Mechanics of Material and Structure

Subjective: 15 marks (one short + one long question) Prepared By: Pawan Chand
Objective: 4 marks (two questions)
The subject strength of material or mechanics of materials deals with analytical methods for determining
the strength (Stress), stiffness (strain and deformations) and stability (slenderness and buckling loads)
for load carrying components in various applications.
1. Stress and Strain
1.1 Stress (𝛔): When some external forces are applied to a body, then the body offers internal resistance
to the forces. The magnitude of the internal resisting force is numerically equal to the applied forces. These
internal resisting force per unit area is called stress. Stress may be tensile or compressive.
𝜎 = 𝑃/𝐴 , Its unit is same as unit of pressure. SI unit is N/mm2 or MPa.
Stress

Direct Stress/Simple Stress Indirect Stress Combined Stress Thermal Stress

Normal Stress Shear Stress Bending Torsional

Tensile stress
Compressive Stress
Figure: Types of Stress
A. Direct Stress
(a) Normal Stress (𝛔): Stress acting perpendicular to the area of cross section. Stress are either
compressive or tensile.
(b) Shear stress (𝛕): Stress acting along or parallel to cross sectional area of member is known as shear
stress.
B. Indirect Stress
(a) Bending stress (fb): Stress produced due the bending moment. 𝛔b ⍺ M (Bending moment).
𝑓 = 𝑀/𝑍
(b) Torsional Stress (𝛕t): Shear stress produced by twisting moment (torque) applied at the end of shaft
about its axis.
𝜏 = 𝑇𝑅/𝐽
𝛕t α R (Radius of shaft) i.e. Zero at center and maximum at outer edge.
C. Combined Stress: Stress produced due to direct and indirect stresses act simultaneously.
1.2 Strain (e): It can be defined as the change in geometry per unit original geometry. Geometry in terms
of length, area and volume. It is dimensionless number i.e. it has no unit, it is just ratio.
a) Engineering Strain: Change in length per unit original length, e = dl/l
b) Superficial strain: Change in area per unit original area. e a= dA/A
c) Volumetric Strain: Change in volume per unit original volume. e v= dv/v
d) Shear Strain: Strain produced due to shear forces. The shear strain is measured by the change in
angle with normal to the plane of application of force.
𝛾 = tan 𝜙; For small strain, 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜙 ≅ 𝜙 =

1.3 Poisson’s Ratio (ν or 1/m): It is ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain. Its value lies in between
-1 to+0.50. For Engineering material its value lies 0 to 0.50. Its value may be negative too.
∆
Poisson’s Ratio (𝜈) = − =− ∆
Rubber 0.50

Copper 0.33

Steel 0.27-0.30

Wood 0.25

Cast Iron 0.20-0.30

Concrete 0.10-0.20

Cork 0

1.4 Hooke’s law: It states that within the elastic limit stress is directly proportional to the strain.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠(𝜎) ∝ 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛(𝑒) or 𝜎 = 𝐸𝑒
Where, E is proportionality constant and is known as Young’s modulus of elasticity
For steel Es = 2.0*105 N/mm2 or 200 Gpa.
For Concrete 𝐸 = 5000 𝑓 c Mpa, Where fc is characteristic strength of concrete.
- Modular ratio = 𝐸𝑠/𝐸𝑐
- Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G): Ratio of shear stress to shear strain. 𝐺 = 𝜏/𝛾

- Bulk Modulus of elasticity (K): It is a ratio of normal stress in all three mutually perpendicular
direction to volumetric strain. 𝐾 = −𝑑𝑝/(𝑑𝑣/𝑣)

1.5 Relationship between elastic constants (E, K, G and ν):

𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝜈) 𝐸 = 3𝑘(1 − 2𝜈) 𝐸=
1.6 Stress-Strain diagram: Curve representing the relationship between stress and strain of material
under tensile test is known as stress-strain curve. In this curve stress is plotted in y-axis and corresponding
strain is plotted in x-axis as shown in figure. The key points of stress strain curve as explain below.
 Point O is an origin of curve i.e. no loading condition or just before loading start.
  OA- Stress-strain diagram moves in straight line. Linear elastic zone and point A is known as
proportionality limit. In this zone, stress is directly proportional to strain i.e. Hooke’s law holds
good.
 AB- Non-linear elastic zone and point B is known as elastic limit i.e. after removal of load, material
regains its original shape.
 CD-Yielding Zone, Yield stress, marking the transition from elastic to plastic behavior, is the
minimum stress at which a solid will undergo permanent deformation or plastic flow without a
significant increase in the load.
 DE- Strain Hardening Zone: Rising part of stress strain curve beyond the lower yield point is
known as strain hardening. In this region metal becomes harder than that in elastic limit.
 E- Ultimate point, corresponding stress is ultimate stress which is the maximum stress to which
material can be subjected to tensile test.
 EF: Necking Zone; Cross sectional area reduces significantly.
 F- Breaking point, rupture takes place, corresponding stress is nominal breaking stress
 Slope of stress strain curve within the elastic limit gives the value of Young’s modulus of
elasticity (E).

Figure: Stress Strain Curve for typical mild steel

 True stress-strain curve always lies above the nominal stress-strain curve. It means that true stress
is always greater than nominal stress.

