bapter =o: iSof Stability and Root Locus >) 4.60 Let, @, = Gain crossover frequency 4,.= ZGGo) ata =o,. At ge Oye = ZG(j0)] og. = -BO— tan"104 «55 — tana, By definition of phase margin, Phase margin, y= 180°+,. ‘The required phase marginis 40°, = 40° 2 tan OA ag, + tan"'oy, = 50° On taking tan on eithar side we get, ton (arp) = 20 Attn B Lee i tanAtanB tan [tan10.405. + tan", |= tan 50° 180° - 90° —tan*Ot0.~tanto, => tan 0.10, +tan tog, = 180° - 90° — 40" tan tan“'Oog. + tan tan™o,. O-t0gs +g 1.4095 : - = 1192 ou Toten tr'Oo,, x tn taro, "> To, Ko, = Come Ne ‘On cross multipiing the above equation we get, Wg, = 1192 (1- Ose) => 0119203, + 1hrg, - 1192-0 " 1192 5%. -10=: 8 + ayag3 0 GaaeD™ 0%, +9.228 wg, -10=0 9, = 29228 = 02287 44x10 _ -9.228 2111873 iil a ~ 2 ‘Onteking positive value we get, 9.228 + 114873 = 0.98 rad/sec K IGGo)l=1 5 [GGo)L og our O0m,? frog? + 0.0409.” 1+ Wg, + K2 Og 4140.00,” Y1t 05." =0. 98 ¥1+0.01, 0.08" [1+ 0.98" =1.3787 1 RESULT Foragain margin of6 db, K=5.5135 Foraphase margin of40°,_K= 1.3787 48 ROOTLOCUS The root locus technique was introduced by W.R.Evans in 1948 for the analysis of control systems. ‘The root locus technique is a powerful tool for adjusting the location of closed loop poles to achieve the desired system performance by varying one or more system parameters. Rn 8 (S+p,) (S+P2) ‘The closed loop transfer function of the system with unity feedback is given by, K CS) __Gs)___ 88+) +P.) K RG) 1+G(s) yj, Ks (8+ p,) +P.) +K s(s+pi) +P2) Consider the open loop transfer function of system G(s)=4.61 The denominator polynomial of C(sV/R(s) is the characteristic equation of the system. The characteristic equation is given by, : s(s+p)(S+p,)+K=0. The roots of characteristic equation is @ function of open loop gain K. [In other words the roots of characteristic equation depend on open loop gain K J. When the gain K is varied from 0 to'=n, the roots of characteristic equation will take different values. When K = 0, the roots are given by open loop poles. When K-09, the roots will take the value of open loop zeros. ‘The path taken by the roots of characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied from 0 to are called root loci (or the path taken by a root of characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied from 0 to 0» is called root locus). Note : In general the roots of characteristic equation can be varied by varying any other system Parameter other than gain. In general the closed loop transfer function of system with multiple loops is obtained from the signal flow graph of the system using Mason's gain formula. LO) _ RO T(s)= < ERA, (Refer chapter 1 séction 1.12) The determinant, A is the denominator polynominal of C(s)/R(s). The characteristic equation of the system is given by , A= 0 . For the single loop system shown in fig 4.8 Ris) lava f(s) cH) _ Gs) "Ga RG) 1+6@HO H(s) }« The Characteristic equation is, a 14+G(s) H(s) = 0 ©. G(s) H(s) = -1 (42) From equation (4.22) it can be concluded that the roots of the characteristic equation occur only for those values of s for which, G(s)H(s) = -1. The equation (4.22) can be converted to two Evans conditions given below, {G@H@|=1 ZG(S)H(s)= £180" (2q +1), where q = 0,1,2,3, The equation (4.23) is called magnitude criterion and equation (4.24) is called angle criterion. The magnitude criterion states that 5 = 3, Will be a point on root locus if for that value of s, IG) H(| = 1.[chapter 4 ~ Conecepisof 4.62 The angle criterion states that s = s, will be a point on root locus if for that value of s, ZG(8) HG) is equal to an odd multiple of 180°. The function G(s)H(s) can be expressed as-a ratio of two polynomials in s as shown below. (+2) (s+2) (+5) GH =k B42) G22) 6%) (4.25) eae (s+ Pr) (+ Pa) (+ Ps), |G@HO] = K +ai)x[s+z2|x[p*zs).~ {s+p,]x|s+ palx|s+p. where, m= Number of zeros of loop transfer function. . n= Number of poles of loop transfer function. The magnitude criterion states that |G(s)H(S)| = Tils+2 Dijs+p, xattal Ls de sca i (4.26) Tijs+ pil Hs al The open-loop gain K corresponding to a point s= s, on root locus can be calculated using equation (4.26), It can be shown that |s + p| is equal to the length of vector drawn from s =p, to s = s, and js +z] is equal to the length of vector drawn from s =z, to $= s,. Hence the equation K can be written as, Product of length of vector from open loop poles to the point s= sq. Product of length of vectors from open loop zeros to the point s= sq From equation (4.25), LG(s)H(6) = 2(8+ 2) + Z(s+ 23)+ L(S + 25)+.-L(S+ Py) — L(S+ Pr) — L(S+ Ps )ene = 26+2)-Y) 26+p) a a where, m= Number of zeros of loop transfer function. n= Number of poles of loop transfer fimetion. * The angle criterion states that £G(s)H(s) = #180° (2q + 1) L8+4)-}) As+p))=4180°2q+1) son(.27) The equations (4.27) can be used to check whether a point s = s, is a point on root locus or not. It can be shown that (s+p) is equal to the angle of vector drawn from s~ p, to s ~ s, and Z(s+z) is equal to the angle of vector drawn from s = z, to s = s,. Hence equation (5.27) can be written as ( Sum of angles of vector) (Sum of angles of vector | from open loop zeros |~} from open loop poles |= £180° (2q+1) ‘ to the point s=sq (to the point s=sq46 Beara Systems Taginivering ) CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCUS The exact root locus is sketched by trial and error procedure. In this method, the poles and zeros of G(S)H() are located on the s-plane on a graph sheet and a trial point s = s, is selected. Determine the angles of vectors drawn from poles and zeros to the trial point. From the angle criterion, determine the angle to be contributed by these vectors to make the trial point as 2 point on root locus. Shift the trial point suitably so that the angle criterion is satisfied. ‘A number of points are determined using the above procedure. Join the points by a smooth curve which is the root locus. The value of K for a particular root can be obtained from the magnitude criterion. ‘The trial and error procedure for sketching root locus is tedious. A set of rules have been developed to reduce the task involved in sketching root locus and to develop a quick approximate sketch. From the approximate sketch, a more accurate root locus can be obtained by a few trials. RULES FOR CONSTRUCTION OF ROOT LOCUS Rule 1 ; The root locus is symmetrical about the real axis. Rule 2: Each branch of the root locus originates from an open-loop pole corresponding to K = 0 and terminates at either on a finite open loop zero (or open loop zero at infinity) corresponding to K =0o, The number of branches of the root locus terminating on infinity is equal to n—m, (.e., the number of open loop poles minus the number of finite zeros) Rule 3 : ‘egments of the real axis having an odd number of real axis open-loop poles plus zeros to their right are parts of the root locus. Rule 4; The n—m root locus branches that tend to infinity, do so along straight line asymptotes making angles with the real axis given by, _ 180° q+) n-m * bs q=O1 Rule 5: The point of intersection of the asymptotes with the real axis is at s = 6, where, Sum of poles—Sum of zeros nm Rule 6; The breakaway and breakin points of the root locus are determined from the roots of the equation dK/ds = 0, If r numbers of branches of root locus meet at a point, then they break away at an angle of +180°/r. Rule 7: The angle of departure from a complex open-loop pole is given by, 6, = £180° (2q+ 1) +5 9= 01,2) on where @ is the net angle contribution at the pole by all other open loop poles and zeros. Similarly the angle of arrival at a complex open loop