GEOGRAPHY

STUDENT TEXTBOOK
GRADE 12
Authors, Editors and Reviewers:

Mesfin Weldeselassie (M.A.)

Mulugeta Assefa (M.Sc.)
Hari Shankar Sharma (Ph.D., Professor)
Bekure Weldesemait (Ph.D.)

Evaluators:

Haftu Araya
Tamrat Fitie
Yitagesu Demsie

FEDERAL DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF ETHIOPIA

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION
Published E.C. 2003 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of
Education, under the General Education Quality Improvement Project (GEQIP)
supported by IDA Credit No. 4535-ET, the Fast Track Initiative Catalytic Fund and
the Governments of Finland, Italy, Netherlands and the United Kingdom.

© 2011 by the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Education.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
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of Ethiopia, Federal Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No. 410/2004 – Copyright and
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The Ministry of Education wishes to thank the many individuals, groups and other
bodies involved – directly and indirectly – in publishing this textbook and the
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Copyrighted materials used by permission of their owners. If you are the owner of
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PHOTO CREDIT: New Complete Geography 1, 1989; Focus on Earth Science ©1987; Paul Guinness
and Garrett Nagle, IGCSE Geography, Odder Education, an Hachette UK Company London, 2009;
Ralph C. Scott, Physical Geography Second Edition, 1992; Robert J. Sager, William L. Ramsey,
Clifford R. Phillips and Frank M. Watenpaugh Modern Earth Science; Simon Ross, Introducing
Physical Geography and Map Reading, Long Man Group, 1988; Encyclopedia; Microsoft ®
Encarta ®2009; http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki.GreatRiftValley; www.uregon.edu,SWWales, UK;
http://scienceray.com/earth-sciences/geology; http://geology.about.com/od/geoprocesses.

While every attempt has been made to trace and acknowledge copyright, the
authors and publishers apologies for any accidental infringement where copyright
has proved untraceable.

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ISBN 978-99944-2-142-9
 Contents

U 1
Causes
nit
Forming
Hypothesis BASIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES IN
Pages

GEOGRAPHY ......................................... 1
Problems

Data collection,
organization and
interpretation

1.1 Definition and Concept ......................................... 3

Findings 1.2 The Significance of Research (qualitative and
quantitative) .......................................................... 3
Solutions
1.3 Approaches of Research .................................... 5
1.4 The Nature of Geographic Research ..................... 8
1.5 Basic Research Methodology in Geography ........ 10
1.6 Conducting Action Research ................................ 21
FF Unit Summary .............................. 25
FF Review Exercise ........................... 25

U 2 nit
MAP USE AND MAP WORK ............. 28

2.1 The Study of Topographic Maps ..........................30

2.2 Globe and Map ....................................................44
2.3 Map Projection ...................................................... 47
2.4 Drawing Sketch Map ...........................................52
FF Unit Summary .............................. 58
FF Review Exercise ............................ 58
 Grade 12 Geography
II

U 3 nit
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA
AND THE HORN ............................. 60
3.1 Location of the Horn of Africa and Sizes of Member
Countries ..............................................................61
3.2 Location, Size and Shape of Ethiopia ................... 65
3.3 Geological Structure and Relief of the
Horn of Africa ....................................................... 72
3.4 Climate of Ethiopia and the Horn ...................... 109
3.5 Natural Vegetation and Wild Animals of
Ethiopia .................................................................123
3.6 Soils of Ethiopia ....................................................138

FF Unit Summary ............................. 147

FF Review Exercise ............................ 148

U 4 nit
POPULATION OF ETHIOPIA AND
THE HORN ..................................... 149
4.1 Population Theories ................................................... 151
4.2 Trends of Population Growth and Structure
in Ethiopia ................................................................... 159
4.3 The Spatial Distribution of Population
in Ethiopia ................................................................... 168
4.4 Factors Affecting Population Distribution
in Ethiopia ................................................................... 172
4.5 Settlement Patterns of Ethiopian Population ......... 177
4.6 Determinants of Population Change in
Ethiopia ........................................................................ 181
4.7 Impacts of Rapid Population Growth
in Ethiopia ................................................................... 191
4.8 Population Policy of Ethiopia .................................. 195
4.9 Urbanization in Ethiopia ...........................................203
FF Unit Summary .............................. 203
FF Review Exercise ............................ 204

Contents Contents
 Grade 12 Geography
III

U 5
nit
ECONOMIC GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT TREND IN
ETHIOPIA ......................................... 206

5.1 An Overview of Growth and Development

Trend in Ethiopia .......................................................208
5.2 Major Features of Ethiopian Economy ................. 210
5.3 Present features of Ethiopian socio-economic
development ............................................................... 215
5.4 Challenges and Prospects of Socio-economic
Development for Ethiopia ........................................218
5.5 Economic Relation ....................................................222
5.6 PASDEP (Plan for Accelerated and Sustained
Development to End Poverty) .................................226

FF Unit Summary ............................... 229

FF Review Exercise ............................ 230

Glossary ....................................... 233

Contents Contents
U 1
Causes
Forming
Hypothesis

nit

Problems
Data collection,
organization and
interpretation

Findings

Solutions

BASIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES

IN GEOGRAPHY
Unit Outcomes
At the end of this unit, you will be able to:
ÞÞ acquire basic research skills to enable you conduct action research;
ÞÞ understand the significance of research and its nature in geography; and
ÞÞ know different approaches used in geographic research.

Main Contents
1.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT
1.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH
1.3 APPROACHES OF RESEARCH (QUANTITATIVE AND QUALITATIVE)
1.4 THE NATURE OF GEOGRAPHIC RESEARCH
1.5 BASIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN GEOGRAPHY
1.6 CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH
FF Unit Summary
FF Review Exercises
 Grade 12 Geography
2
 INTRODUCTION
Do you remember the definitions of geography you learned in previous grades?

Geography is a discipline that attempts to understand human and physical

aspects of the world. Its primary concerns are location, time and the concept that
everything that happens to us is affected by our surroundings, including other
people and the places within which we live, work and travel. (Khaskar: 1)

Geography helps us to understand how the world is changing. By studying

geography, you will conceive:
FF how places and landscapes are formed
FF how people and their environments interact
FF what decisions we make to further our social interests
FF what causes the diverse range of cultures and societies, and what results
from these.

Considering such issues motivates us to:

FF formulate questions
FF develop intellectual skills for finding answers (solutions)
FF introduce investigative tools
Because of the wide range of geography’s human and physical concerns, the
questions that arise in its study ultimately lead us to perform research. The goals
of this research include:
FF producing definite answers to the questions
FF improving existing answers to the questions
FF performing research that leads to a consensus regarding the answers
Unlike the concerns of most social sciences, the social concerns of geography
are relatively dynamic. To provide sustainable solutions for this fast-changing
subject, we must use skilled action research.

In this unit you will learn the skills and attitudes that this approach to research
requires. This information could lead you to become one of tomorrow's
experienced researchers.

Introduction 
 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
3
1.1 DEFINITION AND CONCEPT
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ explain the concept of research.

Key Terms
³³ Research ³³ Systematic inquiry
³³ Research method ³³ Discovery
Have you ever attempted a small research project at your class or section level?

The term research came into English from

FF the old French root word “cerchier,” which means to search or seek;
and
FF the prefix ‘re-’ which means again.
Research, therefore, means to seek again with a view to becoming certain. (Desta
Hamito; 2000)
By the term definition, we mean a generally agreed-on opinion about the subject
under clarification. When we define research it is in this sense. We define research
as a scientific method of investigating answers for the problems identified. It
is also a systematic inquiry into causes or the discovery of new facts through
planned and organized effort that requires time, money and skill.
In short, research is the search for knowledge through objective and systematic
methods of finding solutions to problems.

1.2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ show appreciation to the significance of research in tackling social
problems.