1.7 Thermal Stress: Stress produced due to change in temperature is known as thermal stress.
 If one end is free to move, change in temperature does not produces any stress. It means that
thermal stress depends upon the support conditions.
 If both ends are fixed, increase on temperature produces compressive stress whereas decrease in
temperature produces tensile stress.
  Change in length (𝑑𝑙) = 𝑙. ⍺. 𝑑𝑡 where l is length of bar, ⍺ is coefficient of linear expansion, dt
change in temperature.
 Thermal strain (et) = 𝑑𝑙/𝑙 = (𝑙. 𝛼. 𝑑𝑡)/𝑙 = 𝛼. 𝑑𝑡
 Thermal Stress (𝜎 ) = 𝛼. 𝑑𝑡. 𝐸

1.8 Elongation of Bar

Let us consider a prismatic bar having length ‘l’ and area of c/s ‘A’ fixed at one end as shown in
figure.’ W’ be the load acts on free end of bar which produces elongation dl.
Now, from Hooke’s law, stress (𝜎) = strain (e)* E
Also, 𝛔 = W/A ; e = dl/l l
𝑾 𝒅𝒍 𝑾𝒍
= ∗ 𝑬; 𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏(𝒅𝒍) =
𝑨 𝒍 𝑨𝑬
𝜸 𝑳𝟐 𝑾𝑳
 Elongation due to self-weight 𝒅𝒍 = = W
𝟐𝑬 𝟐𝑨𝑬
𝒅𝒍 𝑾
 Strain in bar is 𝑒 = =
𝒍 𝑨𝑬
𝑾𝑳
 Elongation of conical shape bar due to self-weight 𝒅𝒍 =
𝟔𝑨𝑬
 The elongation of conical bar under its own weight is equal to 1/3 rd of prismatic bar of same length.
*Calculate the elongation in Bar as shown in figure below. A=400 mm 2 and E=200 GPA
45KN 15 KN 7KN 37KN
750mm 1200 mm 1500mm
Solution: At first drawing free body diagram of system
45 45 30 30 37 37
A B C D E F
Now, 𝛥AB = PlAB / AE = 45000*750/400*2*105 = 0.42 mm
𝛥BC = PlBC / AE = 30000*1200/400*2*105 = 0.45 mm
𝛥CD = PlCD / AE = 3700*1500/400*2*105 = 0.69 mm
Total Elongation 𝛥 = 𝛥AB + 𝛥BC + 𝛥CD = 0.42mm +0.45mm + 0.69mm =1.56 mm

2. Material Properties
1. Elasticity: Ability of material to regain its original shape after removing the load applied to it.
Steel is most elastic material.
2. Plasticity: Permanent deformation in material i.e. material does not come in its original position
after removal of load. Material which has zero elasticity is known as plastic.
3. Rigid body: A body which does not changes its shape and size under the action of stress is known
as rigid body. Rigid body is incompressible. Modulus of elasticity of rigid body is infinity. It is an
imaginary body.
4. Ductility: Ductility is a material’s ability to deform plastically without failure under tensile stress.
Tensile test is done for ductile material. Carbon content in steel determines the ductility of steel.
Increase in carbon content in steel increases the strength and hardness but decreases ductility and
toughness. Fe415 is more ductile than Fe500. Ductile material fail slowly giving warning sign.
Ductile material can be drawn into thin wires by the application of tensile stress.
5. Brittleness: Material which fails suddenly without any plastic deformation. Compression test is
done for brittle material. Brittle material fails suddenly without giving warning sign. For eg.
Concrete, Brick etc.
6. Malleability: Property of material of being permanently extended into sheet without failure. In
other words material’s ability to deform plastically without failure under compressive stress. For
eg. Copper, Aluminum etc. are example of malleable metal.
7. Strain Energy: Energy stored in a body due to strain or deformation.
Strain Energy (U) = ½*strain*stress*volume = stress 2*Volume/2E
8. Toughness: The ability of a metal to deform plastically and to absorb energy (at high stress) in the
process before fracture is termed toughness. In other words, resistance of material to impact
loading. Manganese in metal increases toughness. Impact test is performed for toughness test.
9. Modulus of Rupture: The ultimate strength of material in flexure or torsion is known as modulus
of rupture.
10. Hardness: It is the ability of material to resist abrasion or scratching.
11. Strain hardening: The increase in stress after plastic zone due to rearrangement of molecules in
the material.
12. Creep: Property of material by virtue of which material undergoes continuous deformation with
time under constant (sustained) load.
13. Fatigue: The phenomenon of decrease in strength of material due to reversal of stress.
14. Endurance Limit: The stress below which a material has a probability of not failing under reversal
load is known as endurance limit.
15. Resilience: The strain energy stored in the material when strained within elastic limit.
16. Proof Resilience: The maximum strain energy stored in a material at elastic limit.
17. Permanent set: An irreversible deformation that remains in a structure or material after it has been
subjected to stress. It is 0.20% of maximum strain for mild steel.
18. Modulus of Resilience: It is the ratio of proof resilience to volume of body i.e. maximum strain
energy at elastic limit per unit volume of body.
19. Isotropic: Material which have identical elastic properties in all directions is called isotropic
material. No. of elastic independent constant are 2.Ex. Metals
20. Orthotropic: Material which have different elastic properties in three perpendicular directions.
No. of independent elastic constant are 9. Ex. wood
21. Anisotropic: Material having different elastic properties in different directions. No. of
independent elastic constant is 21.
22. Homogeneous: A material having identical physical properties throughout the volume.
 23. Strength: The strength of material is its ability to withstand an applied load without failure.
Strength of beam depends on section modulus of section.
24. Stiffness (k): Force require to produce unit displacement. It measures the extent to which structural
element resist deformation.
𝑘 = 𝐹/△ ; Axial stiffness =AE/L where AE is known as axial rigidity. Bending Stiffness = EI/L