zero is given by, , = £180° 2q+ 1) +9; 9= 0, 1, pve where 6 is the net angle contribution at the zero by all other open-loop poles and zeros.4.64 Rule 8: The points of intersection of root locus branches with the imaginary axis can be determined by use of the Routh criterion. Alternatively they can be evaluated by letting s= ja in the characteristic equation and equating the real part and imaginary part to zero, to solve for @ and K. The values of @ are the intersection points on imaginary axis and K is the value of gain at the intersection points. Rule 9 ; The open-loop gain K at any point s = s, on the root locus is given by, I. +Pil _ Product of vector lengths from open loop poles to the point sq fiz] Product of vecior lengths from open loop zeros to the point sq a Note : The length of vector should be measured to scale. If there is no finite zero then the product of vector lengths from zeros is equal to 1. TYPICAL SKETCHES OF ROOT LOCUS PLOTS Angle of departure ep S-plane Root locus on real axis ofimaginary axis Centroid (meeting point of 5. © asymptote with real axis) Se 85 25 Angle of departure ze jor Angle of — aeval s-plane o |__Angle of ‘Arrival PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS. Step 1: Locate the poles and zeros of G(s)E(6) on the s-plane. The root locus branch starts from open loop poles and terminates at zeros. ‘Step 2: Determine the root locus on real axis. Step 3; Determine the asymptotes of root locus branches and meeting point of asymptotes with real axis. Step 4: Find the breakaway and breakin points.465 contd § Step 5: If there is a complex pole then determine the angle of departure from the complex pole. If there is a complex zero then determine the angle of arrival at the complex zero. ‘Step 6: Find the points where the root loci may cross the imaginary axis. Step 7: Takea series of test points in the broad neighbourhood of the origin of the s-plane and adjust the test point to satisfy angle criterion. Sketch the root locus by joining the test points by smooth curve. . Step 8 : ‘The value of gain K at any point on the locus can be determined from magnitude condition, ‘The value of K at a point s = s, , is given by, product of length of vectors from poles to the point, product of length of vectors from finite zeros to the point, s | ‘Note : When there is no finite zero, the denominator is taken as unity. The length of vectors | | should be measured to scale. | EXPLANATION FOR THE VARIOUS STEPS IN THE PROCEDURE FOR CONSTRUCTING ROOT LOCUS Step 1 : Location of poles and zeros Draw the real and imaginary axis on an ordinary graph sheet and choose same scales both on real and imaginary axis. The poles are marked by cross "X" and zeros are marked by small circle "o". The number of root locus branches is equal to number of poles of open loop transfer function. The origin of a root locus is ata pole and the end is at a zero. Let, = number of poles m = number of finite zeros Now, m root locus branches ends at finite zeros. The remaining n-m root locus branches will end at zeros at infinity. Step 2 : Root locus on real axis In order to determine the part of root locus on real axis, take a test point on real axis. If the total number of poles and zeros on the real axis to the right of this test point is odd number, then the test point lies on the root locus. If it is even then the test point does not lie on the root locus. Step 3 : Angles of asymptotes and centroid If nis number of poles and m is number of finite zeros, then n—m root locus branches will terminate at zeros at infinity. These n—m root locus branches will go along an asymptotic path and meets the asymptotes at infinity, Hence number of asymptotes is equal to number of root locus branches going to infinity. The angles of asymptotes and the centroid are given by the following formulae. Angles of asymptotes = 2180@a*1) n—m where, q = 0, 1, 2, 3, ......(t-m) Sum of poles Sum of zeros Centroid (meeting point of asymptote with real axis) = comStep 4: Breakaway and Breakin points ‘The breakaway or breakin points either lie on real axis or exist as complex conjugate pairs. If there is a root locus on real axis between 2 poles then there exist a breakaway point. If there is a root locus on real axis between 2 zeros then there exist a breakin point. If there is a root locus on real axis between pole and zero then there may be or may not be breakaway or breakin point. Let the characteristic equation be in the form, B(s) + K A(s) = 0 ~Bis) A(s) The breakaway and breakin point is given by roots of the equation dK/ds = 0. The roots of dK/ds = 0 are actual breakaway or breakin point provided for this value of root, the gain K should be positive and real. Step 5: Angle of Departure and angle of arrival Angle of Departure i (om of angles of vector to the ] (Sum of angles of vectors to the) (from a complex pole A), complex pole A from other poles) (complex pole A from zeros ‘Note : The angles can be calculated as shown in fig 4.9 or they can be measured using protractor. 9, = 180%tan' = joa b 3 / a | 8, = 180% tan® = \s-plane e | 8, = 90° a | 9, =tant 2 d @, =tan” & e A Fig 4.9 : Calculation of angle of departure Example: | Consider the two complex conjugate poles A and A* shown in fig 4.9.(if poles are complex then they exist only as | conjugate pairs) | Angle of departure] _ s goe_¢g, 405465) + (0) +04) | atpoleA | Laie | Angle of departure] | eel a “h —[Angle of departure at pole A] |467 GDRonirol Systems Engineering) Angle of arrival at a] complex zero A Sum of angles of vectors to the) _ ‘Sum of angles of vectors to the complex zero A from all other zeros) \ complex zero A from poles} Note : The angles can be calculated as shown in fig 4.10 or they can be measured using rotractor| 9, =180°— tan? 2 b Poa 8, = 180% tan = é @, = 90° a 0, = tan? — . d 6, = tant e x Fig 4.10 : Calculation of angle of arrival Example: Consider the two complex conjugate zeros B and BY as shown in fig 4.10.(Ifzeras are complex ‘then they exist only as conjugate pairs) Angle of arrival “Lamnts |. 180°-(8, +63) + (@, +6, +8s) Angle of arrival at zero B* \. ~[Angle of arrival at zero B] Step 6 : Point of intersection of root locus with imaginary axis The point where the root loci intersects the imaginary axis can be found by following three methods. 1. By Routh Hurwitz array. 2. By trial and error approach. 3. Letting s =j in the characteristic equation and separate the real part and imaginary part. Two equations are obtained : ane by equating real part to zero and the other by equating imaginary part to zero, Solve the two equations for @ and K: The values of @ gives the points where the Toot locus crosses imaginary axis. The value of K gives the value of gain K at there crossing points. Also this value of K is the limiting value of K for stability of the system. Step 7 : Test points and root locus Choose a test point. Using a protractor roughly estimate the angles of vectors drawn to this point and adjust the point to satisfy angle criterion. Repeat the procedure for few more test points. Sketch the root locus from the knowledge of typical sketches and the informations obtained in steps | through 6.4.68 | Note : In practice the approximate root locus can be sketched from the informattons obtained in | steps 1 through 6 and from the knowledge of typical sketches of root locus. DETERMINATION OF OPEN LOOP GAIN FOR A SPECIFIED DAMPING OF THE DOMINANT ROOTS The dominant poles a pair of complex conjugate pole which decides the transient response of the system. In higher order systems the dominant poles are given by the poles which are very close to origin, provided all other poles are lying far away from the dominant poles. The poles which are far away from the origin will have less effect on the transient response of the system. The transfer function of higher order systems can be approximated to a second order transfer function: The standard form of closed loop transfer function of second order system is, ee: R(s) on joe Weoys+ or | | 8,.