Key Terms
³³ Development ³³ Rational decisions
³³ Problem solving ³³ Policy
³³ Problem identification

1.2 The Significance Of Research

 Grade 12 Geography
4
Have you ever imagined or thought about the importance of research?

Development in any country depends, among other things, upon its research
capability and the extent to which this capability is channeled into action. Also,
to result in action, the research must be accessible to appropriate institutions, etc.
Sometimes capable research work never reaches its targeted destinations.

Advances in science, technology and welfare are often considered to be the result
of capable research. Governments in developed countries allocate huge sums of
money for research work. Developing countries are also adopting this approach.
This situation has made research work a good business for professionals.

Research as a science or professional trade for studying geography:

1 identifies the causes of problems, and the degree or extent of these problems.
Example: The occurrences of hunger, flood, epidemics, etc.
2 adds to the body of knowledge about the problem by providing new
information and knowledge.
3 enables us to visualize or understand the gap between the real world and
the formulated theory.
4 provides a basis for additional investigations that validate the research
findings or that advance the study of the problem by acquiring more data.
5 widens/enlarges one’s own or a group’s or society's reading and thinking
scope.
6 strengthens our capacity for critical observation and enforces our power
of prediction.
7 enables us to make rational decisions.
8 serves as an aid to formulating policy.

Activity 1.1
1 Can you distinguish the differences between these tasks?
FF writing an essay
FF writing a report
FF writing up research work
2 Ask your geography teacher and others to tell you about the significance of
research.
3 Use the internet to find information about the importance of research.

1.2 The Significance Of Research

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
5
1.3 APPROACHES OF RESEARCH
(QUALITATIVE AND QUANTITATIVE)
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ use different geographic research approaches in action research.

Key Terms
³³ Quantitative ³³ Dependent variable
³³ Qualitative ³³ Inference
³³ Theory ³³ Model
³³ Independent variable ³³ Approach
What do you mean by an approach to treating a problem?
There are two basic approaches to research. Their differences are mainly in
the attributes to be measured and the techniques to be used for collecting and
analyzing data. These approaches are called
A the quantitative approach B the qualitative approach
A Quantitative Approach
We use the quantitative approach when trying to verify a given geographical
theory. We translate the concepts of the theory into variables that can be measured
with statistical techniques.

The advantage of this approach is that the quantitative technique employed by

one researcher can be used by another researcher for different objectives or for
further developing the same information. Very simple examples of this approach
are given below:
FF the decrease in land-lease prices as one travels from the center of a city
to its suburbs;
FF the decrease in population density as one travels from the center of a
city to its edges;
FF the decrease in temperature towards the poles from the equator.
All of the preceding examples investigate changes that occur as a function of
distance from a defined point – for example, from the center of a city. In the
examples, distance is the determining variable. A determining variable influences
the variation of other phenomena.
1.3 Approaches Of Research (qualitative And Quantitative)
 Grade 12 Geography
6

Note
In the preceding examples, distance from a center is the
determining variable. It determines the variation of these
phenomena:
ÂÂ land-lease prices
ÂÂ population density
ÂÂ temperature
In all of the examples, we assume that any variable that has not
been mentioned is unchanging (is controlled).

The quantitative approach can be subdivided:

FF Inferential quantitative approach: the target-study uses an existing
data base and infers characteristics or relationships from it.
FF Experimental quantitative approach: the research work manipulates
variables to see their effects on other variables. This approach
requires considerable control over the research environment in order
to manipulate the determining variables. As described above, distance
is the manipulated variable that affects lease price, population and
temperature.
FF Simulation (model) approach: this approach involves constructing an
artificial environment (model) to represent the actual environment we
are studying. The artificial environment functions in way that parallels
the actual environment and generates similar information. We use that
information to study the phenomena we are investigating.

Example:
S = f (Pm, S1, Cl, …etc)
This algebraic model simulates the characteristics and development of soil
as a system. In the model,
S = soil, Pm = parent materials (rock),
S1 = slope, Cl = climate.

The algebraic model explains soil as a function of its parent material, climate and
slope.

The quantitative approach and hypotheses regarding an existing theory are

established and tested. Also, mathematical analysis is frequently used.
1.3 Approaches Of Research (qualitative And Quantitative)
 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
7
B Qualitative Approach
What does qualitative method imply in the field of geography?

In the qualitative approach, data are used to explain a new theory. No previously
existing theory or hypothesis is tested by way of this approach. Quantitative
techniques are not employed. Therefore, the study cannot be repeated by other
researchers.

Common techniques for gathering data in the qualitative approach are:

telephone interviews
ÂÂ group interviews
in-person interviews (face-to-face)
ÂÂ questionnaires
ÂÂ personal observations

Some examples of subjects that could be studied with the qualitative approach to
research are:
FF differences between urban and rural populations of Ethiopia.
FF differences in academic achievement between boys and girls.
FF effects of harsh climate on human activity.
FF effects of poor leadership on students’ national examination results.

 Exercise 1.1
I Complete the following sentences correctly.
1 The approach we take to research is a function of the subject or attributes
of the study and of the techniques to be used for collecting and analyzing
data. The approaches we choose from are ___________ and ___________.
2 The technique of using interviews and questionnaires in data collection
comes under the ___________ approach.
3 In the quantitative approach, hypotheses are established and ___________.
4 If a given theory is not to be verified and no hypothesis about it is to be
established, the approach employed will be ___________.
5 To examine the relationship between availability of books and student
grades in college entrance exam, we would use the ___________ approach
to research.

1.3 Approaches Of Research (qualitative And Quantitative)

 Grade 12 Geography
8
II Vocabulary Skills: See if you can match the items under column A with
their definitions under column B. Ignore the unrelatable ones.
A B
1 To tackle problems A A tested hypothesis.
2 Dynamic B A proposed idea or explanation that is
based on observed or known facts but
3 Theory has not yet been proved. A predictive
4 Critical observation statement that can be tested.
C Energetic and fast changing.
5 Attributes
D Simulation of the real world to explain
6 To be verified a designed feature.
7 Inference E To be proved.
F Careful observation.
8 Model
G Characters.
9 Hypothesis H To deal with problems.
10 Variables I A document or case that serves as a
source or reference.
J Substances or factors whose effects
are studied.
K Measures or investigates.

1.4 THE NATURE OF GEOGRAPHIC

RESEARCH
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ reflect the distinct nature of geographic research from other disciplines.

Key Terms
³³ Spatial distribution ³³ GIS ³³ Spatial data

Do you always focus on the same issue or center of interest?

Geography's focus has developed in scope and approach over time through the
development of technology and accumulation of information.

Traditionally, geographical research is related to the locations of places and

1.4 The Nature Of Geographic Research

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
9
people. In the eighteenth century, geography’s focus shifted to the physical
and human characteristics of places in our world. In the mid-twentieth century,
geographical research focused mainly on:
FF the spatial distributions of phenomena and things
FF the resulting patterns and interactions
FF the forces responsible for the formation of the patterns

Very lately, geographical research has begun to deal with environmental issues
like hunger, global warming, poverty and the sustainable development of our
ecosystem.

In July of 2006, in Brisbane, Australia, the International Geographical Union

(IGU) commission was formed under the UN Charter that commands worldwide
geographical education. The commission’s position is that the academic discipline
of geography is crucial to achieving sustainable worldwide development.

Human Population
Human population is an issue of concern to geography, sociology, economics,
political science, etc. Each discipline has its own concerns and approaches to this
issue. However, the ideas of all these fields of study about population overlap.

Economists’ sphere of interest is largely aggregate demand and supply and

responses to production. Sociologists’ research work greatly emphasizes cultural
values, the effect of the population factor on the occurrence of crimes, harmony
disorders, etc.

The concerns of geography and geographers are mainly to:

FF assess the spatial distribution of the population
FF determine the forces that governed the distribution:
KK is the distribution due to physical factors? or
KK is it due to economic factors?
FF examine patterns of population distribution: (is it sparsely or densely
populated, is there uniformity or not?)
FF question whether there is a relationship between the distribution and
the factor observed:
KK are areas sparsely or densely populated?