3. Properties Sections
3.1 Centroid and Center of gravity:
S.N. Centroid Centre of Gravity
1 The point through which whole area of plane The point through which whole weight of body
figure assumed to be concentrated. assumed to be concentrated.
2. It is a geometric center of plane figure. It is a point of resultant weight acts.
3. It gives an idea about distribution of area. It gives an idea about distribution of mass.
4. It is calculated for plane figure such as It is calculated for solid bodies such as prism,
triangle, rectangle, circle etc. cylinder, pyramid etc.
5. It is denoted by letter “C” It is denoted by letter “G”

∫ ∑ . ⋯………………..
𝑋= = ∑
=
∫ ⋯………………..
⋯…………………….
Y=
⋯……………

Shape X Y
20
Rectangular B/2 H/2
Circle D/2 or R D/2 or R 40
Semi-circle D/2 4r/3𝛑 or 2D/3 𝛑 1 3

Triangle H/3 B/3 2

Hollow-cone D/2 H/3 from base 100
Solid Cone D/2 H/4 from base
Pyramid hollow B/2 H/3 from base
Find the centroid of above figure (All dimensions are in
Pyramid Solid B/2 H/4 from base
mm)
Figure no. Ai Xi Yi AiXi AiYi
1 20*60=1200 20/2=10 60/2=30 12000 36000
2 60*20=1200 20+60/2=50 20/2=10 60000 12000
3 20*60=1200 80+20/2=90 60/2=30 108000 36000
𝚺 Ai= 3600 𝚺 AiXi=180000 𝚺 AiYi=84000
Now,
∑ . ∑ .
X== ∑
=180000/3600 = 50 mm and Y= ∑
=84000/3600 = 23.33 mm
3.3 Moment of Inertia (I):
It is a measure of objects resistance towards rotation about an axis. In other words capacity of cross section
to resist bending moment. It is also known as 2nd moment of area.
𝐼 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 𝐼 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝐴
Its value is always positive and its unit is mm4 or m4 or cm4. For mass moment of inertia its unit is Kg-m2
Figure MoI about Base Ixx Iyy
3 3
Rectangle bh /3 bh /12 hb3/12
3 3
Triangle bh /12 bh /36 hb3/36
Circular 𝛑D4/64 or 𝛑r4/4 𝛑D4/64 or 𝛑r4/4
4
Semi Circular 𝛑r4/8 0.11r 𝛑D4/128 or 𝛑r4/8
3
Ellipse 𝛑ab /4 𝛑ba3/4

3.4 Parallel axis theorem:

The parallel axis theorem states that “The moment of

inertia about the axis parallel to the centroidal axis is
given by the sum of moment of inertia about a centroidal
axis and product of area and square of perpendicular
distance between two axes.” Mathematically
I1 = Ic +Ah2
Where,
Ic = Moment of inertia about the centroidal axis
I1= Moment of inertia about an axis parallel to the
centroidal axis
h = Perpendicular distance between two axis
A = Area of the plane lamina

3.5 Radius of Gyration: Radius of gyration of a body about the axis of rotation is defined as the radial
distance to a point which would have a moment of inertia the same as the body's actual distribution of
mass, if the total mass of the body were concentrated there.
 𝑰
𝑹= For mass 𝑅= for area: For circular section R= D/4
𝑴
3.6 Polar moment of inertia (J): Moment of inertia perpendicular to the axis of plane figure is called
polar moment of inertia. Moment of inertia about the axis perpendicular to plane is equal to the sum of
MoI about Ixx and Iyy i.e. Izz = Ixx +Iyy. Polar Moment of Inertial of circular section is 𝛑 D4/32.

4. Analysis of Structures:
4.1 Static Equilibrium: Equilibrium means balance of forces. If a body is in equilibrium the resultant of
all forces acting on the body is zero. A body is initially at rest and remain at rest when acted upon by a
system of forces is said to be in a state of static equilibrium. The structure is said to be state of static
equilibrium if
(i) Algebraic sum of force in vertical direction is zero i.e.∑ 𝐹 = 0.
(ii) Algebraic sum of force in horizontal direction is zero i.e.∑ 𝐹 = 0.
(iii) Algebraic sum of moment due to all forces either side of section is zero i.e. ∑ 𝑀 = 0.
4.2 Free body diagram (FBD): Diagram showing internal, external and rotation forces of member
element in equilibrium. For equilibrium of member, force should be coplanar and concurrent.
4.3 Static determinate and indeterminate structure:
Frame Truss (Pin Jointed) Determinacy If the unknown internal forces and
3m+r = 3j+c m+r = 2j statically determinate reactions can be solved only using static
3m+r > 3j+c m+r > 2j statically indeterminate equilibrium equations, then the structure
3m+r < 3j m+r < 2j Unstable, mechanism is said to be determinate. Otherwise, it is
statically indeterminate structure.
4.4 Types of Support:

(i) Roller Support: This is the type of support which only restrains the structure from moving in one
perpendicular direction of rolling plane. However, the structure can move in the other directions and it
can also rotate. The best example of roller support is the roller skates.
(ii) Hinge of pinned Support: The hinge support is capable of resisting forces acting in any direction of
the plane. This support does not provide any resistance to rotation. The horizontal and vertical component
of reaction can be determined using equation of equilibrium. The best example where we can see the
pinned support is the doors and windows of our houses
(iii) Fixed Support: A fixed support is the most rigid type of support or connection. It constrains the
member in all translations and rotations (i.e. it cannot move or rotate in any direction). The easiest example
of a fixed support would be a pole or column in concrete.
(iv) Simple Support: The simple support is used where the structural member has to rest on the external
structure. These types of support are not used widely in daily life. It is similar to the roller support.
4.5 Beam: A Beam is a horizontal structural element that runs horizontally to withstand vertical load
coming off the building frame. The beam takes the load & distributes it to ends and transfers it to columns,
walls, and posts on both sides of the beam. It only withstands laterally applied loads on the axis of the
beam. It is primarily designed for maximum bending moment.

(i) Cantilever Beam: A beam which is fixed at one end and free at the other end, is known as cantilever
beam. Such beam is shown in Fig 1.
(ii) Simply Supported Beam: A beam supported or resting freely on the supports at its both ends, is known
as simply supported beam. Such beam is shown in Fig.2.Generally its one end is hinge and other end is
roller.
(iii) Overhanging Beam: If the end portion of a beam is extended beyond the support, such beam is known
as overhanging beam. Overhanging beam is shown in Fig.3.
(iv)Fixed or Encaster or Built-In Beam: A beam whose both ends are fixed or built-in walls, is known as
fixed beam. Such beam is shown in Fig4. A fixed beam is also known as a built-in or encastred beam.
(v) Continuous Beam: A beam which is provided more than two supports as shown in Fig.5 is known as
continuous beam.
4.6 Axial Force Diagram (AFD), Shear Force Diagram (SFD) and Bending Moment Diagram( BMD)
(i) Shear force Diagram (SFD): S.F. at a section is the algebraic sum of all forces acting transverse to the
member on either side of section. Diagram showing variation of shear force along the member is known
as SFD. Generally upward force is taken as positive.
(ii) Axial force Diagram (AFD) or Thrust Diagram: Axial force at any section is algebraic sum of all forces
acting parallel to the longitudinal axis of member on either side of the section. Diagram showing variation
in axial force along the member is known as AFD. A tensile force is assumed as positive. In a beam thrust
is developed due to inclined loading.
(iii) Bending Moment Diagram (BMD): BM at any section is the algebraic sum of the moment of all forces
on either side of the section. Diagram showing variation of bending moment along the member is known
as BMD. In general sagging moment is taken as positive and hogging moment is taken as negative.

4.7 Relationship between Load, Shear Force and Bending Moment

Let us consider a small section of beam having
length “dx” and subjected to udl “w” KN/m as
shown in figure.
As we know beam is in static equilibrium.
Therefore Small section “dx”also in equilibrium
condition.
Now, 𝚺 Vertical forces ( Fy) = 0 ( +Ve )
V – (V +dV) – Wdx = 0
dV/dx = -W ( Load Intensity )
Thus, the rate of change of shear force, which is slope of SFD is equal to the intensity of load at that
section.
⨜ dV = ⨜ wdx
V2 – V1 = ⨜ wdx (Area under load Curve)
It indicates that change in shear force between two points is equal to area under the load curve.
Also, 𝚺 M =0
M - w*dx*dx/2+Vdx – M – dM = 0
dM/dx = V (Shear force)
Thus, the rate of change of BM, which is slope of BMD is equal to the shear force at that section.
⨜dM = ⨜ Vdx
M2 – M1 = ⨜ Vdx (Area under the SFD)
It indicates that difference in BM between two points is equal to area under SFD.
4.8 Equation of Curvature
Deflected shape of beam is called elastic curve. In case of pure bending, it is arc of a circular otherwise
parabola.
(𝑖) Ѳ = 𝐸𝐼 i.e. Rate of change of deflection is called slope.
Ѳ
(𝑖𝑖) = 𝐸𝐼 = 𝑀 (Bending Moment) i.e. Rate of change of slope is called bending moment or
curvature.
(𝑖𝑖𝑖) 𝐸𝐼 = = 𝑉 (Shear Force) i.e. Rate of change of BM gives the value of shear force i.e. slope
of BMD gives the value of shear force at that point.
(𝑖𝑣) 𝐸𝐼 = = 𝑊 (Load Intensity) i.e. Rate of change of shear force gives intensity of load i.e.
slope of SFD give the load intensity at that point.
EI: Flexural Rigidity: EA: Axial Rigidity: GA: Shear Rigidity: GJ: Torsional Rigidity
4.9 Bending or Flexural Equation of Beam
Assumptions:
 (i) Plane of cross section of beam remains plane before and after bending. This implies that strain
directly proportional to the distance from neutral axis.
(ii) Material of beam obeys Hooke’s law.
(iii) Modulus of elasticity for tension and compression is same.
(iv) Beam bends to circular arc.
(v) Load acts perpendicular to the beam axis
(vi) Material is homogenous.
𝑴 𝝈 𝑬; 𝑰
= = 𝑴=𝝈 Where y is distance of extreme fiber from N.A 𝑴=𝝈×𝒛
𝑰 𝒚 𝑹 𝒚

Where, 𝑍 = is called section modulus. Its unit is m 3.