%-———H+J0, f1-2 s-plane ‘The dominant poles, s,and s,*, are given by the roots of quadratic factor, s4#2Ca,sto2 = 0. Wat naa? = iors feet 808 oe, aE 238 The dominant pole can be plotted on the s-plane as shown in fig 4.11. In fig 4.11, the right angle triangle OAP, Fig 4.11 : Dominant pole, 8, oa =cos tt To fix a dominant pole on root locus, draw a line at an angle of cos"! with respect to negative real axis. The meeting point of this line with root locus will give the location of dominant pole. The value of K corresponding to dominant pole can be obtained from magnitude condition. Let, K,, be the value of gain at dominant pole s,» Now, x., = Product of length of vectors from open loop poles to dominant pole » “sd Product of length of vectors from open loop zeros to dominant pole Importance of root locus The root locus technique is an important tool in designing control systems with desired performance characteristics. The desired performance of the system can be achieved by adjusting the location of its closed loop poles in the s-plane by varying one or more system parameters. ‘The root locus can be plotted in the s-plane by varying a system parameter (usually gain, K) over the complete range of values. The roots corresponding to a particular value of the system parameter can then be located on the locus or the value of the parameter for a desired root location can be determined from the locus. The root locus technique is also used for stability analysis. Using root locus the range of values of K, fora stable system can be determined. It is also easier to study the relative stability of the system from the knowledge of location of closed loop poles. The dominant roots are used to estimate the damping ratio and natural frequency of oscillation of the system. From ¢ and @, the time domain specifications can be calculated.469 EXAMPLE 4.22 K Aunity feedback control system has an open loop transfer function, G(s) =; Sketch the root locus: siete ds+ 13) SOLUTION Step 7 ; To locate poles and zeros The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation, s(s*+4s+13)=0. ‘The roots of the quadratic are, s= ~The poles are lying at s= 0, —2 +j3 and—2-)3. Letus denote the poles as P,, P,, and P,. Here, P,= 0, P=-2+j3andP,=-2-33. The poles are marked by X (cross) asstiown in fig 4.22.1. Step 2 : To find the root locus on real axis Thereis only one pole on real axis atthe origin. Hence if we choose any test point on the negative real axis thento the right of that point the total number of real poles and zeros is one, which is an odd number. Hence the entire negative real axis willbe part of rootiocus. The rootlocus on real axis is shown as a bold line in fig 4.22.1 ‘Note : For the given transfer function one root locus branch will start at the pole at the origin and meet the zero at infinity through the negative real axis. Step 3: To find angles of asymptotes and centroid Since there are 3 poles, the number of root locus branches are three. There is no finite zero. Hence allthe three root locus branches ends atzerosat infinity. The number of asymptotes required are three. 180° Angles of asymptotos = ="9° 2a") : g#0,4, -m Heren= =0. 0,1,2,3. When 4=0, When g=1, When q=2, Angles =+“°°*° - 1300°= 760° When q=3, Angles =2420°= 460° ‘Note: [tis enough if you calculate the required number ofangles. Here itis given by tirstthree values ofangies. The remaining values vill be repetitions ofthe previous values. Sum of poles ~ Sum of zeros _ 0-2+/8-2-j8-0_-4_ 139 n-m 3 3 Centroibiliiy aad Root Locus 4.70 The centroid is marked on real exis and from the centroid the angles of asymplotes are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are dravm as dotted lines as shown in fig 4.22.1. 4.33 centroid] Pe Fig 4.22.1 : Figure showing the asymptote, root locus on real axis and location of poles and centroid Step 4-: To find the breakaway and breakin points K The closed loop] C(s)__ Gis) s(st44s+13) _ K transfer function| R(s) 1+G(s) 4, Ks (s7+48433)+K 8 (8°74 48413) ‘The characteristic equationis, s(s*+4s-+13)+K=0 . SHH4s241354K=0 => K=-shds?135 _, On differentiating the equation of K with respectto s we get, So (35? + 85.413) put Ko ds + ~@s?+8s+13)=0 = (3s?+85+13)=0 yo \ 82 NB 40133 «passing 2x3 Check for K: When, s= 1,33 +]1.6, the value of Kis given by, Ka{o'+4s?+ 13s) = (1.33 +j1.6 + 4 (1.33-+)1.6)* + 13 (1.33 +)1.8)) Se positive and real. Also itcan be shown that when s =—1.33-j1.6 the value of Kis notequalto real and positive. Since the values of K for, s=1.33:)1.8, are not real and positive, these points are not an actual breakaway or breakin points. The roctiocus has neither breakaway nor breakin point. Step 5: To find the angle of departure Letusconsider the compiexpoie p, shown in fig 4.22.2. Draw vectors from all other poles to the pole p, as shown in fig 4.22.2. Let the angles of these vectors be®, and ,. Here, 0, = 180°-tanr'(3/2)= 123.7" ; @,=90" ‘Angle of departure from the complex pole p, = 180°—(0, +8,) = 180° -(123.7° +90") =-33.7°Fig 4.22.3. : Root locus shet-h of, 1+ G(s) = 1+—- K s(6 445413).hie A= Concepis'of Stability Gnd Root Locus ~) 4.78 The angle of departure at complex pole p, is negative of the angle of departure at complexpole A - Angle of departure at pole p, = + 33.7° Mark the angles of departure at complex poles using protractor. Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis ‘The characteristic equation is given by, 4452+ 130+K=0 Puts =jo (@)+4(o)+13§0)+K=0 >-Jo*~40?+ 13j0+K=0 On equating imaginary partto zero, weget, | On équating real part to zero, we get, 0+ 1300 -4o?+K = 0 -07 =-130 K = 40? oO =13 > o=tyi3=236 The crossing point of root locusis = j3.6. The value of K atthis crossing point is K= 52. (This is the limiting value of K forthe stability of the system). The complete root locus sketch is shown in fig 4.22.3, The root locus has three branches one branch starts at the pole at origin and travel through negative real axis to meet the zero at infinity. The other two root locus branches starts at complex oles (along the angie of departure), crosses the imaginary axis at-+ 3.6 and travel parallel to asymptotes to meet the zeros atinfnity. EXAMPLE 4.23 x13 = 52 ‘Sketch the root locus of the system whose open loop transfer function is, Gis) = eT Find the value of k sothat the damping ratio of the clased loop system is 0.5. SOLUTION Step 1: To locate poles and zeros ‘The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation, s(s#2) (s*4) = 0. +The poles are lying at, s= 0,-2,-4. Let us denote the poles as p,, p,, and p,, = Here, p,= 0, p,=-2, p,=-4, ‘The poles are marked by X(cross)as shawn in fig 4.23.1 Step 2 : To find the root locus on real axis There are three poles onthe real axis. Choose a test point on real axis between s = 0 and s =-2. To the right of this point the total number of real poles and zeros is one, which is an odd number. Hence the real axis between s= 0 and s = —2will be a partof rootlocus. Choose a test pointon real axis between s = -2 and s=—4, To the right of this point, the total number of real poles and Zer08 is two which is an even number. Hence the real axis between s = -2 and s = — 4 will not be a part of root focus. Choose test point on real axis to the left of s =~ 4. To the right ofthis point, the total number of real poles and zeros is three, which is an odd number. Hence the entire negative real axis from s =—4 to~cowill be a part of roat locus. ‘The root locus on real axis are shown as bold lines infig 4.23.14.73 Step 3 : To find asymptotes and centroid Since there are three poles the number of root locus branches are three. There is no finite zero. Hence all the three rom: locus branches ends atzeros at infinity. The number of asymptotes required are threo. 