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INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER HARDWARE

CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
DEFINITION OF COMPUTER.
What Is a Computer?
A Computer is an electronic device, operating under the control of instructions
stored in its own memory, that can accept data, process the data according to
specified rules, produce results, and stores the results for future use.
In other words, a computer can generally be defined as an electronic device
that does computation and makes logical decisions according to instructions
and data that have been gi e to it. Thus the phrase gar age-in-garbage-out.
Data and Information
Computers process data into information. Data can be defined as a collection
of unprocessed items or files, which can take the form of; text, numbers,
images, audio, and video. Information can also be defined as processed or
refined data items which conveys meaning and is useful to people. Many daily
activities either involve the use of or depend on information from a computer.
Information Processing Cycle
Computers process data (input) into information (output). Computers carry out
processes using instructions, which are the steps that tell the computer how to
perform a particular task. A collection of related instructions organized for a
common purpose is referred to as Software. A computer often holds data,
information, and instructions in storage for future use. Some people refer to
the series of input, process, output, and storage activities as the Information
Processing Cycle.

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT STORAGE

Most computers today communicate with other computers. As a result,

communications also has become an essential element of the information
processing cycle.

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CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER.

SPEED: The computer can process information many thousand times faster
than the human brain. What could take a man some hours to accomplish may
take a computer a few seconds.
ACCURACY: The probability of error from a slim, in most cases, errors output
are a result of input by the computer or programmer. Thus the saying gar age
in garbage out
DURABILITY: The computer lasts more than lifetime. Computers designed and
built in the 80s are still functioning today.
AUTOMATIC: Human supervision is usually required for a lot of work process.
The computer does not require human supervision to function.
VERSATILITY: The use of computer is no longer limited to educationists and
military operations. Every imaginable profession and business now uses it.
LIMITATIONS: The Computer has some very serious limitations. It is incapable
of thought, lacks initiative and cannot react to unforeseen (unprogrammed)
events. With the right criteria. It will carry out a deadly function accurately.
Where it should produce incremental results and input data has error, the
subsequent incremental output will be hugely erroneous and may have fatal
consequence.

COMPUTER CLASSIFICATION.
Classification Based on SIZE:
a. Main-frame or Super computer: This is the biggest in both size and
capacity. It supports many users at a time, committed via a terminal monitor
and keyboard. It is very expensive and consumes electric power.
b. Mini-computer: This is bigger than the micro –computer and it supports
ore tha o e user. It s a it e pe si e a d used ostl i o puters.
c. Micro-computer: This computer is the smallest in size it has a very high
speed and consumes less electric power, it s made up of micro-chips and it is a
less expensive micro-computer support single use e.g. (PC or Desktop
computer).

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Classification Based On GENERATION:

The classification is based on the evolution of electrical or electronic
computers. These would further classify digital computers into.
a. First Generation Computers: They are made of electrical switches,
vacuum tubes and valves. These components were bulky and tended to make
the computers large and heavy. The components generated lots of heat and
therefore required special cooling systems.
b. Second Generation Computers: They are made from electronic
switches called transistors. Transistors are semi-conductor devices that
generate less heat, lasted longer and are much smaller and lighter.
c. Third Generation Computers: They are made of integrated circuit (IC).
IC s are o pa t tra sistors pla ed o a ti sli e of sili o ater. This de i e
gave better performance to the computer and greatly reduced the size of the
computer.
d. Fourth Generation Computers: These are made from greatly enhanced
integrated circuits. They are the ones in use today.
e. Fifth Generation Computers: These are the computers of the future.
They will have artificial intelligence (AI).

Classification Based on TYPES:

a. Analogue Computer: It is a computer, which operates on continuous
data (data obtained by measurement), usually of a physical quantities such as
electrical potential, fluid pressures or mechanical motion. Analogue computer
is usually a special purpose computer dedicated to a single task.
b. Digital Computer: Is a computer, which operates on discrete data
(obtained by counting), by manipulating combinations of binary digits it can
perform mathematical calculations, organise and analyse data, control
industrial and other processes and simulate dynamic system.
c. Hybrid computer: This is a computer that combines the feature of both
Analogue and digital computer and is referred to as Anatel.

EVOLUTION OF COMPUTER.
The historical development of the computer can be associated with human
activities such as calculating, counting and so on. All efforts, which are made

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to simplify the method of calculation in the past, could be interpreted as

attempts at computing. For instance in simple arithmetic, the use of Four
Figure Table and Slide Rule are different ways of making calculation easy. It is
the quest for way of making improving the method of calculation that led to
the invention of Abacus, which is the first machine of that sort. The name
Abacus is derived from the Greek word abax, hi h ea s, oard or
al ulati g ta le . The A a us as pro a l i e ted a ie t “u eria s i
Mesopotamia before the Hindu-Arabic numeration system became popular.
The Abacus was used for counting, adding and subtracting. In a way, it was a
mechanical system for counting, consisting of strings and moving beads. This
remained the fastest calculating device until 1642 when a French Scientist
Blaise Pascal invented another calculating device which use of wheel and cogs.

The history of computer can be traced back to the 19 th century. When an

English inventor Charles Babbage in 1830 developed plans for analytical engine
capable of performing arithmetical operations on the basis of instructions from
punch card. The analytical engine has – a memory unit to which numbers can
be stored:
- A Control Unit.
- An Input Unit.
- An Output Unit and most of other basis element of the present
day-computer.

Then later in the 20th century, the modern computers came into the
development, and their generations are characterised by their technology:

a. The First generation computers are the first electronic computers

a d ere de eloped the use of a uu Tu e as s it hes, hi h are
used to represent as well control the routing of data (binary digits).
Although the tubes worked, they had many problems, as high power
consumption and heat generation. They were developed mostly in US
after World War II.

b. The second generation was introduced somewhere in 1960, used

transistor which make them faster, more efficient and consume less

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power. The second-generation computers were the first successful

commercial computers.

c. The third generation computers came in the late 1960s and 1970
were characterised by miniaturisation of components and use integrated
circuits (I.C) and Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC), which
contain millions of integrated transistors.

d. The fourth generation Computers are defined by the introduction

of the microprocessor in 1974. The first personal computer falls into this
category named IBM 5100.

e. The fifth generation computers emphasize on the intensive

software development, where Artificial Intelligence is put into use
focusing on machine reasoning and logic programming languages. This is
yet to be operational.