For rectangular beam 𝑍 = i.e. Z ⍺ Area of section For Circular Beam 𝑍 =

*Strength of beam directly proportional to the section modulus of beam i.e. M ⍺ Z
i.e. M ⍺ d2 ; for eg. If depth of beam double strength of beam will be increases 4 times i.e.4M.
Also, M ⍺ b; for eg. If width of beam doubled, strength of beam will be double.
*Beam is said to be uniform strength if it is subjected to same bending stress throughout the section.

(a) Analysis of Simply Supported Beam

(i) S.S. with point load at centre

Solution:
Step 1: Draw free body diagram
P
A C B

Ray Free body diagram R by

Step 2: Calculate the reactions

(i) 𝚺 MA = 0 (clockwise moment taken as positive)
P*L/2 – Rby*L = 0 or RBy = P/2
(ii) 𝚺 Fy = 0 ( +ve)
i.e. RAy + RBy –P = 0 or RAy = P-P/2 = P/2
Step 3: Calculation of Shear force and SFD
(i) At point A
VA just left = 0 VA just right = Ray = P/2 P/2
(ii) At Point C A C B
VC just Left = P/2 VC just Right = P/2 – P = - P/2 P/2
(iii) At Point B
VB Just left = -P/2 VB Just Right = -P/2+ RBy =0 Fig: SFD
*The nature of SFD is Constant and shape is rectangle.
Step 4: Calculation of BM and BMD.
(i) At Point A
MA = Ray *0 = 0 PL/4
(ii) At Point C
MC = P/2* L/2 = PL/4
(iii) At Point B A C B
MB = P/2*L – P*L/2 = 0 Fig: BMD
*The nature of BMD is straight line and shape is triangular.
*In case of point or moving load, BMD is maximum at point of application of load.
*In case of point load at centre, BM is maximum at centre and its value is PL/4.

w kN/m

A B
C
RAy R By
Fig: Free body diagram
Solution:
Step 1: Calculation of reactions Alternative Method
(i) 𝚺 MA = 0 (⤸ +ve) General equation of S.F. is
w*l*l/2 – RBy*l = 0 or RBy = wl/2 Vx = wl/2 -wx
At x = 0 i.e. point A
(ii) 𝚺 Fy = 0 ( +ve) V A = wl/2
RAy - wl + RBy = 0 or Ray = wl/2 At x = l/2 i.e. at point C
Step 2: Calculation of S.F. and SFD V C = wl –w*l/2 =0
(i) At Point A
VA just left = 0 At x = l, i.e. at point B
VB just right =RAy = wl/2
(ii) At Point C V B = -wl/2
 VC = wl/2 – w*l/2 =0
(iii) At Point B
VB just left = wl/2- wl = -wl/2
VB just right = -wl/2 + RBy = 0
*The nature of SFD is straight line and shape is triangle. S.F. is maximum at support (wl/2). The figure of
SFD as shown above.
Step 3: Calculation of BM and BMD
(i) BM at point A
MA = RAy * 0 = 0
(ii) BM at point C
MC = RAy*l/2 – w*l/2*l/4 = wl2/4
(iii) BM at point B
MB = wl/2*l – w*l*l/2 = 0
*In case of udl, nature of BMD is parabolic and BM is maximum at centre(wl 2/8) as shown in BMD above.
Key Points
-At the point of maximum bending moment (BM), shear force changes the sign (Zero except point load).
-At point where shear force is zero, BM either maximum or minimum.
-The point where BM changes its sign known as point of contra flexure or inflection point or virtual hinge.
-The point where BM changes its sign known as point of contra flexure or inflection point or virtual hinge..
It occurs in fixed beam, continuous beam and overhanging beam. There are two (2) point of contra flexure
in fixed beam and double overhanging beam. There is no point of contra flexure in S.S. and cantilever
beam.
-In case of point loading, BM is maximum at the point of application of load.
-Most economic section of beam is I-section. Web of I section carries shear force and flange part carries
80% of bending moment.
- In case of cantilever beam, maximum BM always occurs at support and failure of beam starts from
support.

4.10 Deflection of Beam

Beam and Loading Slope Deflection

(i)Moment M at free end Ml/EI ML/2EI
(i)Cantilever point load at free 𝜃 = W𝑙 /2𝐸𝐼 at free end ∆= 𝑊𝑙 /3𝐸𝐼 at free end
end
(ii) Cantilever with udl 𝜃 = W𝑙 /6𝐸𝐼 at free end ∆= 𝑊𝑙 /8𝐸𝐼 at free end
(iii)S.S. point load at centre 𝜃 = W𝑙 /16𝐸𝐼 at support ∆= 𝑊𝑙 /48𝐸𝐼 at centre
(iv)S.S. with udl 𝜃 = W𝑙 /24𝐸𝐼 at support ∆= 5𝑊𝑙 /384𝐸𝐼 at centre
*In case of cantilever beam slope at support always zero.
*In case S.S. beam with symmetric loading, slope at center always zero.
𝟏 𝟏
Since, Deflection (∆) 𝜶 𝒐𝒓 𝑩𝑫𝟑 i.e. (∆) ⍺ 1/ D3 or 1/B. For eg. If depth of beam is doubled,
𝑰
𝟏𝟐
deflection will be reduced by 1/8 times.
 5. Column and Strut

Column Strut
1. Compressive member of frame structure is 1. Compressive member of truss structure is
generally known as column generally known as strut.
2. It is a vertical member. 2. It may be vertical, horizontal and inclined.
3. It may subjected to axial load, BM and 3. Only subjected to axial loading.
shear force.
4. Relatively long and high slenderness ratio. 4. Relatively short and low slenderness ratio.