1.4 The Nature Of Geographic Research

 Grade 12 Geography
10
KK is there uniformity or not?
FF To investigate possible relationships between population distribution and
other factors.
FF look at the impact of populations on the surrounding natural resources
FF foreward views on the sustainability of the area or locality for the future

Thus, we see the differences and similarities between the various disciplines’
approaches to the issue of population and we see geography’s specific concerns
and approaches to population.

In the 1950s and 1960s, the adoption of quantitative techniques in geographic

research revolutionized the field. Its interest in human-environment relations
became deeper and wider. At the end of the millennium, the development of the
Geographical Information system (GIS) produced a powerful investigative tool
for geographic research.

Do you know what information sciences are? Please study the next section
carefully.

Geographic Information System (GIS)

The Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer system that records,
stores and analyzes information about features of the earth’s surface. The break
through that GIS provided is its ability to generate two-dimensional and three-
dimensional images of an area. Also, it can receive geographical data from maps,
satellites, photographs, and printed texts and books. GIS allows geographers to
conduct research on environmental changes. GIS, as an information-acquisition
and interpretation device, has enhanced geographers’ ability to perform accurate
high-level research. (Encarta, 2007)

1.5 BASIC RESEARCH METHODOLOGY IN

GEOGRAPHY
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ use basic elements of research in your action research.

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
11

Key Terms
³³ Research problem ³³ Questionnaire ³³ Primary data
³³ Hypothesis ³³ Research report ³³ Secondary data
³³ Interview ³³ Bibliography
³³ Sampling ³³ Data analysis
Can you distinguish a research method from a research methodology?
The following three terms are related to one another, but vary in scope.
FF research, research method, and research methodology.
A research project is an inquiry into a problem. The researcher’s motivation
might be curiosity or a specific objective. Research is the foundation of research
methods and methodology. Research results are important guides for solving
many business, social, academic and other problems.

A research method or technique is a skill that uses different steps or elements to solve
the identified problem and arrive at a possible solution. The main methods are:
FF the collection and organization of data necessary or related to the
problem.
FF the use of statistical parameters to treat and interpret the organized
data.
FF the evaluation of the accuracy of the result obtained.

The concept of research methodology is much broader than the former two
concepts. It is a science that studies how research is done scientifically. It
considers:
a why the study is undertaken (its significance at various levels)
b how the research problem is identified
c what assumptions or hypotheses are formulated
d what type of data are collected
e why a particular method or technique of analyzing the data is chosen
In short, research methodology has wider dimensions than research method
or technique. It is the philosophy or logic behind the research. Studying basic
geographic research methodology gives you the training you need to acquire the
skills below:
FF gathering materials and data and arranging them

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Grade 12 Geography
12
FF participating in field work
FF preparing questionnaires, interviews, etc.
FF using statistical techniques
FF interpreting and reporting results of the study that you have designed
or proposed.

Activity 1.2
Form a group and study the following two options for your group work. Choose the
one that best suits your school environment and perform the activity.
1 Ask your teacher to identify some one who is experienced in performing
research. Invite that person to visit your class and conduct a discussion session
on
a what research is
b the significance of research
c the relevance of research for geography
2 Using Encarta or Internet or other possibly accessible materials, conduct a
group discussion inferring the different concepts stated between a research
technique and a research methodology.

Note

Research is a time, money and other costs consuming activity

but empowers you to understand, be logical and be a good
observer.

Basic Elements of Research

After considering basic questions of the research methodology for their projects,
geographers conduct their research by performing the following tasks:
FF identifying or formulating the research problem
FF defining the significance of the study for solving the problem

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
13
FF defining the study of the problem area
FF defining the objectives of the study
FF defining the scope and limitations of the study
FF reviewing the literature
FF developing a working hypothesis
FF preparing the research design
FF defining the sample design
FF collecting and organizing the data
FF analyzing the data by using statistical techniques
FF generalizing and interpreting the data
FF preparing the research report, based on the findings
FF compiling the bibliography/references
In what follows, we look at these elements:

A Identifying or Formulating the Research Problem

At the very beginning of a research project, the researcher must choose the
problem to study. In other words, the researcher must define the area of interest.
A good approach to defining a research problem is to discuss it with people who
have significant experience performing research in the study area and to read the
literature related to that area.

Investigating the causes of a problem is an important factor for identifying its

solutions. In some cases, a problem has multiple causes that you must identify.

B Defining the significance of the study for Solving the

problem
The significance of a research project differs from its objectives. Its significance
is its importance at a local, regional, national or global level.

To be significant, a study must benefit a society or community by:

FF providing new discoveries
FF improving existing situations
FF demanding new decisions
FF enriching or refuting already existing theories

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Grade 12 Geography
14
C Studying the Problem Area
When we study the problem area that a research project addresses, we create a
detailed bird's eye-view for ourselves and others who will access the research.
As we study the problem area, we identify problems and eliminate ambiguity.
This step is particularly important when we research the spatial distribution of
phenomena and things.

D Defining the Objectives of the Study

A study’s objectives are the goals the researcher intends to achieve through the
research project. In this step, general and specific objectives are set. The general
objectives provide short statements of the goal, while the specific objectives
provide detailed inter-connected statements.

E Defining the Scope and Delimitation of the Study

Research requires time, financing and skilled manpower or professionals. These
factors are not always available at required levels. Shortages of these resources
limits the spatial dimension that the research can cover. It also limits the quality
of the research work. The greater the accessibility or spatial extent, the wider is
the scope and the amount and quality of information to be obtained; which, in
turn, leads to greater competency.

F Reviewing the Literature

Did you have the experience of reviewing books? After reviewing, you may
have the main idea. Try to remember that idea.

Reviewing the literature means identifying, reading and analyzing documentation

related to the research you plan to perform. For example,
FF books
FF academic journals
FF conference proceedings
FF government reports
FF published and unpublished documents related to the problem
For quantitative research, the literature review can help you identify the variables
and their relationships. You need to understand them in order to establish an
appropriate hypothesis.
1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography
 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
15
For qualitative research, the literature review helps you to expand your knowledge
of the research subject.

G Developing or Formulating a Working Hypothesis

How do we develop a working hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a preliminary assumption or tentative explanation that accounts

for a set of facts, taken to be true for the purpose of investigation and testing a
theory.

Establishing a working hypothesis is crucial for research in all disciplines

including geography. The information you gain from your literature review will
help you to formulate an appropriate hypothesis.

The hypothesis you develop will guide you as you define the types of data to
collect and decide which methods of data analysis you will use.

A working hypothesis can be formulated based on the ideas you gather from:
a conducting discussions with experts,
b inferring from the work of others on similar studies,
c personal investigations of conducting original field interviews with
interested parties and individuals.

A hypothesis must have the following characteristics. It

a should be clear and precise
b should be capable of being tested or verified
c should state relationships between the variables determined
d must explain the facts that give rise to the explanation

H Preparing the Research Design

What is the basis for preparing a research design?

After formulating the research problem, you prepare a research design. The
research design is the conceptual framework within which the research could
be conducted. It helps you collect related evidence. It also helps you to limit
required time, effort and expense.

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Grade 12 Geography
16
The preparation of an appropriate research design for a particular problem
involves the following considerations.
i the means of obtaining the information
ii the competence of the researcher
iii the time available for the research
iv the money available for the research

A research design answers such questions as these about your research project
and its subject: what, where, when, how much and by what means.

I Defining the Sample Design

What factors influence in determining the sample design?

We typically study samples of the total population in question, rather than studying
the entire population. If a population is very large, and we try to address the
entire population, our project might be too large to be practical. For example, the
amount of information we would need to identify, gather, organize and analyze
might be too large to manage.

Choosing the population sample is called sampling. The resulting study is called
a “sample study”. To serve a useful purpose, a sample should be free from bias
and should appropriately represent the population.
Example

Population

B Sample
Where

A = Population, which is the total unit (for example, the total number of
students in a school).