USES OF COMPUTER.
The uses of computer can never be over emphasised simple because they are
now used in every part of human endeavour. Some of these aspects are:

a. As an Office Assistance: This includes the use of computer in word-

processing, spread sheet and other utilities.
b. In Communications: This includes mobile telephone networks,
communicating with satellite
c. In Entertainment: This includes graphics in movie making, computerised
Audio/visual gadgets and media presentation.
d. In Education: This includes, helping students in solving complex
problems, easy reference and sources of information.
e. In Game Playing: This includes Videogames, Chess Playing.
f. In Business: Through Internet and Networks, e-commence and e-
Business are in operation, baking online, Shopping on-the net.
g. In Remote Sensing: This Includes survey and weather forecasting etc.

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APPLICATION OF COMPUTER.
IN MILITARY.
In military researches: These involve both the research on the development of
complex systems, networks, weapons and others for the successful running of
the military:
a. In weapon control and launching
b. In controlling unman planes.
c. In navigation and locating of positions by the use of GPS fire control
system.

IN MEDICINE.
Computer is used in the medical centre for:
a. Patient diagnosis: This is achieved by the help of medical expert systems
b. For analysing the result of test such as ECG scanning in the medical
laboratory.
c. For keeping patients database: for record retrieving purposes.
d. As operation aids.
e. In drug monitoring and inventory keeping.

IN INDUSTRY.

Computer is used in the industries for the following:

a. In control rooms: For monitoring of production machineries and their
control.
b. Computer integrated manufacturing: Data-driven automation that
affects all system within a manufacturing environment design and
development, production, marketing and sales, and support and service.
c. Basic manufacturing functions as well as materials: Handling and
inventory control can also be simulated by computer (CIM) before the system
is built in an attempt to eliminate wastage.
d. In production forecasting: By the use of linear programming production
can be forecast and optimise.
e. Robots are use in situations that are dangerous to human beings.

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CHAPTER TWO
BASIC COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
THE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
A computer contains many electric, electronic and mechanical components
known as hardware. These components include input devices, output devices,
a system unit, storage devices, and communications devices. And also the
invisible parts that control the workability of the computer system. The
computer system is classified basically into two major parts:
 Hardware
 Software

HARDWARE
Hardware is the physical components of the computer system which you can
touch. They are interconnected with cables of various shapes and sizes to
facilitate data flow. An example of a piece of hardware is the system unit i.e.
the box which houses the central processing unit (CPU) others are printer,
scanner, speaker, mouse, keyboard etc.

The Primary Components of Computer Hardware

 Input devices.
 Output devices.
 Central Processing Unit (containing the control unit and the
arithmetic/logic unit).
 Storage devices.
 Memory.
 Communication devices.

INPUT DEVICES
An input device is any hardware component that allows you to enter data and
instructions into a computer. Five widely used input devices are the keyboard,
mouse, microphone, scanner, and Web cam.
A computer keyboard contains keys you press to enter data into the
computer. For security purposes, some keyboards include a fingerprint reader,
which allows you to work with the computer only if your fingerprint is
recognized.

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A mouse is a small handheld device. With the mouse, you control movement
of a small symbol on the screen, called the pointer, and you make selections
from the screen.
A microphone allows you to speak into the computer. A scanner converts
printed material (such as text and pictures) into a form the computer can use.
A Web cam is a digital video camera that allows you to create movies or take
pictures and store them on the computer instead of on tape or film.

OUTPUT DEVICES
An output device is any hardware component that conveys information to one
or more people. Three commonly used output devices are a printer, a monitor,
and speakers. A printer produces text and graphics on a physical medium such
as paper. A monitor displays text, graphics, and videos on a screen. Speakers
allow you to hear music, voice, and other audio (sounds).

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SYSTEM UNIT
The system unit is a case that contains the electronic components of the
computer that are used to process data. The circuitry of the system unit usually
is part of or is connected to a circuit board called the motherboard.
Two main components on the motherboard are the processor and memory.
The processor also called a CPU (central processing unit) is the electronic
component that interprets and carries out the basic instructions that operate
the computer. Memory consists of electronic components that store
instructions waiting to be executed and data needed by those instructions.
Although some forms of memory are permanent, most memory keeps data
and instructions temporarily, which mean its contents, are erased when the
computer is shut off.

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STORAGE DEVICES
Storage holds data, instructions, and information for future use. For example,
computers can store hundreds of millions of customer names and addresses.
Storage holds these items permanently. A computer keeps data, instructions,
and information on storage media. Examples of storage media are USB flash
drives, hard disks, optical discs, and memory cards. A storage device records
(writes) and/or retrieves (reads) items to and from storage media. Drives and
readers/writers, which are types of storage devices, accept a specific kind of
storage media. For example, a DVD drive (storage device) accepts a DVD
(storage media). Storage devices often function as a source of input because
they transfer items from storage to memory. A USB flash drive is a portable
storage device that is small and lightweight enough to be transported on a
keychain or in a pocket. The average USB flash drive can hold about 4 billion
characters. You plug a USB flash drive in a special, easily accessible opening on
the computer. A hard disk provides much greater storage capacity than a USB
flash drive. The average hard disk can hold more than 320 billion characters.
Hard disks are enclosed in an airtight, sealed case. Although some are portable,
most are housed inside the system unit. Portable hard disks are either external

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or removable. An external hard disk is a separate, freestanding unit, whereas

you insert and remove a removable hard disk from the computer or a device
connected to the computer. An optical disc is a flat, round, portable metal disc
with a plastic coating. CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray Discs are three types of optical
discs. A CD can hold from 650 million to 1 billion characters. Some DVDs can
store two full-length movies or 17 billion characters. Blu-ray Discs can store
about 46 hours of standard video, or 100 billion characters. Some mobile
devices, such as digital cameras, use memory cards as the storage media. You
can use a card reader/writer to transfer the stored items, such as digital
photos, from the memory card to a computer or printer.

