conventional zeolites exchange the sodium cations (positive in electric charge)
for the cations of calcium magnesium and iron in water and the softening is
essentially a cation exchange process. In the demineralization or deionisation
process, some other zeolite is used which exchanges all the cations (including
sodium) for hydrogen. Some of the zeolites are patented as zeo-karbs, catex
organolites etc. are carbonaceous zeolites since they are made from materials like
coal and lignite. They are also known as hydrogen exchanger. The water treated
with hydrogen zeolite has the sulphates, chlorides and bicarbonates transformed into
sulphuric, hydrochloric and carbonic acids. Actually, the demineralization is done
mainly to make the brackish water (as sea water) useful for drinking. It is a costly
process.
REMOVAL OF HEAVY METALS IN WATER

Heavy metals may exhibit toxic effects since they may be solubilized under the
chemically reduced conditions which exist in anaerobic systems. The metals may be
precipitated as sulphides by chemical addition if they are known to be present. It is
far preferable to exclude such materials by requiring pre-treatment of industrial
wastes, not only to protect the function of the digester, but also to ensure that the
sludge can be disposed of without violation of EPA or state regulations. The obligate
anaerobes which convert organic acids to methane and CO 2 are more sensitive to
the surrounding environment than the facultative organisms which effect the first
step; hence toxic constituents will affect them first and cessation or slowing of their
activity can lead to failure of the digester. It is not sufficient to monitor pH, since the
alkalinity of anaerobic digesters is very high and substantial changes in acid
concentration can occur with little or no change in pH. Regular measurement of
volatile acids is desirable, but the normal function can often be monitored by
observing the rate of gas production. Digester problems are always accompanied by
a change in gas production or composition.

CONTROL OF TASTE AND ODOUR

Tastes and odours associated with dissolved gas and some volatile organic
chemicals may be removed by aeration processes. Materials which are not
favourably altered or removed by aeration or oxidative techniques can generally be
adsorbed on activated carbon. Aeration is used in water treatment to alter the
concentration of dissolved gases, to strip volatile organics, and to reduce tastes and
odours. The last generally involved removal of dissolved gases (such as hydrogen
sulphide or chlorine) or volatile organic materials. The tastes and odours associated
with algal growth are not appreciably reduced by aeration. Aeration techniques
include spray, cascade, diffused – air, multiple trays, and packed – column systems.
The object of all designs is to maximize the area of contact between the water and
the air and to produce motion of one fluid relative to the other so that exchange can
be enhanced by maximizing the concentration gradient.