20" at) nm Angles of asymptotes Here,n=3andm=0. -.q=0,1,2,3 When g=0, Angles e 280° When q=1, . Angles=+ 1803 - s120° Note: itis enough if you calculate the required number ofangies. Here it is given by first three vatues of angles. The remaining values will be repetitions of the previous values. Centroid = Sum of Roles — Sum of zeyos 0-2 4-0 nm 5 ‘The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the Figazza.s Figaro showing ‘td asinpieny angles ofasymptotes are marked usinga provacior. Theasympioles page Jacus on real ais and location of poles are drawn as dotted lines as shown in fig 4.23.1 cared cad bevoizuay prints Step 4 : To find the breakaway and breakin points K The closed loop| Cis) __Gis)__s (#2) (64) _ transfer function{ R{s) 1+ G(S) 44. s(s+2)(s+4) + K $(8+2)(6+4) The characteristic equations given by, s(6+2)(s+4)*K=0 => — S(s*46848)+K=0 = 59+ 6s?+B5+K=0 K=-s?- 652-85 On differentiating the equation of K with respectto s we get, Kia? ak +1288) SK = (Gs? + 128-8) pur SK. ds «43s? +125 +8)=0 => (387+125+8)-0 (Check for K: When s = -0.845, the value of K is given by, [(-0.845)? + 6(-0.845) + B(-0.845)] = 3.08 Since K, is positive and real for, s =-0.845, this pointis actual breakaway point. When s =-3.154, the value of Kis given by, K == [(-3.154) + 63.154)? + 8-3. 154)] = -3.08 54, this Is nota actual breakaway point. Since K, is negative for, s ‘The breakaway pointis marked on the negative real axis @s shown in fig 4.23.14.74 Fig 4.23.2. : Root locus sketch of , 1+ G(8) =1+ = 1 s(6+2)(6+4)"4.75 Step § : To find angle of departure Since there are no complex pole or zero, we need not find angle of departure or arrival. Step 6 : To find the crossing point of imaginary axis ‘The characteristic equation is given by, s°+687+8s+K=0 Puts=jo Gop + 6fo)’ + 890) +K=0 jo? 80? + 80+K=0 Equating imaginary part to zero Equating real parttd zero -fo? + Bo =0 602K =0 i K=60? =6x8=48 V8 = 228 | ‘The crossing point of root iocus is * 2.8, The value of K corresponding to this pointis K = 48. (Thisis the limiting value of Kfor the stability ofthe system). The complete root locus sketch is shown in fig 4.23.2. The root locus has three branches. One branch star at the pole ats =~ 4 and travol through negative real axis to meetthe zero at mfnity. The other two root locus branches staris ats = and 5=~2and travel through negative real axis, breakaway from real axisats = -0.845, then crosses imaginary axis ats=+)2.8.and travel parallel to asymptotes to meet the zeros at infinity To find the value of K corresponding to ¢ = Given that¢=0.5 Leta= cos" = cos? 0.5=60° Drawa line OP, such that the angle between line OP and negative real axis is 60° (a = 60°) as shown in fig 4.23.2. The meeting point of the line OP and root locus gives the dominant pole, s, Letk,, be value of K corresponding to the points =s, _ Product of length of vector from atl poles to the point, Product of length of vector from ail zeros to the point, s 4xh 1 ‘Note : The length of vectors are measured to scale. od 13x 1.7535 =7.96=8 EXAMPLE 4.24 The open lop transfer functon ofa uy feedbacksystemisgivenby, G(s) = — e oe <7 Sketch he rotlocus ares ofthe system. SOLUTION Step 1 : To locate poles and zeros The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equations, (s°+ 4s + 11) =0. At v4? 4x11 2 ‘The roots of the quadratic are, s = 2+j264Ce its of Stab Gnd Root Locus 4.76 «The polesare lying at, s = 0,-2 + j2.64, ~2-j2.64 Thezeros are lying at, s =-9 and infinity Letus denote the poles as p,, p,, p, finite zero byz,. , p= 242.64, p,=-2-j2.64 andz,=-9. Here, ‘The poles are marked by X(cross) and zeros by "o" (circle) as shown in fig 4.24.1 Step 2 : To find the root locus on real axis. One pole and one zerolie on real axis. Choose atest pointto the left of s= 0, then to the right of this point, the total number of poles and zeros is one which is an odd number. Hence the portion of reat axis from s = Oto s = -9 will be a partofrootiocus. Ifwe choose a test pointto the left of s =-9 then to the right of this point, the total number of poles and zeros is two, which isan even number. Hence the real axis from s = -9 too will not be a part of roct locus. ‘The root locus on real axis is shown as a bold line in fig 4.24.1 Step 3 : To find angles of asymptotes and centroid ‘Since there are 3 poles, the number of rootlocus branches are three, One root locus branch starts atthe pole at origin and travel along negative real axis to meet the zero ats =-9. The other two root locus branches meet the zeros at infinity, The number of asymptotes required are two. Angles of asymptotes ae ae) 5 q#0,1,2,....n-m Here,n=3andm=0. .q=0/1,2,3. 180" ‘When q=0, Angles When q=1, Angles 180° x5 2 ‘Note : [tis enough # you calculate the required number of angles. Here itis given by firsttwo values ofangles. The remaining values will be repetitions of the previous values. = +450°= 290" When q=2, Angles= ‘Sum of poles - Sum of zeros _ 0~ 2+ j2.64—2~ j264—(-9) Am 2 “The centroid isn.arked and from the centroid, the angles of asymptotes are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines as shown 4.24.1. Centroid = = 25 (Gentroia) Fig 4.24.1 : Figure showing the asymptotes, root locus on real aivis and location of poles, zero and centroid4.77 Step 4: To find the breakaway and breakin points From the location of poles and zero and from the knowledge of typical sketches of root locus, it can be concluded that: there is no possibility of breakaway or breakin points. Step 5 : To find the angle of departure Letus consider the complex pole p, as shown in fig 4.24.2. Draw vectors fromall other poles and zero to the pole pas shown in fig 4.24.2. Letthe angles of these vectors be0,,0, and0,. Here,8, = 180° tar 24 = 127-6 @, = 90° = tan 284 _ 97° 7 Angle of departure from] | > 2 = 180 -(6,+8, the complex pole p> 1+02)+9% 5 =180" ~(127.1°+90°) +207" = 164° payee The angle of departure at the complex pole p, is negative of Fig 424.2 the angle of departure at complex pole p,. +. Angle of departure at pole p,= -(-16.4)= +16.4" Mark the angles of departure at complex poles using protractor. Step 6 : To find the crossing point of imaginary axis k(s+9) The closed loop} C(s)__ Gis) __s(s?e4s+1) _ K(s+9) transfer function} Ris) 1+G(s) 4, K(6*9) 3 (8° +4841 +K(S+9) s(s?+45+11) “The characteristic equation is the denominator polynomial of C(s\R(s). ~The characteristic equationis, s(s°+45+11)+K(s+9)=0 => (s°+4s?+115)+Ks+9K=0 puts =jo (jo)? +40)? +140) +KG@)+9K=0 jo An? + jt fo + fKo + 9K = 0 On equating imaginary partto zero, | On equating real part tozero, | + Jo? + Jie +}Ka =0 > —jo?=-fln-jKo | ~407 + 9K. > 9K = 40? 2 114K |. Put, @=11+K 2.9K =4(11+K)= 4444K PutK=88, -.0%=11+88=198 | HK 4K = 44 o> 2V198 = 244 2 K=44 > The crossing point of root locus is +44 4. The value of K at this crossing pointis the stability of the system). 