COMMUNICATION DEVICES
A communications device is a hardware component that enables a computer
to send (transmit) and receive data, instructions, and information to and from
one or more computers or mobile devices. Widely used communications
devices modem and NIC.
 A modem is a communication device used to connect computers over
telephone lines.
 A Network Interface Card (NIC) is used with cable to connect computers
that are relatively close together such as those in the same building
(Local Area Network LAN).
Communications occur over cables, telephone lines, cellular radio networks,
satellites, and other transmission media. Some transmission media, such as
satellites and cellular radio networks, are wireless, which means they have no
physical lines or wires.

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CHAPTER THREE
COMPUTER CATEGORIZATION
Industry experts typically classify computers in seven categories: personal
computers (desktop), mobile computers and mobile devices, game consoles,
servers, mainframes, supercomputers, and embedded computers. A
o puter s size, speed, pro essi g po er, a d pri e deter i e the ategor it
best fits. Due to rapidly changing technology, however, the distinction among
categories is not always clear-cut. This trend of computers and devices with
technologies that overlap, called convergence, leads to computer
manufacturers continually releasing newer models that include similar
functionality and features. For example, newer cell phones often include media
player, camera, and Web browsing capabilities. As devices converge, users
need fewer devices for the functionality that they require. When consumers
replace out dated computers and devices, they should dispose of them
properly.

PERSONAL COMPUTER
A personal computer is a computer that can perform all of its input,
processing, output, and storage activities by itself. A personal computer
contains a processor, memory, and one or more input, output, and storage
devices. Personal computers also often contain a communications device. Two
popular architectures of personal computers are the Desktop Computers and
the Mobile Computers.

DESKTOP COMPUTERS
A desktop computer is designed so that the system unit, input devices, output
devices, and any other devices fit entirely on or under a desk or table. In many
models, the system unit is a tall and narrow tower, which can sit on the floor
vertically — if desktop space is limited. Some desktop computers function as a
server on a network. Others, such as a gaming desktop computer and home
theatre PC, target a specific audience. The gaming desktop computer offers
high-quality audio, video, and graphics with optimal performance for
sophisticated single-user and networked or Internet multiplayer games. A
home theatre PC (HTPC) combines the features of a high-definition video/audio

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entertainment system with a desktop computer that is designed to be

connected to a television and includes a Blu-ray Disc, digital video recorder,
and digital cable television connectivity. These high-end computers cost more
than the basic desktop computer.
Another expensive, powerful desktop computer is the workstation, which is
geared for work that requires intense calculations and graphics capabilities. An
architect uses a workstation to design buildings and homes. A graphic artist
uses a workstation to create computer-animated special effects for full-length
motion pictures and video games.

MOBILE COMPUTERS/MOBILE DEVICES

A mobile computer is a personal computer you can carry from place to place.
Similarly, a mobile device is a computing device small enough to hold in your
hand. The most popular type of mobile computer is the Notebook computer.
The following sections discuss the notebook computer and widely used mobile
devices.
Notebook Computers (Laptop)
A notebook computer, also called a laptop computer, is a portable, personal
computer often designed to fit on your lap. Notebook computers are thin and
lightweight, yet they can be as powerful as the average desktop computer. A
netbook, which is a type of notebook computer, is smaller, lighter than and
often not as powerful as a traditional notebook computer. Most netbooks cost
less than traditional notebook computers, usually only a few hundred dollars.
An ultra-thin is another type of notebook computer that is lightweight and
usually less than one-inch thick. Some notebook computers have touch
screens, allowing you to interact with the device by touching the screen,
usually with the tip of a finger.
On a typical notebook computer, the keyboard is on top of the system unit,
and the monitor attaches to the system unit with hinges. These computers
weigh on average from 2.5 to more than 10 pounds (depending on
configuration), which allows users to transport the computers from place to
place. Most notebook computers can operate on batteries or a power supply
or both.
Tablet PCs
Resembling a letter-sized slate, the Tablet PC, or tablet computer, is a special

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type of notebook computer that you can interact with by touching the screen
with your finger or a digital pen. A digital pen looks like a small ink pen but
uses pressure instead of ink. Users write or draw on a Tablet PC by pressing a
finger or digital pen on the screen, and issue instructions by tapping on the
screen. One design of Tablet PC, called a convertible tablet, has an attached
keyboard. Another design, which does not include a keyboard, is called a slate
tablet and provides other means for typing. Some Tablet PCs also support
voice input so that users can speak into the computer. Tablet PCs are useful
especially for taking notes in lectures, at meetings, conferences, and other
forums where the standard notebook computer is not practical.

MOBILE DEVICES
Mobile devices, which are small enough to carry in a pocket, usually do not
have disk drives. Instead, these devices store programs and data permanently
on special memory inside the system unit or on small storage media such as
memory cards. You often can connect a mobile device to a personal computer
to exchange information between the computer and the mobile device.
Some mobile devices are Internet-enabled, meaning they can connect to the
Internet wirelessly. With an Internet-enabled device, users can chat, send e-
mail and instant messages, and access the Web. Because of their reduced size,
the screens on mobile devices are small, but usually are in colour.
Popular types of mobile devices are smartphones and PDAs, e-book readers,
handheld computers, portable media players, and digital cameras.
Smart Phones and PDAs
Offering the convenience of one-handed operation, a smart phone is an
Internet enabled phone that usually also provides personal information
management functions such as a calendar, an appointment book, an address
book, a calculator, and a notepad. In addition to basic phone capabilities, a
smart phone allows you to send and receive e-mail messages and access the
Web usually for an additional fee. Some smart phones communicate wirelessly
with other devices or computers. Many also function as a portable media
player and include built-in digital cameras so that you can share photos or
videos with others as soon as you capture the image. Many smart phones also
offer a variety of application software such as word processing, spreadsheet,
and games, and the capability of conducting live video conferences.

