Fairfield Institute of Management and Technology

ISM Lab

Subject Code: 212

Submitted to: Submitted by

Name of the Faculty Name: AYUSH BANSAL
Mr. Deepak Enrolment: 01290101720
Course: BBA (G) 4th A
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
S. No. Name of Program Signature Remarks
Introduction to relational database management
1
system.
2 Introduction to structure query language.
To illustrate data definition language commands in
3
RDBMS.
To illustrate data manipulation language command in
4
RDBMS
5 To illustrate create table command in SQL.
6 To illustrate insert values command in SQL.
7 To illustrate select table command in SQL.
8 To illustrate update table command in SQL.
9 To illustrate alter command in SQL.
10 To illustrate delete command in SQL.
11 To illustrate drop table command in SQL.
12 To illustrate difference between delete & drop table
command in SQL.
13 To illustrate rename command in SQL.
14 To illustrate integrity constraint in SQL.
15 To illustrate relational model in DBMS
16 To illustrate Aggregate Functions in SQL.
17 Introduction to Entity Relationship Model in DBMS
18 Database design using Entity Relationship Model.
19 Draw an ER diagram for Banking system.
Draw an ER diagram for Library Management
20
system.

2
Structure Query
Language

3
SQL Introduction
SQL stands for “Structured Query Language” and can be pronounced as “SQL”
or “sequel – (Structured English Query Language)”.

It is a query language used for accessing and modifying information in the

database. IBM first developed SQL in 1970s. Also it is an ANSI/ISO standard. It
has become a Standard Universal Language used by most of the relational database
management systems (RDBMS).

Some of the RDBMS systems are: Oracle, Microsoft SQL server, Sybase etc.
Most of these have provided their own implementation thus enhancing its feature
and making it a powerful tool.

Few of the SQL commands used in SQL programming are SELECT Statement,
UPDATE Statement, INSERT INTO Statement, DELETE Statement,
WHERE Clause, ORDER BY Clause,.

In a simple manner, SQL is a non-procedural, English-like language that processes

data in groups of records rather than one record at a time. Few functions of SQL
are:

 store data
 modify data
 retrieve data
 modify data
 delete data
 create tables and other database objects
 delete data

Types of SQL statements

There are three basic types of SQL statements:

 Data definition language (DDL) statements

 Data manipulation language (DML) statements
 Data Control Language (DCL) statements

4
DATA TYPES OF SQL

1. CHAR: This data type is used to store character strings values of fixed length.
The size in brackets determines the number of characters the cell can hold. The
maximum number of characters (i.e. the size) this data type can hold is 255
characters.

Syntax: CHAR(SIZE)

Example: CHAR (20)

2. VARCHAR: This data type is used to store variable length alphanumeric data.
The maximum this data type can hold is 4000 characters. One difference
between this data type and the CHAR data type is ORACLE compares
VARCHAR values using non-padded comparison semantics i.e. the inserted
values will not be padded with spaces.

Syntax: VARCHAR(SIZE)

Example: VARCHAR(20) OR VARCHAR2(20)

3. NUMBER: The NUMBER data type is used to store numbers (fixed or

floating point).

Syntax: NUMBER(P, S)

Example: NUMBER(10, 2)

4. DATE: This data type is used to represent data and time. The standard format
id DD-MM-YY as in 13-JUL-85. To enter dates other than the standard format,
use the appropriate functions. Date Time stores date in the 24-hour format. By
default, the time in a date field is 12:00:00 am, if no time portion is specified.
The default date for a date field is the first day of the current month.

Syntax: DATE

5
Create a Table
To create a new table within a database, we use the SQL CREATE TABLE
statement

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE <table name>

<table element>,

<table element>,

);

6
Example:

Create table student

Student_id char (10),

Student_Fname varchar (10),

Student_Lname varchar(10),

Student_address varchar(15),

Student_dob datetime

7
8
Insert values into Table
INSERT INTO `table_name` is the command to add new row into a table.

Syntax:

Insert into <table_name> values (‘<value>’, <value> , .............);

Example:

Insert into student values (‘001’, ‘sanjeev’, ‘gupta’, ‘delhi’, ’04-12-2010’);

9
Retrieving Data from Table
1. A Select statement is a SQL statement that begins with the word "select."
2. Select statements are used to retrieve data from SQL tables.
3. An asterisk after the word "select" means retrieve all fields (columns).
4. The name of the table from which you are retrieving data is specified in the From
clause.