8 (This is the limiting value of K fori Rook Locus Fig 4.24.3. : Root locus sketch for, 1+G(s) = 1+ K (+9) s(s°+4s+11)4.79 The complete root locus sketch is shown in fig 4.24.3. The rootlocus has three branches. One branch starts at pole at origin and travel through negative real axis to meet the zero ats = -9. The other two root locus branches starts at complex poles (along the angle of departure) crosses the imaginary axis at +#4-4and travel parallel to asymptotes to meetthe zeros at infinity. EXAMPLE 4.25 Sketch the root locus for the unity feadback system whose open oop transfer function is, K GIs) H8)= 544) (6? 48> 20) * SOLUTION Step 1: To locate poles and zeros ‘The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation, s (+4) (s*+4s+20)=0. ah Va 4 1x20 2 The roots of the quadratic are, E244 *. The poles are lying at, $= ‘The zeros are lying atinfinity. ,—4,-2+j4 and -2-44 Let us denote the poles as p,, p,, p, and p, Here, p.=0, p,=—4, p,=-2+j4, and p= -2-} ‘The poles are marked by X (cross) as shown in fig 4.25.1. Step 2 : To find root locus on real axis There are two poles on the real axis. Choose a test point on real axis between $= Gand s =—4. To the right of this point, the total number of real poles is one which is an odd number. Hence the real axis between s = 0 ands = -4 will bea part ofroot locus. Choose a test pointto the left of s =-4, nowto the rightof this test point the total number of poles and zeros is two which is even number. Hence the real axis from s =—4 to s =—=»will not bea part of root locus. The root locus on real axis is shown ‘asa bold line in fig 4.25.1. Step 3 : To find angles of asymptotes and centroid Since there are four poles, the number of root locus branches are four. There is no finite zero. Hence all the four root locus branches ends at zeros at infinity. Hence the number of asymplotes required is four. Anglos of asymptotes == 180_@a*1) 970, 1,2, unm Here, n= 3 and m=0. --9"0,1,2,3. waa ‘Note: it is enough if you calculate the When q=0, Angles= 2180 _ gee required number ofangles. Here itis given by ne Mest frst four values ofangles. The remaining will be repetiticns of the previous values. When. q=1, ‘The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the angles of asymptotes are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines as shown in fig 4.25.1.Com ex “x, Bronraway “gant SL Gentros and’ Zo, | States ae Ses Ps A ! bie bad er" ww Compiex—pt——"t Breakaway | rs me Pe Bs # ‘ HF noo ocus ‘on foal axis plane Fig 4.25.1 : Figure showing the asymptotes, root locus on real axis and location of poles, centroid and breakaway points, Step 4: To find the breakaway and breakin point K ce) 5 (544) (6 + 48220) R@) 1+Gis) 4, K 8 (8+4) (57443420) The characteristicequationis, s{s +4) (s?+4s +20) +K=0. The closed loop] C(s)__ Gis) transfer function K=~s (8+ 4) (8? + 48 +20) = (5? + 4s) (s? + 48+ 20) {s* + 8s° + 36s? + 80s) On differentiating the equation of K with respectto s we get, xs =~(4s + 245? + 72s + 80) 7 : To find the real root of “X= 0 by Lin's method. ‘The first trial divisoris chosen as the last two terms of the polynomial 1 trial 1 trial Tiel disor =185+20=8+ 2051.11 Trial divisor =12.578+20=5 +22 s?+4.808+12.57 s?+441si11 $+1.11|s* +68? +18s+20 $+1.59| 8? +65? +185 +20 +1118? '5.41.5962 80s" + 185 Aas? 18s 89s? + 5.435 4.418? +75 Next trial divisor + 12.57s +20 Next trial divisor > 11s +20 12.578 +13.95 is +17.49. 6.05 K 5 (+4) (6+ 45+20)+K 251 ay st 188 4.80481 Since the remainder converge for every trial, Or trial let us approximate the root to s = -2. On | dividing the polynomial by s +2, we found Trial divisor =115+20 that (s+2) is a divisor of the polynomial. | wei Fas 11.82 s?445+10 32+4.188=104 s+2 Diag 2 4.96? $+1.82[6° +68" + 18920 SS 4s*+18s Is? + 1.828" aes? 185+ 4s?+8s 4.185" + 185+20 4 41188*+7.6s 10820, Aa 10s +20 10.45+20 5 10.48 +18.9 Ww Put, x 1 (-ds*+ 24s? +728+80)=0 => 4s* +2d57 + 728+ 80=0. On dividing by 4 we get, s? + 6s? + 189+ 20-0. The equation s* + 6s" + 18s +20 = Owill have atleast one real root. By trial and error, the real rootis found to be $=~2, (Refer Appendix I! for Lin's method.) ‘The polynomial, (s*+ 652+ 185 +20) = 0, can be expressedas, S¥+ 6s? +185 +20 =(5+2)(s?+ds+ 10)=0 The rootof the quadratic, s?+4s+10=0, are given by, gate! 4x10 _ -2j2.45 2 ah Check fork : When, s=-2, K= (31 + 88° +388" + 80s) = -[(-2)* +8 x (2)? + 36 x (-2)? + 80 x (| =-[-64]= 64 When, s=-2+j245= 31622129" K=-(s* + 8s? + 36s? + 80s) =~(3.162 £129°)* +8 x (3.162 £129°)? + 36 x (3.162 4129°)? + 80x 3.162 4 129° = 99.72 4 158°+252.42 4 27°4+359.52 4 258° 252.8. + 120°] For positive values of angles, K =-[-91+ [40+ 225+ j115- 75 - j351- 159+ j196] For negative values of angles, K = ~[-91- j40 + 225 + j115 - 75 + j351- 159 - j196]=-[-100]= 100 For all the roots of the equation dkK/ds = 0, the value of K is positive and real. Hence alll the three roots are actual ‘breakaway points. The breakaway points are shown in fig 4.25.1 [-100]= 100Lehapier F= Concepts of Stability and Root Locus 4 +t Root locus sketch of 1+G(s)=1+ s(s+4) (s° +48+20)48 Step 5 : To find angle of departure Letus consider the complex pole p, shown in fig 4.25.2. Draw vectors from allother poles to the pole p, as shown in fig 4.25.2. Let angles of these vectors beé,,0, and 8, Here, 0,=180"-tan*4 Fig 4.25.2 tu ° ee at = 180° —(@,+6, +85) 2180" ~(117° + 90° +63°)=-90° The angle of departure st complex pole pis negative ofthe angle of departure at complex pole p, +. Angle of departure from complex pole p,= +80* Mark the angles of departure at complex poles using protractor. Step 6 - To find the crossing point on imaginary axis ‘The characteristic equation is given by, s* + 853+ 36s?+ 80s +K=0. puts =jo, o)*+ 80)" + 36(jo? + 80 (a) +K=0. of ~j80? 3602+ j800+K=0. (On equating imaginary part to zero, ‘On equating reat part to zero, (10)? +(38.x 10) = 260, Tho crossing point of rootiocus is #43.2. The value of K at this crossing pointis K= 260. (This is the limiting value of K forstabitty) The complete root locus is sketched as shown in fig 4.25.3. The root locus has four branches. All the root locus branches goes to infinity along the asymptotic lines to meet the zeros at infinity. EXAMPLE 4.26 ‘Sketch root locus for the unity feedback system whose open loop transfer function is, os) Hie) = KH) 8 (s+ 1) (+5) - SOLUTION Step 7 : To locate poles and zeros ‘The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation, s(s +1) (s +5)= Oand the zeros are the roots of the equation, (8 +4.5)=0. The poles are lying at, s= 0, ~-1,-5. The zeros are lying at, s=—1.5 and infinity.Chapter 4 = Concepis of Stability and Rook Locus 4.04 Letus denote poles by, ,, p,, p,and finite zero by 2, Here, p,=0, p,=-1, p,=-Sandz,=-155. The poles are marked by X(cross) and zeros by “o" (circle) as shown in fig 4.26.1. Step 2; To find root locus on real axis ‘The segmentof real axis between s=0 and s =—1 and the segment of real axis between s =-1.5 ands =~5willbea part of root locus. Because if we choose a test pointin this segment then to the right of this point we have odd number of real poles and zeros. The root locus on real axis are shown as bold lines in fig 4.26.1 Step 3 : To find angles of asymptotes and centroid ‘Since there are three poles, the number of root locus branches are three. There is one finite zero, so one root locus branch will end at finite zero. The other two branches will meet the zeros at infinity. Hence the number of asymptotes required istwo. + 180° (2q+1) _ Angles of asymptotes = a=0, 1,2, =m Here,n=3endm=1, +.q=0,1,2. When q=0, Angies= +180 _ so9° Contrcid = SUM of poles - Sum of zeros 20 n=m 2 ‘The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the angles of asymptotes are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines as shown in fig 4.26.1. (Controia } 2.25 Foot locus on real axis Fig 4.26.1: Figure showing the asymptotes, root locus on real axis and Iocation of poles, zeros, centroid and breakaway points. Step 4 : To find the breakaway and breakin points K(s#1.5) Maines ooF) Cis; Gis) _ 50st )(s+5)__ K(s+1.5) transfer function! Rs) 1+G(s) 4, __K(@+75) “5 (41) (6+6)+KiS+15) (+1) (S+5) The characteristicequationis, s(s+1)(s+5)+K(s+1.5)=0 7s (s*1)(St+5) _ -s(s?