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Many smart phones have keypads that contain both numbers and letters so
that you can use the same keypad to dial phone numbers and enter messages.
Others have a built-in mini keyboard on the front of the phone or a keyboard
that slides in and out from behind the phone. Some have touch screens, where
you press objects on the screen to make selections and enter text through an
on-screen keyboard. Others include a stylus, which is similar to a digital pen
but smaller and has less functionality.
I stead of alli g so eo e s s art pho e or ell pho e, users ofte se d
essages to others pressi g utto s o their pho e s ke pad, ke s o the
mini keyboard, or images on an onscreen keyboard. Types of messages users
send with smart phones include text messages, instant messages, picture
messages, and video messages.
· A text message is a short note, typically fewer than 300 characters, sent to or
from a smartphone or other mobile device.
· An instant message is a real-time Internet communication, where you
exchange messages with other connected users.
· A picture message is a photo or other image, sometimes along with sound
and text, sent to or from a smart phone or other mobile device. A phone that
can send picture messages often is called a camera phone.
· A video message is a short video clip, usually about 30 seconds, sent to or
from a smartphone or other mobile device. A phone that can send video
messages often is called a video phone.
A PDA (personal digital assistant), which often looks like a smart phone,
provides personal information management functions such as a calendar, an
appointment book, an address book, a calculator, and a notepad. A PDA differs
from a smart phone in that it usually does not provide phone capabilities and
may not be Internet-enabled, support voice input, have a built-in camera, or
function as a portable media player.
As smart phones and PDAs continue a trend of convergence, it is becoming
increasingly difficult to differentiate between the two devices.
This has led some manufacturers to refer to PDAs and smart phones simply as
handhelds.
E-Book Readers
An e-book reader (short for electronic book reader), or e-reader, is a handheld
device that is used primarily for reading e-books. An e-book or digital book, is

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an electronic version of a printed book, readable on computers and other

digital devices. In addition to books, users typically can purchase and read
other forms of digital media such as newspapers and magazines.
Most e-book readers have a touch screen and are Internet-enabled. These
devices usually are smaller than tablet computers but larger than smart
phones.
Handheld Computers
A handheld computer, sometimes referred to as an Ultra-Mobile PC (UMPC), is
a computer small enough to fit in one hand. Many handheld computers
communicate wirelessly with other devices or computers and also include a
digital pen or stylus for input.
Some handheld computers have miniature or specialized keyboards. Many
handheld computers are industry-specific and serve the needs of mobile
employees, such as meter readers and parcel delivery people, whose jobs
require them to move from place to place.
Game Consoles
A game console is a mobile computing device designed for single-player or
multi-player video games. Standard game consoles use a handheld
controller(s) as an input device(s); a television screen as an output device; and
hard disks, optical discs, and/or memory cards for storage. Weighing on
average between two and nine pounds, the compact size of game consoles
makes them easy to use at home, in the car, in a hotel, or any location that has
a ele tri al outlet. Three popular odels are Mi rosoft s X o 3 ,
Ni te do s Wii a d “o s Pla “tatio . A ha dheld ga e o sole is s all
enough to fit in one hand, making it more portable than the standard game
console. With the handheld game console, the controls screen, and speakers
are built into the device. Because of their reduced size, the screens are small —
three to four inches. Some models use cartridges to store games; others use a
memory card or a miniature optical disc. Many handheld game consoles can
communicate wirelessly with other similar consoles for multiplayer gaming.
Two popular models are Nintendo DS Lite and “o s Pla “tation Portable
(PSP).

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SERVERS
A server controls access to the hardware, software, and other resources on a
network and provides a centralized storage area for programs, data, and
information. Servers can support from two to several thousand connected
computers at the same time. In many cases, one server accesses data,
information, and programs on another server. In other cases, people use
personal computers or terminals to access data, information, and programs on
a server. A terminal is a device with a monitor, keyboard, and memory.

MAINFRAMES
A mainframe is a large, expensive, powerful computer that can handle
hundreds or thousands of connected users simultaneously. Mainframes store
tremendous amounts of data, instructions, and information. Most major
corporations use mainframes for business activities. With mainframes,
enterprises are able to bill millions of customers, prepare payroll for thousands
of employees, and manage thousands of items in inventory. One study
reported that mainframes process more than 83 percent of transactions
around the world.
Mainframes also can act as servers in a network environment. Servers and
other mainframes can access data and information from a mainframe. People
also can access programs on the mainframe using terminals or personal
computers.

SUPERCOMPUTERS
A supercomputer is the fastest, most powerful and the most expensive of all
computers.
The fastest supercomputers are capable of processing more than one
quadrillion instructions in a single second. With weights that exceed 100 tons,
these computers can store more than 20,000 times the data and information
of an average desktop computer.
Applications requiring complex, sophisticated mathematical calculations use
supercomputers. Large-scale simulations and applications in medicine,
aerospace, automotive design, online banking, weather forecasting, nuclear
energy research, and petroleum exploration use a supercomputer.

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EMBEDDED COMPUTERS
An embedded computer is a special-purpose computer that functions as a
component in a larger product. Embedded computers are everywhere — at
home, in your car, and at work. The following list identifies a variety of
everyday products that contain embedded computers.
 Consumer Electronics: Mobile and digital telephones, digital televisions,
cameras, video recorders, DVD players and recorders, answering
machines.
 Home Automation Devices: Thermostats, sprinkling systems, security
monitoring systems, appliances, lights.
 Automobiles: Antilock brakes, engine control modules, airbag controller,
cruise control.
 Process Controllers and Robotics: Remote monitoring systems, power
monitors, machine controllers, medical devices.
 Computer Devices and Office Machines: Keyboards, printers, fax and
copy machines.
Because embedded computers are components in larger products, they usually
are small and have limited hardware. These computers perform various
functions, depending on the requirements of the product in which they reside.
Embedded computers in printers, for example, monitor the amount of paper in
the tray; check the ink or toner level, signal if a paper jam has occurred, and so
on.