B = Sample, which is only part of the total unit but is representative of it

(for example, only the students in two or three grade levels).

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
17

Note

The appropriate percentage or ratio of the size of a

population sample to the entire population depends upon
the variability of the population. If the population under
study is homogeneous (similar) a small sample is sufficient.
On the other hand, if the population is heterogeneous, a
much larger size is necessary.

J Designing The Main Techniques for Sampling

What are the basic techniques adopted in sampling?
There are two main sampling techniques: non-probability and probability.
i Non-Probability Sampling
FF This approach is sometimes known as deliberate or purposive sampling.
FF The items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher.
FF The basis of such samplings is personal decision.
FF There is always a danger of bias in such sampling.
ii Probability Sampling (also known as 'random sampling')
FF This approach is often called chance or lottery sampling.
FF Under this approach to sampling, every item of the population has an
equal chance of being included (lottery method).
FF Only chance determines whether an item is selected or not. Once an
item is selected for the sample, it cannot appear again.
There are different types of probability sampling (Random sampling). You will
learn about them when you reach the college level.

K Collecting and Organizing the Data

What is data? How do you collect it?

There are two types of data collection: primary and secondary.

i Primary Data Collection: This type of data collection is original in character.
The research produces the data, rather than relying on existing data.

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Grade 12 Geography
18
There are several ways of collecting primary data. The important ones are based on
FF The researcher's personal observations.
FF Interviews conducted through telephone conversations and in person.
FF Questionnaires: A questionnaire consists of a number of questions
printed or typed on a form or set of forms. The questionnaire is given
to the respondents, who then fill it out by themselves. The questionnaire
could be given to and collected from the respondents through the mail,
by e-mail, or in person.
FF discussion with groups of people.
FF Primary data collection may also make use of schedules.

This approach is similar to the use of questionnaires but differs in one

aspect. An assigned enumerator fills out the questionnaire. The enumerator
schedules appointments with the respondents, meets with them in person,
asks them the questions from the questionnaire, and records their answers.
ii Secondary Data Collection: This type of data collection investigates data
that has already been collected, organized and arranged by someone else.
Secondary data may be either published or unpublished:
FF Published data include:
KK publications by governments
KK publications by NGOs
KK journals
KK magazines and newspapers
KK reports by universities, scholars, etc.
KK historical records, etc.
FF Unpublished data include:
KK diaries
KK letters
KK unpublished biographies, etc.

L Analysis of the Data

Data analysis is an essential aspect of the scientific study of problems and
discovering their solutions. This step involves the use of statistical techniques to
measure relationships of the geographic variables defined in the hypothesis. The

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
19
important issue in this step is the selection of appropriate measuring techniques.
Different statistical techniques are employed in analyzing collected data. The
statistical techniques vary, depending on the nature of the geographical research,
the variables investigated, the ability of the researcher etc.

At this class level, you can use:

i simple ratios and percentages
ii pie charts and compound graphs
iii measures of averages and raw-data variances

Processing research data with statistical techniques results in new discoveries

or findings, followed by interpretations. Then, based on the findings,
recommendations are made.

Note

Be sure that your recommendations are realistic.

M Preparing the Research Report, Based on the Findings

The research report is a major component of the study. Until the report is written
or presented, no one can use the research results. The report must be clear and
accurate.
Even if your hypothesis is brilliant, your research sampling and statistical
technique accurate, and your results extremely important, they are of value only
if your readers can understand and appreciate them.
To create a good report, you must prepare it carefully. A good report is the product
of concentration, accuracy and the logical arrangement of your facts and ideas.

N Compiling the Bibliography /References

Compiling a bibliography is the final step of your research project. A bibliography
is a list of written materials relevant to the research study you have performed.
It includes all books, documents, etc that you referred to as you prepared for and
conducted your project.

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Grade 12 Geography
20
Arrange the items in your bibliography alphabetically. Use these formats:
For Books and Pamphlets
1 Name of the author, last name first.
2 Title, underlined or in italics
3 Place, publisher and date of publication
4 Volume(s) number(s)
Example: Getas A, (2007), Introduction to Geography, 2nd edition,
Mc Graw Hill, New york.
For Magazines and Newspapers
1 Name of the author, last name first
2 Title of article, in quotation marks
3 Name of the periodical, underlined to indicate the practice of italics
in printouts.
4 Volume number
5 The date of the issue
6 Page or page range

Research Process in Flow Chart

FF

FF

Review the literature

Define Review concetps Design research

Formulate Analyse data
research and theories Collect data Interpret
(including (Test hypothesis
problem hypotheses (Execution) F if any) F and report
sample design)
Review previous
I III IV V VI VII
research finding

II

F
where
F = feedback (Helps in controlling the subsystem to which it is transmitted)

FF = feed forward (Serves the vital function of providing criteria for

evaluation)

1.5 Basic Research Methodology In Geography

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
21
1.6 CONDUCTING ACTION RESEARCH
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ conduct action research on selected problems.

Key Terms
³³ Action research ³³ Sample size
³³ Qualitative approach ³³ Data analysis
³³ Data collection ³³ Data interpreter
Please think of various problems that exist at your school. Then perform the
following project.

Under subtopic 1.5, we saw the basic research methodology and elements of
research work. Based on that, you will attempt to do a research project practically.
It is advisable for you do this in groups.

Action research is an ongoing research process by which a particular real

problem is identified, information/data are gathered, practical solutions are
tested, conclusions and recommendations are reached and finally improvements
are made.

The following are basic features of action research.

FF It is based on reality.
FF It enables researchers to put ideas into action.
FF There is rapid feedback.
FF It aims at improving situations, not at producing new knowledge.
FF It encourages reflections and further developments.

When we come to action research at this grade level, you are expected to exercise
elementary research work activities since they are also engaged in studying
other subjects. Here, the problems identified or selected should be very easy and
accessible to the students' capacity, time and availability of sources. Hence, the
following steps are thought to be helpful in conducting action research at this
level.

1.6 Conducting Action Research

 Grade 12 Geography
22
Step 1: Selecting the Problem

In identifying or selecting the problem, this gives opportunities to select problems

since a problem must come out from the researcher's mind like a fountain comes
out from a mountain. The following points may be thoroughly considered in
selecting a research problem:
FF the problem selected should not be overdone
FF it should not be a debatable issue
FF it must be simple and clear so that it does not discourage the participants
or the students involved in research-work
Example:
Assume that the selected problem from the three proposed problems is
“Low grade achievement of arts students in mathematics exams.”

Step 2: Objectives of the Study

The objective of the action research is to discover the reasons why art students
are low achievers and finally find a solution to minimize the problem. This step
or process is a very pertinent part that will lead to decide on the type and nature
of data to be collected.

Step 3: Making Review of Literature

This process actually gives the students more ideas, clues and attempted solutions
from previous work about how to minimize achievement of low grades in a given
subject. Review literatures should be related to the selected problem that should
be dealt with. The availability of a good library or previously done papers is
very essential for this. Teachers should guide the students from where to get
the required materials. If documents are not available in the school library, the
teacher should visit affiliated offices and agencies to get information.

Step 4: Establishing Working Hypothesis

A hypothesis is often considered as the principal tool in research. Its main

function is to put forward an assumption that can be verified by the research.
In fact, many action research projects, establish hypotheses. However, it will
be difficult for grade 12 students to conduct hypothesis formulating and testing
processes. Both skills demand high competence and experience. It is because of
this fact that the problem identified, "why most art students often achieve low
grades in mathematics than science stream students", is forwarded for conducting
action research at this level.

1.6 Conducting Action Research

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
23
This action research makes use of the qualitative approach. The data collectable
could be based on interviews and questionnaires. Sample questionnaire formats
are suggested below.

Activity 1.3
Investigating and finding a solution why most art students are less competent
than science students in mathematics.