-Tension member of truss is known as tie. Ultimate tensile strength of tensile member is known as
tenacity.
-Ratio of effective length to least radius of gyration of column is known as Slenderness ratio.
-Most economic section of column is tubular section.
5.2 Classification of Column
≤3 ; Pedestal >3 ; Column
≤ 12 ; Short Column > 12 ; Long Column
Where le is effective length of column and dmin least lateral dimension of column.
5.3 Modes of failure of column
Column type Short Long Intermediate
Mode of failure Crushing Buckling Crushing and Buckling combined
5.4 Euler’s theory for crippling Load: Load under which column fails due to the bulking is
known as crippling load or critical load. This theory is only valid for long column.
𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
Crippling or Critical Load 𝑷=
𝒍𝟐𝒆
Column type Effective Length(le) Crippling load
(i)Both end pinned le=l 𝝅𝟐 𝑬𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒍𝟐
ii) One end fix and other end 𝑙 = 𝑙 or 0.70l
𝟐
𝟐𝝅 𝑬𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
pinned √2
𝒍𝟐
(iii) Both end fixed le=l /2 𝟐
𝟒𝝅 𝑬𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝒍𝟐
(iv) One end fixed and other end is le=2l 𝟐
𝝅 𝑬𝑰𝒎𝒊𝒏
free 𝟒𝒍𝟐

5.5 Core or Kern or Kernel: The portion of column within eccentric loading is allowed without
producing tensile stress in column. It is also known as Middle third zone. For rectangular column,
core is rhombus of B/3, D/3. For circular section, core area of diameter D/4.
Additional Note:
1. Force System: When number of forces simultaneously acting on the particle then the system so
formed is called as system of forces.

(a) Co-planar Force System:-

The force system in which all forces are acting in
the same plane us known as coplanar force
system.
(b) Non-coplanar force system
A force system in which the forces acting
in different planes is called as Non-coplanar
force system.

(c) Collinear force system

The forces which are acting along the same straight line are
called as collinear forces.

(d) Non-collinear force system

The forces which are not acting along a straight line are
called as Non-collinear forces.

(e) Concurrent force system

The forces which are passing through a common
point are called concurrent forces.
 (f) Non-concurrent force system
The forces which are not passing through a
common point are called as non-concurrent
forces.

(g)Like parallel force system

The forces which are parallel to each other and having same
direction are called as like parallel forces.
(h) Unlike parallel force system
The forces which are parallel to each other and
having different directions are called as unlike
parallel forces.

2. Couple: When two forces of equal magnitude opposite in direction and

acting along parallel straight line then they are said to form couple.

2.1 Characteristics of Couple

The main characteristics of a couple
(i) The algebraic sum of the forces consisting the couple is zero.
(ii) The algebraic sum of the moment of the forces constituting the couple about any point is the same
and equal to the moment of the couple itself.
(iii) A couple cannot be balanced by a single force but can be balanced only by a couple but of opposite
sense.
(iv) Any number of coplanar couples can be reduced to a single couple whose magnitude will be equal
to the algebraic sum of the moments of all the couples.
Objectives question samples
1. Stress and Strain
1. The property by which a body returns to its original shape after removal of the force is called
a) Plasticity b) Elasticity c) Ductility d) Malleability
2. Which law is also called as the elasticity law?
a) Bernoulli’s law b) Stress law c) Hooke’s law d) Poisson’s law
3. What is tensile strain?
a) The ratio of change in length to the original length
b) The ratio of original length to the change in length
c) The ratio of tensile force to the change in length
d) The ratio of change in length to the tensile force applied
4. The law which states that within elastic limits strain produced is proportional to the stress producing
it is known as
a) Bernoulli’s law b) Hooke’s law c) Stress law d) Poisson’s law
5. At which point, extension of a material takes place more quickly as compared to the increase in load
is called
a) Elastic point b) Plastic point c) Breaking point d) Yielding point
6. How many elastic constants of a linear, elastic, isotropic material will be?
a) 2 b) 3 c) 1 d) 4
7. What is the limiting values of Poisson’s ratio for engineering material?
a) -1 and 0.5 b) -1 and -0.5 c) -1 and -0.5 d) 0 and 0.5
8. What is the relationship between modulus of elasticity and modulus of rigidity?
a) C = E / 2(1 + μ) b) C = E / (1 + μ) c) C = 2E / (1 + μ) d) C = 2E / 2(1 + μ)
9. Which point on the stress strain curve occurs after the proportionality limit?
a) Upper yield point b) Lower yield point c) Elastic limit d) Ultimate point
10. 7. Elastic limit is the point
a) up to which stress is proportional to strain
b) At which elongation takes place without application of additional load
c) Up to which if the load is removed, original volume and shapes are regained
d) None of the mentioned
11. Unit of strain is
(a) N (b) Mpa (c) mm (d) Unitless
12. In cantilever beam increase in temperature produces
(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress (c) Shear Stress (d) Zero
13.As the elastic limit reaches, tensile strain
a) Increases more rapidly b) Decreases more rapidly
c) Increases in proportion to the stress d) Decreases in proportion to the stress