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CHAPTER FOUR
COMPUTER HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
COMPUTER HARDWARE

Computer hardware includes all the electrical, mechanical, and the electronic
parts of a computer. Any part that we can see or touch is the hard ware.
Computer hardware includes
 System Unit
 Peripheral devices
 Input devices i.e. keyboard, mouse etc.
 Output devices i.e. Display Unit, printer etc.
 Storage devices like hard disk, floppy disks etc.
 Communication Devices

COMPUTER SOFTWARE
The functioning of the computer is not dependent on hardware alone. So, what
else is required?
It requires a set of instructions that tells the computer what is to be done with
the input data. In computer terminology, this set of instructions is called a
program and one or more programs are termed as software.
Software used for computers may be of different types. Some of which are:

 Application Software
 System Software

Application Software
These are software especially suited for specific applications for example,
Microsoft office suite, coreldraw, mavis, railway and airline reservation, billing,
accounting or software which enables creation and storage of documents are
termed as application software.

System Software
The Operating System manages the various 1/0 devices of the computer and
enables the user to interact with the machine.
The o puter u dersta ds o l a hi e la guage i.e. s a d s. There has to

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be software which translates the user language into machine language.

The software which does this translation is known as the system software.
Examples of system software are compilers and interpreters.

COMPUTER COMPONENTS AND PERIPHERAL DEVICES IN DETAIL

PERIPHERAL DEVICES:
These are computer components which communicate with the CPU (processor)
but are not located directly on the motherboard. Some are linked by expansion
cards in expansion slots on the motherboard or connected directly on the ports
via a cable attached on them. Some peripherals and major components of the
computer are outlined and discussed below:

KEYBOARD:
A computer keyboard closely resembles a typewriter keyboard. It has additional
keys to handle special functions required by a computer. A computer keyboard
has three categories of keys:
 Alphanumeric Keys (Alphabet & Numeric).
 Special purpose keys.
 Function keys.

Alphanumeric keys
Comprises of alphabets (A-Z), numbers (0-9) and other characters.
Special keys
They perform specific functions. Special keys are Enter (return), Backspace,
Insert, Delete, Home, End, Page-Up (PgUp), Page-Down (PgDn), Num-Lock, Caps
Lock, Shift, Alt (Alternate), Ctrl (Control), Esc (Escape) and Cursor (Arrow) keys.
The Shift key when pressed with another key; alters the meaning of any
alphanumeric key for e.g. Shift with ke gi es ou % The Ctrl a d Alt ke s
when used with some other keys perform some special functions e.g. Ctrl, Alt
and Del pressed together restarts the system.
The Esc key is generally used to return to the previous menu or quit a program.
The Cursor is a symbol displayed on the screen at the position where text or
graphics will be inserted or deleted. The Cursor movement keys move the
cursor on the screen.
The Num-Lock is used to activate the numeric keys on the Numeric keypad.

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When Num-Lock is off the keys work like cursor movement keys. Scroll Lock is
used to deactivate/activate scrolling of text on the screen.
The Print Screen is used to print whatever is displayed on the screen.
Enter or Return is used to communicate the end of an instruction or data being
keyed in through the keyboard.
Caps lock is used for keying upper case alphabets.
Backspace is used to erase the character to the left of the cursor position.
The Function keys are used to perform a set of operations using a single
keystroke. The function keys can be defined as special purpose keys. In most of
the software, pressing the F1 key will take you to the help feature.
Other than these keys, 3 status indicators are present on the keyboard. They
are Caps Lock on/off, Num-Lock on/off, Scroll Lock on/off indicators.
There are two type of keyboard. Standard keyboard and Enhanced keyboard.
a) Standard keyboard has functional keys from F1 to F10 (83/84 heavy or
old school)
b) Enhanced keyboard has functional keys F1 to F12 (101 – 104, 106 new
similar to that of typewriter)

MOUSE
A mouse is an input devise which is used to points and select some options on
the VDU. A mouse may have one, two or three buttons. The function each
button depends on the program. When a user rolls the mouse across a flat
surfa e, su h as a desk, the s ree ursor o es i the dire tio of the ouse s
movement. Clicking the mouse results in selecting an option. Positioning a
cursor with the mouse is easier for non-typists than pressing various key
combinations. With an appropriate software, a mouse can also be used to draw
pictures. The Computer mouse is of three types and two classifications.
The three types are:
 PS-2 mouse.
 USB mouse.
 Cordless mouse.
The two classes are:
 Two Buttoned Mouse.
 Three Buttoned Mouse: The centre button has no use and sometimes can

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only be used for scrolling up and down.

SCANNER
There are a number of situations when some information (picture or text) is
available on paper and is needed on the computer disk for further
manipulation. A scanner is used for this purpose. A scanner scans an image and
transforms it into graphics. These can be edited, manipulated and combined,
and then printed. Scanners are used to reproduce photographs on the
computer screen. These can be employed in training programs and in desktop
publishing.
Types of scanner
a) Flat-bed scanner or desktop scanner
b) Optic scanner, looks like a camera
c) Hand held scanner

PRINTER
In order to get a copy of the output for later reference, you would require a
printer. Printers are capable of printing at a very high speed. Two commonly
used printers are the dot-matrix printer and the laser printer. Printers are
classified on the basis of a number of parameters like, the mechanism used for
printing, speed of printing, quality of output, direction of printing, and the kind
of interface they have with the computer.
Printers can be broadly classified as impact and non-impact printers.
Let us understand this in detail.

Impact Printers
Impact printers work like typewriters.
The characters are printed by striking the paper i.e., characters are printed by
pressing a typeface against an inked ribbon a paper. Impact printers can again
be classified as Character printers and Line printers.

Character Printers
Character printers print one character at a time. Examples of character printers
are. Dot Matrix Printer and Daisy Wheel Printer.