+68+5) _ ~(s°+6s* + 5s) +15 +15 s+4.85 On differentiating K with respectto s we get, ak _ ~(887+128+5) (s+1.5)-[-(6°+ 657+ 5s){1) ds (s+ 15)? = 38° — 45s? - 12s? - 18s - 58-75 +s? +6s? +58 (s+15)* = 0.58" — 18s 2(8° + 5.25s* +95 +3.75) (215 (+15) For x =0, tho numerator should be zero. 2. 8° 4525s? + 954375=0 ‘The third order bolynornial will have one real root. The real root of the above polynomial can be determined by Lin's method. (ReferAgpendix ). | To find the real root of, _s° + 5.255° + 9s + 3.75 = 0, by Lin's method ‘The last two terms of the polynomial are chdsen as I* trial divisor. 1 trial 11° trial ¢ Tiel dvisor=95+3.75=8+ 27254042 | wre Wialdvisor =6.975+3.75= 5+ 275 =5 1 0.54 s?+4:83s +6.97 $?+4.715+6.46 | s+0.d2/s4 6.255" +08+3.75 $+0.54[s° +5258" + 95+3.75 |? +0.42s? is? + 0.548? 4.838? +98 4.718? +95 4,835? + 2.038 Tis? + 2.545 s+3.75: IPS trial divisor 6.46 +3.75 If* trial divisor —> 6.975 +2.93 6.468+3.49 0:82 28 tt trial Iv" trial litt? Trial divisor = 6.468 +3, r928e28 =8+0.58{ IV" Trial divisor = 6.35 +3.75 =51 30 =5+06 8*+4.678+6.3 | s°+4.65s+6.2 | Is + 0.58| s? +5.258°4 98 +3.75 s+0.6/ s*+5.25s? +9s+3.75 Is? - | s9+0.68? 4.678? +98 4.658" +95 467s? +2.78 4.858" +2. |IV™ trial divisor —-6.3s +375: 6.38+3.65 oA Onneglecting the small value of 0.03, one of the reotof the polynomials, s=-0.6, The polynomial, s+ 5.258? + 9s-+3.75 = 0, can be expressed, S°+5,25s?+ 9s #3.75 = (s+ 0.8) (s+ 4.855 + 6.2)-0.Fig 4.26.2. : Root locus sketch of, 1+G(s)=1+ s(s+1)(s+5)°4.87 ‘Engin ‘The roots of the quadratic, (s* + 4.65s + 6.2), are, ~485 + ¥465?~- 4x62 _ =-23 089 : 23% jl -(s°+6s? +5s) _ -eo8? + 6(-0.6)* + 5(-06) sb =06+15 For s =-0.6, the value of K is positive and real and so itis actual breakaway poirit. Itcan be shown for s =-2.3 40.86 the value of K is not positive and real and so they cannot! be breakaway points. = actual breakaway pointis shown in fig 4.26.1. Check for K : When s=-0.6, Siep 5 : To find angle of departure ‘Since there dre no complex pole or zero we need nol find angle of departure or arrival. Step 6 : To find crossing point of imaginary axis. ‘The characteristic equation is, s (+1) (+5) +K (S#1.5) Puts = jo (io) + 6(fo)? + 5{i0) + Ko) + 15K=0 > —jo* G0? + j50 + Ko + 15K =0 ‘ys (e?+6s+5)+Ks+15K=0 = s*+6s?+5s+Ks+15K=0 ‘On equating imaginary partto zero, we get, | On equating real parttozero we get, -jo? + j50 + jKo =0 =60? + 15K =0 puto? =5+K ~6{(5+K)+1.5K=0 -30-45K=0 30 -45K = 30 — = kee Since tho value of Kis negative, there is no crossing point on imaginary axis, or for any positive values of K, and soft rootlocus will not cross imaginary axis. The complete root locus sketch is shown in figure 4.26.2. The root locus has three branches. One branch stars —Sand ends at finite zero at s = ~1.5. The other two root locus starts at s = 0 and s =~1 and breakaway from real axis 5=-0.6, then travel parallel to asymptotes to meet the zeros at infinity. EXAMPLE 4.27 ~6.67 Sketch root locus for the unity feedback system whose open loop transfer functions, _K(s? +6s+25) Ge) = Fert) G2)" SOLUTION Step 7: To locate poles and zeros “The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation s(6+1)(s+2) = 0 and the zeros are the roots of} equation (s+ 6s +25) = 0. V6? -4% 25 =-34j4 The roots of quadratic are, $= ‘The poles are tying ai, © The zeros are lying at, sWF Root Locus > 4. 88 gf Letus denote poles by p,, p,, p; and zeros byz,, 3-4. ‘The poles are marked by X (cross) and zeros by "o" (circle) as shown in fig 4.27.1 Here, p,=0, p,=—1, p,=-2,2,=-3 +4, z, 1 0; Pes 2, zy 2 Step 2 : To find root locus on real axis ‘The segmentof real axis between s =0 and s =~1 and the entire negative real axis from s = -2 will be partof root locus. Because if we choose a test point in this segment then to the right of this point we have odd number of real poles and zeros. The root locus on real axis are shown as a bold line in fig 4.27.1 . Step 3 : To find angles of asymptotes and centroid Since there are three poles the number of root locus branches are three. There are two finite zeros, so two root locus branch will end atfinite zeros. The third root locus will meet the zero at infinity by travelling through negative real axis. Here the number of asymptote is one and the angle of asymptote is +180". jo Root locus on real stoas / be Bibcendy pit Fig 4.27.1 : Figure showing the root locus on real axts location of poles, zeros and breakaway points. Step 4 : To find the breakaway and breakin points K (s?+65+.25) The closed loop] Cis)__G{s) __s(sti)(st2) K (6? +83 +25) transfer function| R(s) 1+ Gis) |, Kis? + 68+ 25) 3 (8+) (8+2)+K(s" + 68+ 25) s(s¥1) (+2) ‘The characteristic equations, $(s + 1}{s +2) + K(s*+ 6s +25)=0. (s+1)(s*2) (6° +3542) _-s°-3s?-25 87+ 6s+25 8?+68+25 8? +65+25 On differentiating K with respect to.s we get, dk _ (3s? - 6s ~ 2) (s? +65 +25)— 3s? — 2s) (2s+6) ts (6+ 65+ 25)" ~3s‘ — 18s* — 75s? ~ 6s* ~ 36s - 150s - 2s*- 128-50 = 128" + 65° + 68° + 18s? + 45? +128 2 7(8' + 128% +9167 + 1508 +50) (8° +68 +25) (8° +6s +25) ak For [= 0, the numerator should be zero. <8‘ +12s* +915? + 150s +50=04.9 CiGenirob systems Engineering The fourth order polynomial can be split into two quadratic equations, The two quadratic factors can be obtained ay Lin's method. (Refer Agpenaleil). | 70 tind quadratic factors by Lin's Method. The first trial divisorbe the last three terms 1" trial We trial Trial divisor = 91s? +150s+50 I Trial divisor = 73.375? + 144.38 +50. = 1443 ., 50 : 8? 41-658 40.55 = Py st qag7 78 + 28+07 8? +10.35s+73.37 s?+108+703 ie Ls Lal ates cote ANISH. s?42s+07[s' +125) +915" + 1508+50 8% 41.658? + 0.555? s‘ +28? +078" 10.35s* + 90.45s*+ 150s 10s? + 90.38" +150s 10.35s* + 17.088? +5.7s 10s? + 20s? +7s if tral divisor > 73.378" + 144.38 +50 703s? +1436 +50 73.378? + 121.18 + 40.35 70.38? +140.65 +492 23.25 +9.65 24s+08 ‘Onneglecting the small remainderwe can write, s*+128° +918? + 150s +50 ~ (s? + 25 +.0.7) (s? + 108+ 70.3) The roots of the quadratic, s*+2s+0.7=0, are, 2 parte VF 4507 _ gag 155 2 ‘The roots of the quadratic, 's*+ 10s +70.3=0, are, vi0?-4x 703 2 54/673 -55 is nota pointon root locus, hence it cannot be a breakaway point, Checktthe other three values for actual breakaway point. 8 - 3s? - 28 s?+68+25 45)? — 3(-0.45)* (0.45)? + 6-045) +25 When s=-0.45, K 0.017 Fors = -0.45, the value of is positive and real-and so it s:actual breakaway point. It can be shown that for = -5)6.73 the value of K is not positive and real and so they cannot be breakaway points. The actual breakaway pointis shown in fig 4.27.1 Step 5 : To find angle of arrival Let us consider the complex Zero z, shown in fig 4.27.2. Draw vectors from all other poles and zero to the zero z,2s shown in fig 4.27.2. Let tne angles of these vectors be 0,,0,, 0, and 0,4.90 Here; 0, =180°~ tan 9,5 180°— tan —Le s-plane ot t a 9,= 180° tan"! = 104°, i 2 8,=90° 4 Angle of arrival at; 4 asropieieaata'2, } 180(0,)#(8) +9, +03) = 180°-90°+126.9°+116.6°+-104° = 4375°= 775° Fig 4.27.2 Angle of arrival atcomplex zero z, is negative of the angle of antival at complexzeroz,. +. Angle of arrival at complex zero 2, } =-778° Mark the angles of artival atcomplexzeros using protractor. Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis The characteristic equations, 5(8+1) (S+2)+ K (s?