2. Properties of material
1. The property of a material by which it can be beaten or rolled into thin plates is called
a) Malleability b) Plasticity c) Ductility d) Elasticity
2. The materials which have the same elastic properties in all directions are called
a) Isotropic b) Brittle c) Homogeneous d) Hard
3. The property of a material by which it can be drawn into thin wires is?
a) Malleability b) Plasticity c) Ductility d) Elasticity
4. The phenomenon of slow extension of materials having a constant load, i.e. increasing with the time
is called
a) Creeping b) Yielding c) Breaking d) None of the mentioned
5. Tensile test is performed for
(a) Brick (b) Concrete (c) Soil (d) Steel
6. Compressive test is performed for
(a) Ductile (b) Brittle (c) Hard (d) None
7. If the elasticity of material is zero then material said to be
(a) Rigid (b) Plastic (c) Visco-Elastic (d) All of these
8. Ductility of steel depends upon the content of
(a) Manganese (b) Carbon (c) Sodium (d) None of these
9. The strain energy stored in material when strained within elastic limit is known as
(a) Creep (b) Fatigue (c) Resilience (d) Proof Resilience
10. Decrease in strength of material due to reversal loading is known as
(a) Creep (b) Fatigue (c) Resilience (d) Proof Resilience
11. Toughness of material depends upon the content of
(a) Manganese (b) Carbon (c) Sodium (d) None of these
12. Maximum strain energy stored in a material at elastic limit is known as
(a) Creep (b) Fatigue (c) Resilience (d) Proof Resilience
13. The stress below which a material has a probability of not failing under reversal load is known as
(a) Elastic Limit (b) Endurance Limit (c) Ductility (d) Toughness