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Dot Matrix Printer

The most commonly used impact printer is the dot-matrix printer (DMP). In a
DMP, tiny hammers or pins strike the ribbon to produce the desired characters.
The print head consists of 9x7 arrays of pins. Characters to be printed are sent
one at a time to the printer. The characters printed are a series of dots. Dot-
matrix printers are inexpensive but noisy. They can print both text and graphics.
They can print in any language without additional hardware change. They can
also be made to print in colour by changing ribbons. These printers are used
everywhere to produce internal reports and memos needed by organizations.
Daisy Wheel Printer
In a daisy wheel printer, each petal has a character embossed on it.
A motor spins the wheel along with it. When the desired character spins to the
correct position, a print hammer strikes it to produce a character.
Line printers
Line printers print one line at a time. Hence, line printers are generally faster
than character printers. Printing speed varies from 150 lines to 2500 lines per
minute. Some of the line printers are drum printers and chain printers. These
can continuously print for a few hours.
Drum printers
A drum printer consists of a cylindrical drum. The characters to be printed are
embossed on it. A set of print hammers one for each character in a line, are
mounted in front of the drum. A character is printed by striking the appropriate
hammer against the embossed character on the surface. The drum completes
one revolution to print one line. The movement of the drum and the striking of
the hammer must synchronize. Otherwise, the printing will not be uniform. As
printer drums are costly they cannot be changed often.
Chain Printer
A chain printer has a steel band on which the characters are embossed. The
band is rotated at a high speed. As the band rotates, a hammer is activated
when the desired character comes in front of it. For every character there will
be a hammer. Here also, the hammer movement and the chain movement must
be synchronized. The main advantage of the chain printer is that its chain can
be easily changed. Thus, different fonts and scripts can be used with the same
printer.

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Non-impact printers:
In non-impact printers, there is no contact between the typeface and the paper
while printing. Some examples of the non-impact are laser printer, thermal
printer, and inkjet printer.
Laser Printer
Laser printers print one page at a time. Laser printers use a light beam to form
images on the paper using a toner ink as the medium. Laser printers are quiet
workers. They produce very high quality output both text and graphics. They
are typically used publishing.
Other Non-impact printers
The other types of non-impact printers are thermal printers (which use heat to
print characters on paper) and inkjet printers (which use jets of ink to print
characters on paper). These printers are not in use as much as the laser
printers.

PLOTTER
A plotter is used to create high-quality visuals on paper, which a printer is
incapable of doing. It can be used to create presentation-charts, graphics, tables
and high quality technical drawings.
There are two types of plotters: Drum and Flat Bed plotter.
Drum Plotter
The paper is placed over the drum that rotates back and forth. A carriage
holding one or more pens is mounted horizontally across the drum. The
carriage with the pens moves horizontally over the paper. Each pen could be
filled with different colours. This plotter has the ability to produce colour
pictures.
Flat Bed Plotter
In flat bed plotter, the paper does not move. The carriage holding the pens
should provide all motions. Inkjet plotters can also produce large drawings with
different colours.

SYSTEM UNIT
The processing part of the I-P-O cycle takes place in the system unit. The system
unit consists of primary storage, arithmetic-logic unit, and the control unit. The
arithmetic-logic and control sections together make up the central processing

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unit (CPU).

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CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (PROCESSOR)

The central processing unit (CPU) contains electronic circuits that cause
processing to occur. The CPU interprets instructions to the computer, performs
the logical and arithmetic processing operations, and causes the input and
output operatio s to o ur. It is o sidered the rai of the o puter.

ARITHMETIC-LOGIC UNIT (ALU)

All calculations are performed in the arithmetic section, Operations like
comparing takes place in the logic section of the CPU.
CONTROL UNIT
The control section of the CPU controls and directs the operation of the entire
system. It acts like the central nervous system for all the components though; it
does not process any data.

PRIMARY STORAGE
Primary storage is used for four purposes.
 To store the input data until the CPU is ready for processing.
 As a working storage space like a sheet of paper used for calculations.
 As an output storage area that holds the finished results.
 As a program storage area that stores the processing instructions.
These separate areas are not fixed. The size of each area varies from application
to application.
Primary storage consists of RAM, ROM, and cache
First of all you need to understand how the memory of a computer is organized.
The computer can work with two states ON and OFF. ON state is represented by
a d OFF state is represe ted . This s ste of usi g s a d s is alled as
the binary system.
A or a is alled a it. A olle tio of 8 its is k o as a te. The
o puter s i ter al e or is orga ized as a collection of bytes. The size of

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memory available is measured in Kilobytes (KB) or Megabytes (MB). One

Kilobyte represents 1024 bytes and one Megabyte represents 1024 Kilobytes.
The computer uses three types of memory:- the RAM, the ROM and Cache.
Ram
Random Access Memory (RAM) is the area that is used for holding the
programs and their data while the computer is working with them. RAM means
the memory can be read from and written to randomly. The RAM is also known
as short term memory because once the power is switched off all data in the
RAM is erased.
Common types of boards that hold memory chips
 SIMMs (single inline memory modules)
 DIMMs (dual inline memory modules)
 RIMMs (memory modules manufactured by Rambus, Inc.)

Rom

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It contains permanently recorded instructions that are vital for starting up a

computer. Instructions in ROM can be read but cannot be changed, hence the
name Read-Only Memory. Further, these instructions are not erased when
power goes off One set of instructions found in the ROM is called the ROM-BIOS
which stands for Read Only Memory Basic Input Output Services. These sets of
programs perform the most basic control and supervisory operations for the
computer.
Cache Memory
A o puter s CPU is a fast de i e. But the storage de i es are not as fast as the
CPU. Most of the time the CPU has to slow down because of these devices. A
small section of the high speed RAM is used to keep frequently needed
information.

SECONDARY STORAGE
Co puter s pri ar storage or ai e or is olatile and expensive. So, one
need some storage device to store data and other information. It should be
cheap and should not lose the content when power is switched off. This storage
is called as the secondary storage. All secondary storage devices act both as
input and output devices. Magnetic storage media fulfils these requirements
and most common storage devices are disks and tapes.

Floppy Disk
It is the most common storage media and it helps transferring the data from
one computer to another. Floppies are classified based on their storage density
and data storage sides as:
 Single Sided Double Density (SSDD)
 Single side High Density (SSHD)
 Double Sided Double Density (DSDD)
 Double Sided High Density (DSHD)

A diskette is divided into a series of concentric circles called tracks and within
that into sectors. Data is stored in these sectors. Each piece of data that is
stored, has a track number, a sector number and side number as an address. So
data can be accessed randomly from anywhere on the disk. Hence, it is also
called as Random Access storage.