Sample Questionnaire Format

Questionnaire format A Questionnaire format B
(to be filled in by students) (to be filled by mathematics teachers)
1 Name of the school ________ 1 Name of the school ____________
2 Grade level _____section ____ 2 Grade level _____ section _______
Academic year _______ Academic year ____________
3 Average grade results in 3 What percent of your
grade 9 __________
a arts-stream students are good
grade 10 __________
in mathematics? _________
grade 11 __________
4 Which subject do you like best? b science stream students
Mention only three of them. are good in mathematics?
1 ___________ _________
2 ___________ 4 Which-stream is active when you
3 ___________ teach? Arts or science ___________
5 Are you good in mathematics 5 Please give us your opinions about
(Yes or No) _______ why art students are not as competent
6 If your answer is no, give your in mathematics as science students.
reasons __________________ _______________________________
________________________
Thank you,
Thank you,

Step 5: Determining the Sample Size

When research is done, taking a sample is essential. Determining your sample

size can vary because all the students learning this topic at this grade level have
different class size, different student combination of age, caliber, etc). Let us
say that 20 % of the population under study will suffice as the sample size. If
the class size is 100, twenty students are taken as the sample size. In order to
avoid personal interest or making the sampling random, use a technique of lottery
system.
1.6 Conducting Action Research
 Grade 12 Geography
24
The selected 20 students represent the 100 students. All the information they
give represents the whole class or section.
Step 6: Collecting the Required Data
Under this research work, the easiest way of collecting data from the selected
sample size could be:
a either through personal interview or
b through questionnaires
The students should prepare questionnaires made up of items that attempt to get
answers regarding why most arts students are relatively lower grade achievers in
mathematics than most of science students.
Step 7: Analysis of the Data
In order to analyze the collected data, the teacher should help the students
understand how to organize the data in a tabular or graphic form. From the table,
the students can create:
a simple ratios/proportions
b bar graphs/line graphs
Step 8: Generalization and Interpretation
After applying simple ratios or graphs, the students can make comparisons
and generalizations. They can prove that most science students are good in
mathematics than arts students. After that, possible solutions could be gathered
from the questionnaire and employ the solution to reduce the number of art
students scoring low marks in mathematics.
Step 9: Preparation of the Report

It may be difficult to hear the report of every student. Students could be grouped
as it was done at the very beginning. The students should bear in mind that their
reports must include:
a a clear statement of the objective and the explanation of the method
used to analyze the data,
b a summarized generalization of the discovery or finding obtained,
and
c finally forward the possible solutions that could change the attitude
of most arts students towards mathematics.
It is advisable that selected students read their report to the class, or if possible
even at the flag ceremony.

1.6 Conducting Action Research

 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
25

U
 UNIT SUMMARY
nit Review

ÞÞ Research is a scientific method of investigating answers for the problems

identified.
ÞÞ Development in any country depends, among other things, upon its
research capability.
ÞÞ There are two basic approaches often used in geographical research
works. They are quantitative and qualitative approaches. Their difference
lie mainly in the attributes considered to be measured and the techniques
chosen to be used.
ÞÞ Geographical research works are different from the research work of
other disciplines/sciences. They are very much concerned with spatial
distributions and organizations of things and phenomena in time bound.
They also consider the forces that results in determine the distributions.
ÞÞ In the study and analysis of spatial aspects, geographical research
procedures and techniques with other sciences. For example, identifying
the research problem, defining the objective and significance of the
research, reviewing literature related to the study, formulating a working
hypothesis, etc.
ÞÞ Finally, developing the skill of making action research to solve their
problems.

 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT 1

I Multiple Choices: Choose the best answer from the given alternatives for
the following statements and questions.
1 Which of the following geographical approaches is used for confirming a
given theory?
A quantitative approach C A and B
B qualitative approach D descriptive approach

Unit Review
 Grade 12 Geography
26
2 When distance as a varying factor determines the variation of other factors,
then distance in research is a
A dependent variable C independent variable
B Subordinate variable D A and B
3 Traditional geographic research was largely concerned with the study of
A sustainable environments
B spatial analysis
E locations of places and people
F environmental hazards
4 The International Geographic Union Commission's priority vision is
A the promotion of geographical education all over the world at all
grade levels
B the promotion of geographical education in developing countries
C the achievement of sustainable development through the spread of
geographical education
D A and C
5 The 1950s and 1960s were decades of great changes in the science of
geography because
A geography revolutionized its research methods, adopting quantitative
techniques.
B the launching of the space shuttle took place.
C geography was assisted by computer-based data sources.
D the technology of remote sensing was adopted in teaching geography
6 Which of the following concepts are guiding and especially useful in
research practices in geography?
A research technique D research desire
B research method E A, B and C
C research methodology
7 Which of the following steps should come first during a geographical
research project?
A identifying causes
B identifying problems
C formulating hypotheses
D designing research sampling techniques

Unit Review
 Unit 1: Basic Research Methodologies In Geography
27
8 Reviewing literature in geographical research
A widens the researcher’s knowledge of the issue to be researched
B helps the researcher to formulate working hypotheses
C helps the researcher to identify appropriate methods
D all of the above
9 One can claim that a geographical research project is complete when the
A working hypothesis is made
B sampling design is finished
C collected data is analyzed
D report is presented

II Questions to Think Over:

10 What are the main problems in performing research projects in your own
school? Please discuss this question in your group.
11 Have you ever thought of questioning why your grades are good or poor
in mathematics? Please discuss the issue with your art-stream group and
science-stream group peers.
12 National and international groups are giving serious attention to the impact
of AIDS. Can you go to a nearby health center and collect data regarding
the number of victims in different age groups? After performing this
investigation, compare the percentage of young victims to the total number
of victims.

Unit Review
U 2 nit

MAP USE AND MAP WORK

Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ÞÞ Recognize meanings, uses, conventional signs and symbols and distribution
of topographic maps;
ÞÞ Distinguish the properties of globe and map;
ÞÞ Analyze the meaning, significance, properties and classification of map
projections;
ÞÞ Acquire basic skills to draw sketch maps.

Main Contents
2.1 THE STUDY OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS
2.2 GLOBE AND MAP
2.3 MAP PROJECTION
2.4 DRAWING SKETCH MAP
FF Unit Summary
FF Review Exercise
 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
29
INTRODUCTION
Human beings have kept track of locations and the directions to and from them
since we first appeared on earth. As we began to move from place to place,
looking for sources of water and other necessities and opportunities, we began to
make simple maps. All good explorers made sketches or maps as they travelled
to unknown places so that their followers could either trace them or continue to
achieve the desired goal.
The roots of modern map-making lie in the 17th century. Three key developments
contributed to modern map making. These developments were
FF The revival of aspects of the ancient Greco-Roman civilizations during
the Renaissance.
FF The Age of Exploration and Discovery.
FF The invention of the printing press.
The art, science and technology of map-making is called cartography. The
technology of map making has its background in the times of the ancient Greeks
and Romans. They recognized the spherical form of the earth and created maps
in the form of globes. In this process, they developed map projection and the
geographical grid system. This technology was lost to Europe during the Middle
Ages.

After the Age of Exploration and Discovery (i.e., at the end of the fifteenth
century) geographers and other people became more interested in locating places.
This interest led to the development of maps. These map makers developed a
technique based on inserting a light within a transparent globe of the earth. As
you will learn later in this unit, the light casts shadows of the globe’s features on
a flat surface, resulting in a map.

In this way, Europeans developed flat maps and substituted them for globes.
In the 17th century, they developed the mathematical method of map making.
They replaced cast shadows with mathematics as the basis of map making. With
this method, they developed the concepts of parallels and meridians based on a
standard set of parallel lines covering the whole globe.

In recent years, remote sensing technique has been applied for making accurate
maps, monitoring the environment and conducting surveys. The need to store,
process and retrieve the vast amounts of data generated by remote sensing resulted
in the development of the Geographic Information System (GIS).