3. Structure Analysis
1. The point through which the whole weight of the body acts is called
a) Inertial point b) Center of gravity c) Centroid d) Central point
2. Where the center of gravity of a circle lies?
a) At its centre b) Anywhere on its radius c) Anywhere on its circumference d)
Anywhere on its diameter
3. What is the moment of inertia of a circular section?
a) πD4/64 b) πD3/32 c) πD3/64 d) πD4/32
4. What is the moment of inertia of a rectangular section about an horizontal axis passing through base?
a) bd3/12 b) bd3/6 c) bd3/3 d) bd2/3
5. What is the product of the mass and the square of the distance of the center of gravity of the mass
from an axis?
a) Moment of inertia b) Mass moment of inertia c) Center of gravity d) Product of
inertia
6. What is the unit of product of inertia?
a) mm4 b) mm2 c) mm d) mm3
7. _______ is a horizontal structural member subjected to transverse loads perpendicular to its axis.
a) Strut b) Column c) Beam d) Truss
8. Fixed beam is also known as __________
a) Encastered beam b) Built on beam c) Rigid beam d) Tie beam
9. Continuous beams are _________
a) Statically determinate beams b) Statically indeterminate beams
c) Statically gravity beams d) Framed beams
10. Units of U.D.L?
a) KN/m b) KN-m c) KN-m×m d) KN
11. SI units of shear force is _______________
a) kN/m b) kN-m c) kN d) m/N
12.. _________ positive/negative bending moments occur where shear force changes its sign.
a) Minimum b) Zero c) Maximum d) Remains same
13. SI units of Bending moment is ___________
a) kN b) kN2 c) kNm d) km
14.No. of reaction in hinge support
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
15.No. of reaction in fixed support
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
16. At hinge, the moments will be _________
a) Maximum b) Minimum c) Uniform d) Zero
17. What is variation in SFD, if the type of loading in the simply supported beam is U.D.L is ____
a) Rectangle b) Linear c) Trapezoidal d) Parabolic
18. The rate of change of shear force is equal to _____
a) Direction of load b) Change in BMD c) Intensity of loading d) Maximum bending
19. In SFD, vertical lines are for ______
a) Point loads b) UDL c) UVL d) LDP
20. A cantilever beam loaded with udl throughout, the maximum shear force occurs at____
a) Free end b) Fixed end c) At centre d) At point of contraflexure
21. Point of inflection is known as _____
a) Point of regurrence b) Point of contraflexure c) Point of rigid factor d) Point of
flexural moment
22. Bending moment in a beam is maximum when the _________
a) Shear force is minimum b) Shear force is maximum c) Shear force is zero d) Shear
force is constant
23. Number of points of contra flexure for a double over hanging beam.
a) 3 b) 2 c) 4 d) Infinite
24. What is the variation in the BM, if the simply supported beam carries a point load at the centre.
a) Triangular b) Rectangular c) Trapezoidal d) Other quadrilateral
25. In simple bending, ______ is constant.
a) Shear force b) Loading c) Deformation d) Bending moment
26. If a beam is subjected to pure bending, then the deformation of the beam is_____
a) Arc of circle b) Triangular c) Trapezoidal d) Rectangular
27. Maximum Shearing stress in a beam is at _____
a) Neutral axis b) Extreme fibres c) Mid span d) Action of loading
28. What are the units for section modulus?
a) m2 b) m4 c) m3 d) m
29. . _________ of a beam is a measure of its resistance against deflection.
a) Strength b) Stiffness c) Deflection d) Slope
30. The bending stress in a beam is ______ to bending moment.
a) Less than b) Directly proportionate c) More than d) Equal
31. Strength of beam depend upon
a) Section Modulus b) MoI of section (c) Length (d) All of these
32.In S.S. beam loaded with udl maximum bending moment is
a) wl b)wl/2 c)wl 2/8 d) wl2/4
33.When point load P applied at free end of cantilever beam, maximum shear force is equal to
a) P b) P/2 c) P/4 d)Pl
34.When point load P applied at the L/4 distance from either side of support in Simply supported beam,
then maximum bending moment is equal to
a)PL/2 b) PL/4 c) PL/8 d)PL/12
35. The maximum deflection in cantilever beam of span “l”m and loading at free end is “W” kN.
a) Wl3/2EI b) Wl3/3EI c) Wl3/4EI d) Wl2/2EI
36. Compute the maximum deflection at free end of a cantilever beam subjected to udl for entire span of
l metres.
a) wl4/8EI b) wl4/4EI c) wl3/8EI d) wl2/6EI
37. In simply supported beams, the slope is _____________ at supports.
a) Minimum b) Zero c) Maximum d) Uniform
38. When S.S. beam subjected to point load W at its centre, maximum deflection is equal to
a) Wl2/48EI b)Wl3/48EI c)WL/4 d) 5WL4/384EI
39. When Simply Supported beam subjected to udl w kn/m, then maximum deflection is
a) Wl2/48EI b)Wl3/48EI c)WL/4 d) 5WL4/384EI
40. For same span and width if depth of beam doubled, then deflection of beam will be
a) Double b) Half c) 1/8 th d) Triple
41. For same span and depth if width of beam is doubled, then deflection of beam will be
a) a) Double b) Half c) 1/8 th d) Triple
4. Column and Strut
1. __________ is a vertical member subjected to direct compressive force.
a) Strut b) Beam c) Column d) Post
2. The inclined member carrying compressive loads is __________
a) Post b) Stanchion c) Strut d) Column
3. Long columns fail due to ____________
a) Direct stress b) Buckling stress c) Lateral stress d) Tensile stress
4. In short columns, the slenderness ratio is less than __________
a) 32 b) 64 c) 56 d) 28
5. For ___________ columns, the slenderness ratio is more than 32 and less than 120.
a) Long b) Short c) Average d) Medium
6. What is the effective length of a column at both ends fixed?
a) L/3 b) L c) L/2 d) 2L
7. What is the effective length of cantilever column
a) L/3 b) L c) L/2 d) 2L
8.The ratio of the effective length to a column and minimum radius of gyration of its cross section area,
is known as
a) Crippling factor b) Crippling Load c) Slenderness ratio d) None of these
9.The crippling load for a column with both ends hinged is
a) b) c) d)
10. The crippling load for a column with both ends fixed is
a) b) c) d)
11.The region of column c/s of a column in which compressive load may be applied without producing
tensile stress is known as
a) Core b) Kern c) Kernel d) All of above
12. For circular column, diameter of core is equal to
a) d/2 b) d/3 c) d/4 d)d/8
13. For rectangular column having cross section B*H, the core is
(a) Rectangle of B/2*H/2 (b) Rhombus of diagonal B/3 and H/3
c) Square of B/3 d) Square of H/3

Answer sheet
1. Stress and Strain
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
b c a b d a d a c c d d a

2.Properties of Material
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
a a c a d b b b c b a d b

3.Structure Analysis
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
b a a c b a c a b a c c c b
15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
c d b c a b b c b a d a a c
29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41
b b a c a b b a c b d c b

4.Coumn and Strut

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
c c b a d c d c b d d c b
 Subjective question samples
1. What is stress? What are the types of stress? Explain Briefly. [1+4]
2. What do you mean by strain? What is Poissons ratio? Write down the types of strain.[1+1+3]
3. What is elasticity? State and explain about Hooke’s law.[1+4]
4. What is stress-strain diagram? Explain the diagram for mild steel with salient feature.[2+8]
5. Derive the elongation of prismatic bar due to self-weight.[5]
6. Differentiate between ductility and brittleness of material.[5]
7. Differentiate between centroid and centre of gravity. [5]
8. What do you mean by moment inertia? Derive the expression for MoI of rectangular
section.[1+4]
9. State the parallel axis theorem? Apply the theorem to calculate the MoI of rectangular section
about base.[2+3]
10. What do you mean by static equilibrium? Write down the equations of static equilibrium.[1+4]
11. What do you mean by determinate and indeterminate structures? Explain briefly. [5]
12. What are the types of supports generally used in mechanics?[5]
13. What is beam? What are the types of beam?[1+5]
14. What do you mean by AFD, SFD and BMD? Explain briefly with example. [3+7]
15. Show the relationship between load intensity, shear force and bending moment.[10]
16. Analyze the beam and draw SFD and BMD [10]
(i) S.S. with point load at centre
(ii) S.S. beam with udl over the span
(iii) Cantilever with udl
17. Differentiate between column and strut. [5]
18. What are the types of column? Write down the modes of failure of column.[5]
19. What is couple? Write down its characteristics.[1+4]
20. What do you mean by force system? Explain briefly.[10]