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Hard-Disk
The capacity of a hard-disk is higher than that of a floppy. The most significant
difference between a floppy disk and a hard disk is that the hard-disk is
completely sealed and is protected from dust and airborne particles. The name
hard disk comes from the rigid platter that is inside the drive. This is, often
called by different names like fixed disk or Winchester disk.
The hard disk comes in different shapes. Most hard disks nowadays store
something close to 500 MB. A hard disk has:
 Platters to store data
 Heads to read and write data from the platters.
 A motor to rotate the platters
 An electronic controller card that monitors the unit.

Magnetic Tapes
Apart from using disks for external storage purposes, magnetic tapes are also
used for storing large amount data.
The magnetic tape could be a large reel or a small cassette. The tape is
essentially a plastic ribbon coated with some material that can be magnetized.
The data is recorded on these magnetic spots. The data on the tape can
however be read or written sequentially only.
Hence, it is called as sequential access storage.

THE MOTHERBOARD
Largest, most important circuit board in the computer, it contains the CPU, with
which all devices must communicate:
 Installed directly on the motherboard
 Linked by a cable connected to a port on the motherboard
 Indirectly linked by expansion cards
It is also called the main board or system board
The motherboard as the mother of all boards on the system comprises the
following hardware connected on it:
 The Processor,
 Disk Drive: Hard disk, Floppy disk drive, CDROM drive
 VGA card / port

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 I/O card / port

 Modem card / port
 TV card
 Sound card / port
 ALU Arithmetic logical unit,
 CU (control unit
 MU (Memory unit).

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Major Components on All Motherboards

For processing:
 CPU
 Chip set
For temporary storage:
 RAM
 Cache memory
Electrical system:
 Power supply connections
For communication with other devices:
 Buses
 Expansion slots
Programming and setup data:
 Flash ROM
 CMOS setup chip
NOTE:
THE BUS: A computer bus technology is a technology that provides means of
transmitting data from one part of the computer to another part of the
computer. The computer bus connects all devices to the computer CPU and

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main memory. The computer bus consists of two parts, the address bus and a
data bus. The data bus transfers actual data, whereas the address bus transfers
information about where the data should go.
THE CMOS: Stores setup (configuration) information.
THE FLASH ROM: Holds software needed to start up PC and begin loading an
OS.

Visual Display Unit (VDU)

This looks like a TV screen and is used to display information. VDUs can work in
two different modes viz. Text mode and graphic mode.
In text mode, the screen is divided into a matrix of rows and columns; each cell
of the matrix is used for one character. A typical screen has 80 character
positions per line and 25 lines across the screen.
In graphic mode, the screen is treated as an array of tiny dots called pixels. The
characters and pictures that appear on the screen are shown by making a
drawing of these pixels. The number of dots on the screen is called as
resolution. The higher the resolution the better the picture. A typical high
resolution monitor has 1024 x 768 pixels across the screen.
Further, a VDU can be a Colour VDU or a Monochrome depending on the video
mode. The formation of images on the screen is handled by the Video
Controller. The Video Controller along with the memory that holds the display-
data are together referred to as display adaptors. Some examples of adaptors
are Monochrome Graphics adaptor (MGA), Hercules Graphics Adaptor (HGS),
Super Video Graphics Array (SVGA).

SYSTEM UNIT IN DETAIL

Now that you are aware of the overall design of a computer system you can go
into little more detail about each component inside your system unit. Though
these details do not affect you as an end user, it completes your knowledge of
the computer.

System Unit
It is a box like structure of the computer. Inside this box you can find the power
supply, storage device, hard disk and floppy drives, and the motherboard
containing CPU and memory. It also contains expansion slots and cards to

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connect various input and output devices. It can also contain optional cards like
the modem card, mouse card, video card, sound card.
System unit or Main unit or Console comes in two styles.
Desktop model and Tower model.

Outside The Main Unit

Indicators
Power on indicator: it glows when the power is on.
Hard disk activity indicator: this gives the information as to whether the hard
disk is being accessed (read from or written to) or not.
Power switch
Depending on the model of the computer, power switch can be anywhere.
Reset switch
Pressing this switch restarts your computer, your power supply.

Inside The System Unit

The Internal Power Supply
One of the main components inside the system unit is the power supply.
The Microprocessor
The CPU or the main microprocessor is the most important chip on the
motherboard. The entire design of the PC is based on this chip. The o puter s
performance depends directly on the CPU. The performance of CPU depends on
the model, version and speed.
Model
Each CPU has a specific model number assigned to it. Given below is the list of
common CPUs produced by Intel Company in an increasing order of their
power, speed and performance.
80386, 80486, 80586 or Pentium.
Version
In each Model of CPU you may find further variations, such as SX, DX, DX2 etc.
In this, SX is less powerful than DX and DX is less powerful than DX2.
Speed
The speed is measured in Megahertz. Higher the value, faster is the information
processed by CPU.

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Clock
All components should work in perfect synchronization, for the computer to
produce the desired results. The clock provides the timing signals in the form of
pulses that are used by the computer components to synchronize their work.
The clock chip uses a quartz crystal. The speed of the clock is measured in MHz.
Speed of Operation
Speed of a computer can be assessed either in terms of the processing capacity
of the microprocessor or by the speed of the computer which is measured in
MIPS (Million Instructions Per Second).
80386 Model can process 32 bits at a time, has a clock speed of 33 MHz and has
a speed of 0.4 MIPS.

The Memory
The internal memory of the PC is in the form of chips.

The Bus
Communication between the microprocessor, the memory chips, and another
chips found on the motherboard is accomplished a set of wires running
between them. This set of wires is called the bus.
The Ports
As in human terminology, ports are used to receive and send goods. Similarly,
the I/O devices like the keyboard, the printer etc. are connected to the system
unit through ports. These ports could be serial or parallel. A serial port, is one
where eight bits queued up and sent bit. In the parallel port all the eight bits are
transferred simultaneously.

The Storage System

The hard disk drive and floppy diskette drive are also mounted in the system
unit.

HOW DOES A SYSTEM START?