Introduction
 Grade 12 Geography
30
In this unit, you will learn about:
FF topographic maps and other types of distribution maps.
FF map projection and its various types in making maps.
You will also learn how to:
FF make a sketch map.
FF locate and identify geographical elements on a sketch map.

Start-up Activity
1 Do you know what topographic maps are?
2 What is the difference between topographic maps and other types of
distribution maps?

2.1 THE STUDY OF TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ Define topographic maps;
ÞÞ Identify the uses of topographic maps;
ÞÞ Interpret conventional signs and symbols on topographic maps;
ÞÞ Realize the difference between qualitative and quantitative distribution
maps;
ÞÞ Translate different data into distribution maps using different diagrammatic
methods.

Key Terms
³³ Topographic map ³³ Choroschematic map
³³ Signs and symbols ³³ Chroplet map
³³ Thematic map ³³ Isoplethic map
³³ Chrochromatic map

Although many disciplines use maps, maps have a special significance for
geographers. They are geographers’ primary tools for displaying and analyzing
spatial distributions, patterns and relations. Because these features cannot easily
be observed and interpreted in real landscapes, maps are essential to geographers.

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
31
2.1.1 Meaning and Uses of Topographic
Maps
Meaning of Topographic Maps
What is Topographic map?

Topography is a Greek word made up of “topos” and “graphy.” “Topos” means

places, and “graphy” means writing or description. Therefore topography means
the description or explanation of places.

Topographic maps are often known as topo sheets. Unlike other distribution
maps, topographic maps, portray one or more natural and cultural features of
an area. Simply, topographic maps are maps that show both human made and
natural features. They can be used for various disciplines to make inferences.

Nature of Topographic Maps

A topographic map is:
FF a map that portrays rivers, streams, drainage, vegetation, roads,
buildings, land uses, etc.
FF a detailed map that shows multiple natural and anthropogenic features;
FF a large scale map drawn to show a relatively small area; therefore,
called a scenery map, too;
FF a map that uses definite symbols, known as conventional symbols.
Series of these maps are:
FF numbered sequentially in this format: 1, 2, 3 … 9, 10 ….
FF each presents an area of 1o latitude by 1o longitude
FF each such sheet is thus 1/16 of the international sheet. These sheets are
numbered
FF These degree sheets are numbered sequentially in this format as A, B,
C, etc.
FF The degree sheets are again subdivided into half degree and quarter
degree sheets. These sheets are also sequentially numbered in this
format as /ANE, /ASE,/ANW and /ASW, …..

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Grade 12 Geography
32
4°

3°
PRIME MERIDIAN

2°

1°
NW NE
1A 1B 1C 1D
SW SE

EQUATOR
0 1° 2° 3° 4°

Figure 2.1: Degree sheets

Activity 2.1
Looking at the topo sheet of Addis Ababa in the next page,
a identify the natural features shown on it.
b identify the built-up features on the map.

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
33

Figure 2.2: The topo sheet of Addis Ababa at the scale of 1:50,000

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Map

s
 Grade 12 Geography
34
Due to the detailed information displayed on topographic maps, they are classified
as general-purpose or reference maps. They
FF Help us to study and understand the physical aspect of the area under
survey in relation to the extent that human has intervened and changed it.
This enables us to understand the degree of human interference and to
predict future conditions.
FF Show the existing land forms and help us to understand the geological
forces responsible for the formation of these visible land forms.
FF Show the various natural and cultural landscapes. This function of the
maps makes them helpful for socio-economic planning. They provide
base-line surveying clues.
FF Help engineers to select the right engineering design viewing the
portrayed features.
FF Act as documents for tourists, helping them to reach the places they
wish to visit.
FF Provide information about the landscape and possibly provide other
information for military purposes.

2.1.2 Conventional Signs and Symbols on

Topographic Maps
What do we mean by conventional signs and symbols? Do you remember those
signs and symbols you have studied in grade nine?

The skill of map reading and interpretation depends on knowing conventional

symbols and signs. The signs and symbols on topographic maps are listed and
explained in the map’s key or legend. These symbols and signs vary in amount
and kind from country to country. They can also vary within the same country,
due to varying scales and areal extents.

A very good example is the set of boundary symbols used on the topographic
map of Ethiopia at the scale of 1:250,000 and 1:50,000:

In the topographic map of Ethiopia, published by the Ethiopian Mapping Agency

(EMA), the conventional signs and symbols are based on the devices adopted by
the Doctorate Overseas Survey (DOS) Standard. Their representation is shown
at the bottom of the map. The major symbols and signs are as follows.

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
35

Town or area with permanent

buildings including public buildings
Tukul or other small building
Road
Number
Road: Asphalt Surface
Road: Dry Weather, with Kilometre Stone
Trail

Power Line

Site of Battle, Mineral Working

School, Hospital or Clinic, mosque, Church

Cemetery: Christian, Muslem

Spot Height (Surveyed)

Forest

Contours (V.I. 20) Depression

Mill, Lighthouse

Swamp or Marsh

Woodland
Boundary: international

Trigonometrical Station:
Primary, Secondary, Other
Bench Mark

Figure 2.3: Conventional symbols used in the topographic map of Ethiopia

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Map

s
 Grade 12 Geography
36
 Exercise 2.1
1 Why do we say topographic maps are general purpose maps?
2 How did GIS promote the development of map-making?
3 Compare and contrast chorochromatic and choroschematic maps.
4 State the three historical events that promoted the development of map-
making.

2.1.3 The Study of Distribution Maps

What does distribtuion map mean? Does it differ from cadastral and navigational
maps?
The Introduction to Grade 11’s geography textbook presented this concept. Try to
recall what you learned about this in that text; or else refer back to the text now.

Maps are two-dimensional models of the surface of the earth. They portray the
distribution of features, characters or phenomena. Many kinds of distribution
maps are used world-wide. Nevertheless, we can group them into different classes
based on their purposes.

In this section, you will learn about the maps in some of the categories, viz.:
ÂÂ Reference or general-purpose maps
ÂÂ Special-purpose or thematic maps
ÂÂ Charts

Reference or General Purpose Maps

What are general purpose maps?

These maps are topographic maps that portray different features at the same time.
They are made at a larger scale covering smaller areas to show details.

Thematic or Special-Purpose Maps

What are thematic maps?
These are distribution maps that emphasize the distribution of a single geographical
element or character.

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
37
Example:
FF Climatic map of Africa (Annual rainfall distribution).
FF Population map of the world.

Figure 2.4: Climatic map of Africa

Figure 2.5: Population map of the world

Thematic maps are classified into two subgroups. They differ from each other on
grounds of the nature of information they convey.
A Qualitative maps B Quantitative maps

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Grade 12 Geography
38
A Qualitative Distribution Maps
What are qualitative distribution maps?
Qualitative distribution maps show non-quantitative attributes. They are
reclassified into these subgroups:
i Chorochromatic maps ii Choroschematic maps
i Chorochromatic
Maps: Show the
Bereha
spatial distribution of Kolla
Lowlands

geographic elements, WoinaDega

Dega
Highlands
using colour tint, Wurch
or
Kur
shading, dots or line
symbols, without
attaching any numerical
values.

Figure 2.6: Agro-climatic zones of Ethiopia

ii Choroschematic Maps: Are qualitative maps that use pictures and letters.
The pictures often symbolized are pictures of the real element. They are
relatively simple to understand.

Figure 2.7: Mineral distribution in Ethiopia

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
39
B Quantitative Distribution Maps
What are quantitative distribution maps?

As their name suggests, such maps display spatial distributions of geographical

elements, representing quantitative values. The most commonly used distribution
maps are:
i Dot maps
ii Choropleth maps
iii Isopleth maps
iv Graphs and diagrammatic maps
i Dot maps: In dot quantitative maps, each dot represents a given quantity
or value. To create a clear and accurate dot map, you must
FF place the dots accurately
FF be sure there is enough space between the dots to distinguish them
FF be sure all dots on the map are of the same size

● 50,000 cattle

Source: Woobeshet (2008).