+65+25)=0 s{s?+35 +2)+ Ks? 6Ks +25K=0 s°-4+358-425 + Ks?+6Ks +25K = 584(34K)s? +(246K)3+25K =0 (io) +(3+K) (jo)? + (2#6K) (0) + 25K =0- = —jo*— B+K) 0 + (248K)0+25K=0. ‘On equating imaginary partto Zero ‘On equating real partto zero jo? +)(2+6K)o = 0 —(34+K)o? + 25K =0 -(2+8K)o Put o? = 2+6K (2+ 6K) ~(3+K) (2+ 6K) +25K=0 —(6+18K + 2K + 6K?) + 25K =0 ~ 6K? + 5K-6 =044j09 2x(-6) Since the value of K is notreal and positive, there is no crossing point on imaginary axis, or for any positive values of K the root locus will not cross imaginary axis. Step 7 To find points. on root locus Choose test points a, b, c, dontthe s-plane and adjust the tost points to satisly angle criterion. The test points are shown in ig 4.27.3.0n the upper half of s-ptane the root locusis sketched through the test points a, b, cand d. The roct locus on the lower half ofs-plane is the mirror image of the root locus on the upper half ofs-plane:491 Kis? 465425) Fig 4.27.3. : Root locus sketch of, 1+ G(s) =1+ 5 (6+ 1) (+2)‘The complete root locus sketch is shown in fig 4.27.3. The root locus has three branches. One branch starts ats =-2 and goes to infinity along negative real axis. The other two rootlocus branches starts ats =Oands=-1 andbreaks from real axis ats=-0.45, then meets the complex zeros. EXAMPLE 4.28 Sketch the root locus for the unity feedback system whose open loop transfer functionis, K Sal ‘9(8° +68 +10) - SOLUTION Step 1: To locate poles and zeros The poles of open loop transfer function are the roots of the equation, s(s?+ 6S + 10)=0. ie 2 ‘The poles are lying et, s=0,—3+j1 and-3-1 Letus denote the poles as p,, p,, and p,- Here, p,=0, p,=—3ej1, and p,=-3-j1. ‘The poles are marked by X(cross) as shown in fig 4.28.1 Step 2 : To find the root locus on real axis x10 The roots ofthe quadraticare, s= 32 i! There is only one pole on real axis at the origin. Hence if we choose any test point on the negative real axis then to the right ofthat point the total number of real poles and zeros is one, which is an odd number. Hence the entire negative real axis will be part of root locus. The root locus on real axis is shown are three. ‘Note : For the given transfer function one roat locus branch will startat the pole at the origin and meet the zero at infil through the negative real axis. Step 3 - To find angles of asymptotes and centroid ince there are 3 poles, the number of root locus branches are three. There is no infinite zero. Hence all the three root locus branches ends atzeros at infinity. The number of asymptotes required are three + 180° (2q+1) am Angles of asymptotes = =0, 4,2, num. Here,n=3andm=0. — -.q=0,1,2,3 When q=0, Angles= ae 60° ae When g=1, Angles =+ 122. S =+180° sum of poles — sum of zeros _ ™ 3 “The centroid is marked on real axis and from the centroid the angles of asymptotes are marked using a protractor. The asymptotes are drawn as dotted lines as shown in fig 4.28.1. Centroid= Step 4: To find the breakaway and breakin poirts K Gs). Gis) __ sis?+68+10) K The closed loop transfer function, Fie) 1s % era GK We 65+ 10) ‘The characteristic equation is, s(s?+6s+10)+K=0493 On differentiating the equation of K with respect to swe get, ~3s*- 128-10 Put 0 BR B|& ~3s*-128-10=0 > ~12#V12?-4x3x10 263 148 or ~ 2.82 Check for K: When, $=-1.18, K=-s*-6s*-10s =—(-1.18)°-6(-1.18)2-10(-1.18) = 5.09 When, $=-2.82, K=—s!-6s*-10s: =—(-2.82)*- 6(-2.82)- 10(-2:82) = 2.91 + Since the values of K for s = -1.18 and -2.82 are positive and real, both the points are actual breakaw=) or breakin points. Itcan be proved that s=-2.82 isa breakin pointand s =—1.18 is a breakaway por ‘The breakin and breakaway points are shown in fig 4:28.1. [Also the value of K for s = -2.82is less than the value of for s = —1.18, therefore when root locus travel from s = -2, to 1.18, the value of K increases] : jo L plane A jt o Brgakeway paint, s=+4.18 is . Fig 4.28.1 : Figure showing the asymptotes, root locus on real axis and Location of poles, zeros, centroid, breakin and breakaway poiras. Step 5: To find the angle of departure Consider the complex pole p, shown in fig 4.28.2. Draw vectors from ail other poles to the pole p, a8 shown in fig 4.28.2. Let the angle of these vectors be 8, and6,. Here, 8, = 180°-tan“'(1/3) = 161.6° 8,= 90° Angle‘of departure from! the compiex pole pz | = 180° (6,03) = 180° —(1616° + 90°) = -716° ~ 72° The angle ot departure at complex pole p, is nogative of the angle of ‘departure et complex pole p,. ~ Angle of departure at pole p,= +72 ‘Mark the angles of departure at complex poles using protractor.ae 3(s’ +6s+10) Fig 4.28.3. : Root locus sketch of , 1+ G(s) = 1+-495 Step 6 : To find the crossing point on imaginary axis ‘The characteristic equation Is given by, s(s*+6s+10)+K=0 -> s*+6s*+10s+K=0 Puts=jo. (o)'+ 6Gjo}'+ 10§e)#K=0° => -jo*6a?+j100+K=0 On equating imaginary pertto zero we get, | On equating real part to zero we get, 0100 = 0 o°= 100 o7=10 o=2V10 =33.16 =232 ‘The root locus crosses imaginary axis at 43.2 and the gain K corresponding to this pointis 60. This is the limiting value of K for the stability of the system. The complete roct locus sketch is shown in fig 4.28.3. The rootlocus has three branches. One branch starts ats =O.and g0es to infinity along negative real axis. The other two root lacus branches starts ats = -3 +1 and enter the real axis at = ~2.82and then breakaway from real axis ats =—1.18. Finally they travel paralle! to asymptotes to meet the zeros at infinity. 4.9 NYQUIST AND ROOT LOCUS PLOTS USING MATLAB In general, the open loop transfer function of a system is denoted as G(s). Let, G(s) be a rational function of "s", as shown below. Fay 8+ ay For drawing Nyquist and root locus plots, the transfer function G(s) is declared as a function of s using the following commands. setts); | Gs=(bO*SAM+b1#*SA(M-1)+. ..+bM) /(a0*SAN4al*SA(N-1)4...+aN);| The coefficients of numerator and denominator polynomials of the transfer function are determined using the following command. {numcof den_cof]=tfdata(és) ; ‘The horizontal and vertical axes range for the Nyquist and root locus plots can be specified using the axis command as shown below. axis([xstart xend y_start y_end] NYQUIST PLOT The Nyquist plot can be plotted using any one of the following commands. nyquist(Gs nyquist(es,"k"); nyquist(num_cof, den_cof); ROOT LOCUS PLOT The root locus plot can be plotted using any one of the following commands. rlocus(¢s); rlocus(Gs,"k'); rlocus(num_cof, den_cof);4.101 istry singincering 4,10 SHORT QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS 041 04.2 04.4 045 04.6 04.7 04.8 04.9 04.10 O411 Define BIBO stability. A linear relaxed system is said to have BIBO stability if every bounded (finite) input results in @ bounded (finite) output. What ts impulse response? The impulse response of a system is the response of a system for impulse input and itis given by inverse Laplace transform of the system transfer function What is the requirement for BIBO stability? The requirement for BIBO stability is that, j mi(t) dt «). Hence the system will be stable. What is the necessary condition for stability? ‘The necessary condition for stability is that all the coefficients of the characteristic polynomial must be positive. What is the relation between stability and coefficient of characteristic polynomial? If the coefficients of characteristic polynomial are negative or zero, then some of rodts lie on right half of s-plane, Hence the system is unstable. If the'coefficients of characteristic polynomial are positive and if no coefficient is zero then there is a possibility of the