The Start-Up Process
Every time a computer is switched on, it goes through a series before the user is
permitted to interact with it.
Stored in the ROM is a set of instructions that check each functional areas of

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the computer. These instructions are called the power on self-test (POST)
program. Forms a part of the ROM-BIOS.
The POST checks the entire RAM area and tests the connections to the various
hardware devices attached, like the keyboard, the disk drive, etc. If problem
occurs with any of the connections to the hardware devices or with the RAM,
POST program reports this on the screen.
The Bootstrap Process
O e the PO“T is o er the e t stage is alled the ootstrap pro ess. No the
computer waits for the operating system to take over. In the BIOS itself, there is
small program called the bootstrap loader, which copies the Operating System
from the floppy or hard disk to the RAM. The bootstrap loader first checks the A
drive for a bootable disk. (A disk that has the Operating System is a bootable
disk). If the disk in that drive is not bootable, errors are reported. If the floppy is
not there in the drive, the hard disk drive is checked. If the hard disk also does
not have the operating system then the computer reports Boot disk failure .
This process of loading or copying the operating system is called booting.

Soft Boot and Hard Boot

The Computer system can be restarted by pressing the keys <Ctrl>, <Alt>, and
<Del> simultaneously. This is known as a soft boot. Using the reset switch or
switching off and then switching on the computer is known as a hard boot.

Connecting your Computer

You must first comprehend the two main steps needed to get your PC working.
They are:
 Connecting the sytem unit, monitor, printer to the power supply.
 Connecting the various components, etc., the monitor (VDU). Keyboard,
mouse, and printer to the system unit.

Before making connections, make sure that the power supply to the PC, printer
and monitor is off, Connecting your system while the power is on may cause
permanent damage to the computer and its peripherals.

Keyboard-System Unit Connection

Plug the keyboard into the circular keyboard socket (also called a port or

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interface in computer jargon) on the rear panel. The position of the keyboard
socket on your system may be different. Before inserting the cable, make sure
that the pin in the cable are lined up with respect to the holes in the connector.
Make sure the keyboard plug is firmly fitted in the keyboard socket.

Monitor-System Unit Connection

Monitor has two cables. One is connected between the monitor and computer,
referred to as the video cable. The other cable is connected between monitor
and power socket called the power cable. The power outlet may be present on
the rear panel of the system unit, in which case the power plug must be
connected to this outlet. Otherwise, it should be connected to the main power
supply. The video cable will go into the respective socket only. Generally, in all
the PCs this so ket is arked as MON .

Mouse-System Unit Connection

The rear panel of a system unit has both serial and parallel ports. The serial
ports are numbered as COM1, COM2 ... and parallel ports are numbered as
LPT1, LPT2, A mouse could be a serial port mouse or a parallel port mouse. You
will have to connect it accordingly.
Connecting a mouse to the machine is not enough. A dedicated program called
the Driver which comes with the mouse has to be executed as per installation
procedures given in the accompanying manual.

Printer-System Unit Connection

Printer unit has two cables. One is connecting the printer to the computer and
another connecting it to the power supply.
Printers are of two types: - Serial and Parallel.
Your printer manual will tell you what kind of printer you have. One end of the
printer cable will be connected to the appropriate port on the real panel. The
other end of the cable has to be connected to the printer. The connector is
tapered so that you can only connect the cable one way.
Normally, you will find small wire clamps on either side of the port to hold the
connector securely. With the cable connected, press the wire clamps into the
notches.

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Power Connection
It is better to connect the PCs to some constant power supply device. This is
required to avoid any damage that could be caused because of power
fluctuations. The commonly used protection devices are Voltage Stabilizers,
Constant Voltage Transformers (CVTs), and Uninterrupted Power Supplies
(UPSs).
In case, you have a CVT or an UPS; o e t our o puter s po er a le to the
CVT or UP“. The CVT s po er a le i tur is to e connected to the mains.

Operating your Monitor

The ON/OFF switch is used to switch on/ switch off the monitor. A monitor has
a light indicator to show whether it is on or off.
The brightness and contrast control knobs are used to adjust the brightness and
sharpness of the text or image on the screen, respectively (similar to the
controls present on a TV).
Some monitor also have knobs to position the image at the centre of the
screen, these are the vertical shift and horizontal shift knobs used to shift the
image vertically and horizontally, respectively. When you are satisfied that
everything is working as it should, turn the power switch off to stop the test.

Maintaining your Computer

To keep your computer system working properly, it is necessary to protect the
hardware from environmental hazards, unreliable power supply and natural
calamities.

The follo i g are so e dos a d do ts for a o puter a d its o po e ts.

General Precautions
Points to be borne in mind while using your PC:
Do
 Keep your computer system in a cool, dry, and dust-free environment.
 Ensure that the power switches on the system unit, monitor and printer
are OFF before switching on the mains.
 Switch off the monitor, system unit and the printer, before switching off
the mains.

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 Clean the computer work area every day.

 Keep your system away from room walls to ensure proper air flow
around the computer.
Do Not
 Allow eating or drinking near the computer.
 Smoke in the vicinity of your computer.
 Allow direct sunlight to fall on your computer.
 Run any electric equipment like a vacuum cleaner in the vicinity of the
computer when it is on.

Maintaining your System Unit

Do
 Park the hard disk before shifting the machine, when the unit needs to be
transferred from one site to another.
Parking refers to positioning the disk head on an unused area to ensure
that the head does not damage the disk.
 Handle the floppy drive lever gently.
 Ensure that there is no diskette, flash drive or external storage device
connected to the computer before switching on or off the system unit.
Do Not
 Switch on the system with an external storage device connected to the
computer.
 Switch off the system when the hard disk drive is active, i.e. when the
indicator is glowing.

Maintaining Your Keyboard

Do
 Clean the keyboard regularly.
 Use a vacuum cleaner keyboards as it can extract the dust collected
between the keys.
Do Not
 Strike the keys hard as those of a manual typewriter since these keys are
soft touch.
 Rest your hands on the keyboard.

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 Keep anything on the keyboard.

 Use the keys after switching off the system.
 Stretch the keyboard cable.

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