Figure 2.8: Cattle distribution in Ethiopia

ii Choroplethic maps: Sometimes they are called shaded maps. They

display quantifiable features. Choroplethic maps are often used to show
the distribution of average values such as population density, cropping
intensity, etc. The type or intensity of the shading reflects variation in
quantity.
2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps
 Grade 12 Geography
40

Key
< 1.9
1.9 – 2.5
2.6 – 3.2*
3.3 – 3.8
3.9 – 5.0
> 5.0
Unreliable data
No data
*average national value

0 150 300
Kilometers
Figure 2.9: Population density map of
Ethiopia Source: Atlas of the Ethiopian Rural Economy

Note

If the intensity of the shading does not correspond to the

variation in value, then the map is a chorochromatic map.

iii Isoplethic maps: Isopleths are lines of equal value or magnitude. The
lines pass through points at which the value of a particular phenomenon is
equal. Hence, isoplethic maps are quantitative distribution maps that use
lines that pass through points of equal value. They are most commonly
used for representing climatic elements, transportation costs, etc.

Note
Before creating an isopleth map, you must define the space
between isopleths, which is their interval. Use an interval that
will make the map easy to read and will allow it to contain the
information you require. If the interval is very small, the lines
will be close together, and the map might be difficult to read.
In contrast, with a large interval, the lines will be far apart.
This might limit the amount of information that the map can
present.

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
41
Example:
Isotherm maps are ones that show equal temperature points.
Isobar maps are those that show equal pressure distribution.
Isodapane maps are those that show equal transportation-cost distribution.
Isohyet maps are those that show equal rainfall distribution.
Isoneph maps are those that show equal cloud cover distribution.

o C
25
o C
20
C
18 o

14oC
1
8 oC

C
25 C
20 C

o
14
o
o

o C
18 C
C

25 o
20 o

o C
30

Figure 2.10: Temperature distribution in Ethiopia Source: Geography Students text
Grade 12 (2006)
iv Graphs and Diagrammatic Maps: These are often, used to show
economic data, population data and other quantifiable distributions.

Graphs: The simplest and most widely used graphs are line graphs and bar
graphs. They are used to show the relationship between two geographic variables
in time and space series.

Both line graphs and bar graphs can use a single or double format. The format
depends on the items to be shown.

Figure 2.11: Single-linegraph Figure 2.12: Double-linegraph

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Grade 12 Geography
42
Diagrammatic maps: These differ from graph maps, in that diagrammatic maps
are more explanatory than graph maps since they are two-dimensional or areal.
These maps employ figures such as squares, circles, spheres, etc. The sizes of the
figures are proportional to the values they stand for.

Example:

Using proportional squares. Proportional squares are used for making

comparisons. The area of each square is proportional to the quantity it
stands for.
To show distributions using proportional squares, follow this procedure:
Step 1: Calculate the square-roots of the values given.
Step 2: Let the least square root computed represent a side of the square
that measures 1 cm × 1 cm = 1 cm2.
Step 3: Compute the side of the values in an ascending order and draw the
squares, using the computed square roots.

Example:
Ethiopia’s H.E.P potential for:
a Gilgel Gibe is 300 Megawat
b Fincha is 100 Megawatt
c Melka Wakena is 150 Megawatt

Solution:

Accordingly, the square root for:

17.32 mm

Gelgel
a Gelgel Gibe 300 = 17.32 mm Gibe

17.32 mm
10 mm

Finche
b Fincha 100 = 10 mm
10 mm
12.3 mm

Melka
c Melak Wakena 150 = 12.3 mm Wakena
12.3 mm

Use the values computed for the sides of the squares to draw the squares. The
resulting different sized squares represent the different H.E. Potentials of the rivers.

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
43
Proportional Circles and Proportional Arrows
Proportional circles and proportional arrows are one of the various diagramatic
techniques for showing economic data, population size, etc. They can be used for
comparative studies of different geographical aspects.

Likewise, a circle can be also drawn to show the proportional share of individual
components (piechart). For drawing proportional circles, a suitable value (i.e.,
the least value being represented by 1 centimeter) is selected and radii of circles
for representing different values or magnitudes are calculated.

Note
1 centimeter is called the supposed radius of the circle and
that represents the selected (least value) number. Based on πr2
and computed r1 different sized circles will be drawn.

Example:
Major commodity exports of Ethiopia in 2004/05 (Source NBE)
Coffee 126100 tons, pulses 66200 tons, oil seeds 83000 tons
Let the export of pulses’ (66200 tons) radius be (supposed radius) = 1 cm
Then, we calculate others’ radii based on 1 cm radius.
126,100 × 1cm
Coffee = = 1.90cm
66, 200 tones
83, 000 tones × 1cm
Oil seeds = = 1.3cm
66.200 tone

Coffee = 1.9 cm Oil seeds = 1.3 pulses = 1 cm

2.1 The Study Of Topographic Maps
 Grade 12 Geography
44
Similarly, proportional arrows of varying thickness can be used to show different
magnitudes or flows. Often, proportional arrows are used to portray the degree
or volume of movements of goods, traffic flow, migration of people, direction of
exports and imports, etc.

Figure 2.13: Arrow map

2.2 GLOBE AND MAP

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ compare and contrast the properties of globes and maps.

Key Terms
³³ Globe ³³ Meridians
³³ Spheroid

What is a map?

Maps and globes are very important tools that geographers use in order to show
geographic facts.

They differ from each other in what they can portray and how they portray this
information.

Properties of a Globe
What are the particular properties of a globe?
FF Globes are the most appropriate models for representing the surface of
the earth because they are spherical.
2.2 Globe And Map
 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
45
FF The scale on the surface of a globe is identical over all of its surface.
FF All meridians and parallels on a globe intersect at right angles.
FF All meridians converge at the poles.
FF All parallels are parallel to the equator and to each other.
FF Parallels decrease in length as they approach the poles.

Advantages of a Map Over a Globe

What are the advantages of a map over a globe?
Maps are used more frequently than globes, particularly in the classroom and in
fieldwork.

If a globe is a more accurate representation of the earth than a map, why do we

often prefer maps to globes? The answer is that:
FF Globes are expensive to reproduce and update, but maps are not.
FF Globes are not easy to fold and handle, but maps are.
FF Globes must be rotated to show the entire surface of the earth, and they
are not convenient for showing locations and distributions over very
large areas. With a map, you can immediately see the whole of any area
shown on it.
FF Most globes are less than one meter in diameter and therefore are too
small to provide detailed information
FF Globes are not visually convenient, but maps are.
Therefore, maps are usually preferred over globes in geography.

a) Map b) Globe
Figure 2.14:

Now we consider the case of transferring information from a spherical surface to

a flat one – in other words we treat the manner how we can create a map, which

2.2 Globe And Map

 Grade 12 Geography
46
is two-dimensional, from the surface of the earth, which is spherical. We use a
remedial device, map projection.

Activity 2.2
1 Prepare a globe and a map and present it on the table for discussion
2 By looking at these tools, attempt to characterize each item. And then identify
the draw-backs for each tool.

 Exercise 2.2
I Choose the best answer among the given alternatives
1 Which of the following types of map is appropriate for showing settlement,
drainage, roads and land use distribution on a single map?
A Thematic map C Cadastral map
B Topographic map D Navigation map
2 Which of the following truly expresses the nature of topographic maps?
A They are small-scale maps.
B They can be drawn at varying scales.
C The symbols and signs used in all topo-maps are consistent.
D A and B.
3 In a thematic distribution map
A only one geographic element is portrayed.
B settlements and graticules are shown.
C a number of features can be shown very neatly.
D Both human made and natural features are shown clearly.
II Short Answers
1 Enumerate the differences between topographic and thematic maps.
2 What are the advantages of maps over globes?
3 List the marginal information in the topo sheet of Addis Ababa that uses the
scale of 1:50,000.
4 What precautions must the map-maker of these types of maps observe?
a Dot map
b Isoplethic map
2.2 Globe And Map
 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
47
2.3 MAP PROJECTION
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ define map projection;
ÞÞ discuss the significance of map projection;
ÞÞ identify the properties of map projection; and
ÞÞ demonstrate cylindrical, conical and zenithal map projections.