Syntax:

10
Select * from <table name>

Retrieve some specific data.

Select <table element > from <table name> where <condition>

Example

Select * from teacher where teacher_id=’002’

11
UPDATING THE CONTENTS OF A TABLE: -

The update command is used to change or modify data values in a table. The verb
UPDATE in SQL is used to either all the rows from a table or a selected set of
rows from a table.

Example:

Update student set student_address = ‘rohini’ where student_id=101;

Alter Table
The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete or modify columns in
an existing table.

Syntax:

Alter table <table name>

Add <table element>

Example:

Alter table customer

Add cust_id varchar (20)

12
Delete Record (Rows) from Table:
The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.
You can use the WHERE clause with a DELETE query to delete the selected
rows, otherwise all the records would be deleted.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the DELETE query with the WHERE clause is as follows −
DELETE FROM table_name
WHERE [condition];

Example : Delete from student where student_id=101 ;

Drop table

Syntax:

Drop table <table name>

Example:

Drop table student;

The DROP TABLE statement removes a table and its data permanently from the
database.

RENAMING TABLES: - Oracle allows renaming of tables. The rename operation

is done atomically, which means that no other thread can access any of the tables
while the rename process is running.

Syntax: - RENAME <Table name> to <New Tablename>

Example:-

SQL> rename student to candidates;

13
SQL Constraints

Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.

Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE
statement) or after the table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).

We will focus on the following constraints:

 NOT NULL
 UNIQUE
 PRIMARY KEY
 FOREIGN KEY
 CHECK
 DEFAULT 

SQL NOT NULL Constraint

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.

The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means
that you cannot insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to
this field.

SQL UNIQUE Constraint

The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for
uniqueness for a column or set of columns.

A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on

it.

14
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.

Primary keys must contain unique values.

A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.

Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary
key.

15
16
To illustrate relational model in DBMS

The relational model represents the database as a collection of relations. A relation

is nothing but a table of values. Every row in the table represents a collection of
related data values. These rows in the table denote a real-world entity or
relationship.

The table name and column names are helpful to interpret the meaning of values in
each row. The data are represented as a set of relations.

Some popular Relational Database management systems are:

 DB2 and Informix Dynamic Server - IBM

 Oracle and RDB – Oracle
 SQL Server and Access – Microsoft

Aggregate functions in SQL

SQL is excellent at aggregating data the way we might in a pivot table in Excel.
We will use aggregate functions all the time, so it's important to get comfortable
with them. The functions themselves are the same ones you will find in Excel or
any other analytics program. We'll cover them individually in the next few lessons.
Here's a quick preview:

 COUNT counts how many rows are in a particular column. 

 SUM adds together all the values in a particular column. 
 MIN and MAX return the lowest and highest values in a particular column,
respectively. 
 AVG calculates the average of a group of selected values.

17
Database Design using Entity Relationship Model
Relational Model Concepts

1. Attribute: Each column in a Table. Attributes are the properties which define a
relation. e.g., Student_Rollno, NAME,etc.
2. Tables – In the Relational model the, relations are saved in the table format. It
is stored along with its entities. A table has two properties rows and columns.
Rows represent records and columns represent attributes.
3. Tuple – It is nothing but a single row of a table, which contains a single record.
4. Relation Schema: A relation schema represents the name of the relation with
its attributes.
5. Degree: The total number of attributes which in the relation is called the
degree of the relation.
6. Cardinality: Total number of rows present in the Table.
7. Column: The column represents the set of values for a specific attribute.
8. Relation instance – Relation instance is a finite set of tuples in the RDBMS
system. Relation instances never have duplicate tuples.
9. Relation key - Every row has one, two or multiple attributes, which is called
relation key.
10. Attribute domain – Every attribute has some pre-defined value and scope
which is known as attribute domain

18
Operations in Relational Model
Four basic update operations performed on relational database model are

Insert, update, delete and select.

 Insert is used to insert data into the relation

 Delete is used to delete tuples from the table.
 Modify allows you to change the values of some attributes in existing tuples.
 Select allows you to choose a specific range of data.

What is ER Modeling?
Entity Relationship Modeling (ER Modeling) is a graphical approach to database
design. It uses Entity/Relationship to represent real world objects.

An Entity is a thing or object in real world that is distinguishable from

surrounding environment. For example each employee of an organization is a
separate entity.

19
E R Diagram of Library Management System

ER DIAGRAM OF LIBRARY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

20