system to be stable provided all the roots are lying on left half of s-piane. What will be the nature of impulse response when the roots of characteristic equation are lying on imaginary axis? if the roots of characteristic equation lies on imaginary axis the nature of impulse response is oscillatory. What will be the nature of impulse response if the roots of characteristic equation are iying on right half of s-plane? When the roots are lying on the real axis om the right half of s-plane, then the response is exponentially increasing. When the roots are compiex conjugate and lying on the right half of s-plane, then the resporise is oscillatory with exponentially increasing amplitude. What is the principle of argument? The principie of argument states that fet F(s) be an analytic function and if an arbitrary closed contour in the clockwise direction is chosen in the s-plane so that F(s) is analytic at every point of the contour. Then the corresponding F(s)-plane contour mapped in the F(s)-plane will encircle the origin, N times in the anticlockwise direction, where N is the difference between number of poles .P and zeros Z of F(s) that are enclosed by the chosen closed contour in the s-plane. {i.e., N= PZ). What is the necessary and sufficient condition for stability? The necessary and sufficiont condition for stability is that all of the elements in the first column of the routh array should be positive.4.12 04.13 04.14 O415 04.16 04.17 04.18 04.19 04.20 4.102 What is routh stability criterion? Routh criterion states that the necessary and sufficient condition for stability is that all of the elements in'the first column of the routh array be positive. If this condition is not met, the system is unstable and the number of sign changes in the elements of the first column of routh array corresponds to the number of roots of characteristic equation in the right half of the s-plano, What is auxiliary polynomial? In the construction of routh array @ row of all zero indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor of the given characteristic equation. in an even polynomial the exponents of s are even integers or zero only. This even polynomial factor is called auxiliary polynomial, The coefficients of auxiliary polynomial are given by the elements of the row just above the row of all zeros. What ts quadrantal symmetry? The symmetry of roots with respect to both real and imaginary axis is called quadrantal symmetry. In routh array what conclusion you can make when there is a row of all zeros? All zero row in routh array indicates the existence of an even polynomial as a factor of the given characteristic equation. The even polynomial may have roots. on imaginary axis. What is limitedly stable system ? For a bounded input signal, if the output hes coristant amplitude oscillations then the system may be stable or unstable under some limited constraints. Such a system is called limitedly stable. What is Nyquist stability criterion? tf G(s)H(s)-contour in the G(s)H(s)-plane corresponding to Nyquist contour in s-plane encircles the Point ~1 +0 in the anti-clockwise direction as many times as the number of right halt s-plane poles of G(s}H(s). Then the closed loop system is stable. What is root locus? The path taken by a root of characteristic equation when open loop gain K is varied from 0 to « is. called root locus. What is magnitude criterion? ‘The magnitude condition states that s of G(s)H(s) is equal to 1, (Le. |G(s)H(s) will be a point on root locus if for that value of s magnitude K (842) (82,) (8 +25) (S*p,) (8+ Pz) (S+Ps) .... +.For $=, be @ point in root focus, K [89 #241 [Sp #Zol [8p *Zol ans {G(s) H(s)|= 172} a Sat Rahs ay 182 *Pil [62 *Pal IS. *Pol [ Product of length of vectors from open loop zeros to the point s, Let, G(s) His}= 4 IG(s) H(s)] =K = Product of length of vectors from open loop Zeros to the point S,._ SFG) Hist) Product of length of vectors from open loop poles to the points, What is angle criterion? The angle criterion states that s = s, will be a point on root locus if for that value of s the argument or phase of G(s)H(s) is equal to an odd multiple of 180°, fi.e., plane a) Fig 04.300 Fig 04,3064.105 iia spstorns tghnoorng In contour shown in fig Q 4.202 the -1 +0 pointis encircled once in clockwise direction and once in anticlockwise directién. Hence net encirclement is zero. Since no poles are lying on right half s-plane and net encirclement of ~1+j0 is zero, and so the system is stable, In contour shown in fig Q4.30b the -1440 point is encircled once in anticlockwise direction but ther= is no pole on right half hence and hence the system is unstable. 411 E41 BA2 E43 E44 E45 E46 EXERCISES Using routh criterion determine the locations of the roots of the following characteristic equations and comment on the stability of the systems. a) 28° + 251459) +5874 384+5=0 d) Sits +45) + 24s? +35+63=0 0) 354 + 10s? +55? + 55+ 3=0 @) 8425" + 2457 + 485? — 258-500 ©) 255 + 4° 454-3259 + 51s? +38+15=0 fi) 86+ 35° + 55% +957 +887 +6540 The characteristic equations for certain feedback control systems are given below. In each case. determine the range of values of K, for which the system is stable. a) sf +399 +35? +5+K=0 o) sSits'rs?+s+K=0 b) si +sf4+ Ks 4s? 4541-0 d) st +3 43Ks?+(K+2s+4=0 e) st 458 4 3(K + Is? + (7K + s+ AK +7 =0 Open-loop transfer functions of certaln unity feedback systems are given below. In each case determine the location of closed loop poles In the s-plane, using routh criterion. Comment on the stabllity of closed loop system. ‘ 200 (1+s) #66 e+) S14 0.1) (1+ 0.28) (1+ 0.55) s(s— I) (s? +45 +16) 10 25 5) G{s) = ——_____,—_—_ = ) GS) = po +5425) 9 OO aise) a) Gis)= Open-iaop transfer functions of certain unity feedback systems are given below. In each case determine the range of values of K for which the system Is stable. K(s+ 13) bd) G&S S(S+3)(s+7) K(s+2) 9 eo= —AG? __ a ate SS + 5Y(S? + 28+ 5) The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback control system is given by G(s)=K(s+2)/ (5-2) (s+55+16). Determine the value of K which will cause sustained oscillations in the closed-loop system and what is the corresponding oscillation frequencies? a) G(s) = d) 6 The open-loop transfer functions of certain unity feedback system are given below. In each case, shetch the Nyquist plot and determine the stability of the system. _K6+3) K(s+5)(s+40) 9 0)" ) D GOS p00\s = 1000 a K » o@-— - ? O77 2 = He END =A +39) Gt) ~~ A 9 OO" Tess) IW . TiasayChapter 4 Concepis of Stability and Root Locus > 4.106 E47 Determine the phase margin and gain margin of the system with following transfer functions. 20 s+ DS? + 2s+2) E48 The open-loop transfer function of a unity feedback system is given by, G(s)= K/(1+0.5s)(1+5). 4) Determine the value of K so that the gain margin of the system is 6 db. b) Determine the value of K so that the phase margin of the system is 30°. E49 The open-loop transfer functions of certain unity feedback systems are given below. Sketch the root locus of each system. 9 66) 9 O9)= a 9 60 = ay DOO" ar secmm 9 Cr foi mee o Wes 2+ 2 ote w ow ii E410 A unity feedback system has an open-loop transfer function, G(s). = K(s?+8s+32). Sketch the root locus and determine the dominant closed loop poles with (=0.5. Determine the value of K-at-this point. E411 Draw the root locus plot for a unity feedback system having forward path transfer function, G(s) = KA (+1) (045). a) Determine the value of K which gives continuous oscillations and the frequency of oscillation. 4) Determine the value of K corresponding to a dominant closed loop pole with damping ratio, G07.