Key Terms

³³ Map projection ³³ Cylinderical ³³ Zenithal

³³ Homolographic ³³ Equal-Area ³³ Conical
³³ Orthomorphic ³³ Conformal ³³ Polyconic
³³ Azimuthal ³³ Equidistant

2.3.1 Meaning and Significance of Map

Projection
What does map projection mean? What is its significance?

We are quite sure that you can define what a map is and tell what its significance is.

Meaning of map projection: Map projection is a technique that cartographers use

to transfer information from a globe to a flat surface in order to create a map.

Cartographers developed map projection as they tried to solve the problems that
globes presented. The end result of their efforts was to produce an alternative
tool – the map.

Depicting various types of data on a map is the chief objective of a cartographer.

This demands the establishment of basic information (like grid references,
boundaries, etc.) on the required map. The acquiring of this basic information
in turn demands map projection. In this way, map projection becomes very
significant so that data and other geographic elements will be depicted in their
appropriate place.

2.3 Map Projection

 Grade 12 Geography
48
2.3.2 Properties of Map Projection
Is map projection a perfect technique of transferring all the information
portrayed on a spherical surface onto a plane surface?

No type of map projection is free of distortion. Because cartographers must make

choices when they decide to pick a projection, they begin by asking themselves
questions like the ones just below:

The task of representing a spherical surface on a plane surface is complicated.

There is no way to preserve accuracy. This is because there is no way to cut up the
surface of a globe that would allow it to lie flat on a piece of paper. The spherical
surface would tear if you tried to spread it out onto a perfectly flat surface.

Therefore, transferring the graphics on the surface of a globe to a flat surface

always results in distortion in the graphics. Distortions in one or more of the
following properties always occur.
FF area FF distance
FF shape FF direction (angle)
If you maintain the accuracy of one of these features, some or all of the others
will be distorted. Therefore, there is no projection type that provides an absolutely
perfect representation of the earth on a flat surface.

A surface, such as that of the earth, that cannot be converted into a flat surface
without distortion is called an undevelopable surface.

Here are some commonly used types of projections. Each maintains accuracy in
one of the features by sacrificing accuracy in others.
FF homolographic projections maintain accuracy of true area.
FF orthomorphic projections maintain accuracy of true area.
FF azimuthal projections maintain accuracy of direction.

Considering the information that I want to present on my map,

FF what property do I want to preserve?
FF what properties are less important?

Then choose from among the properties listed earlier: i.e, area, shape, distance,
direction (angle).

2.3 Map Projection

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
49
2.3.3 Geometrical Map Projection
What does the term geometrical map projection mean? Does it have relationships
with the geometrical figures?

As you know, map projection is a device of representing a sphere surface on a

flat and plane surface. This involves a difficult task since the spherical surface the
globe-cannot be cut and opened into a perfectly flat surface. However, there are
some geometrical surfaces that can cover the globe partially and they can be cut
open into flat surfaces. By covering a globe of glass (that illuminates from inside)
with such a surface (developable surface), the shadows of parallels and meridians
can be traced onto the paper and then be open into a plane surface.

When creating projections by casting shadows onto a developable surface, we

capture the pattern of the shadows on the surface and then flatten the surface.

Here are some commonly used projections that are based on the shape of the
developable surface. Some of them have sub-categories.
ÂÂ cylindrical
ÂÂ conic (cone)
ÂÂ planar (plane) – also known as azimuthal

I Cylindrical Projections:
What do you mean by cylindrical Projection? Where does the cylinder tangent
the globe?
Have you seen balls kept in a cylinder?
Cylindrical projections are best
The cylinder tangents the balls at both
suited for the projection of tropical
sides. A very simple example is the
regions since deformities increase
keeping of table tennis balls in their
polewards.
cylindrical package.

Cylindrical projection are obtained with the help of a cylindrical developable

surface. The cylinder, which is wrapped around the globe tangent to the cylinder,
is tall enough to parallel both sides of the equator.

After the data have been captured on its surface, the cylinder is removed from
around the globe, and is cut open and flattened to create a rectangular plane
surface.

2.3 Map Projection

 Grade 12 Geography
50

Figure 2.15: Cylindrical Projections

Characteristics of Cylindrical Projection

FF Parallels and meridians in such a projection are straight lines
intersecting at right angles.
FF The lines tangent to the developable surface are true to scale.
FF All parallels are equal in length to the equator.
FF Distortions increase polewards from the equator.

II Conic Projection:
What does conic projection mean?

This is obtained by covering the globe

with a cone-shaped developable
surface. The cone is placed tangent
to the globe along one, two or more
parallels, with the apex of the cone
located above a pole.

Figure 2.16: Conic Projection

Earth projected on cone
Characteristics of Conic Projection
In such a projection:
FF Parallels make arcs of concentric circles.
FF Meridians are straight lines radiating from the pole.
FF The parallel tangent to the cone is true to scale. It is known as the
standard parallel (sp).

2.3 Map Projection

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
51
FF Distortions increase as parallels move away from the standard parallel.
FF Conic projection cannot be used to show worldwide distributions. Maps
created with conic projections are mostly restricted to maps of mid-
latitude regions so that the area being investigated does not extend very
far to the north or to the south. Hence, it can be argued that if two
standard parallels could be selected, an area that includes more of the
north-south directions could be represented.
FF Linear features, such as transcontinental railways and forests, for
example, coniferous forest regions, can be depicted accurately.

III Zenithal Projection:

It refers to overhead position, that is perpendicular.

This projection is also known as Azimuthal projection. True distances and

directions in such projection are retained by placing a developable surface at one
of the poles see Figure 2.17 below.

thal Projectio

Earth2.17:
Figure projected
Zenithalon azimuth (point))
Projection
Characteristics of Zenithal /Azimuthal Projections
In such projections:
FF Parallels are concentric circles.
FF Meridians are straight lines radiating from the poles.

2.3 Map Projection

 Grade 12 Geography
52
What is more:
FF Planar projections produce circular maps.
FF Planar projections are very much suited to maps of polar landmasses
(high latitude regions).

Activity 2.3
In your group, work out what the following instructions ask you to do in the form of
discussion:
1 Compare and contrast globes and maps.
2 Describe geometrical projection.

2.4 DRAWING SKETCH MAP

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ define what a sketch map is;
ÞÞ explain the purpose of drawing sketch maps;
ÞÞ discuss the guidelines for making good sketch maps; and
ÞÞ draw a sketch map of a given area.

Key Terms
³³ Sketch map ³³ Location
³³ Landscape ³³ Route
³³ Boundary

2.4.1 The Meaning and Purpose of Sketch

Maps
What are the basic differences between a sketch map and a conventional map?

A sketch map is a freehand drawing that attempts to simulate real features. It is

an important tool in fieldwork.

2.4 Drawing Sketch Map

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
53
The main purpose of a sketch map is to retain required features in field observation
with their relative locations and sizes.

We use a sketch map for its following characteristics:

FF It can be drawn quickly.
FF It is a guideline.
FF It is easily recognizable.
FF It provides skills for roughly showing or recording landscapes.
We do not use a sketch map if its following drawbacks become significantly
disadvantageous to our goals:
FF It does not have scale.
FF It is crude.
FF It can be both misleading and clumsy.

2.4.2 Basic Guidelines for Making Good

Sketch Maps
What is the first step employed in the making of a good sketch map?

Sketch maps allow geographers to record information very quickly as they

prepare for complex tasks. They use many types of sketch maps, including maps
that show location, route and landscape.

Here are guidelines for creating good sketch maps.

FF Choose an area to sketch that will be manageable for you as you create
the sketch map and that will be easy for you and others to understand
when the map is complete.
FF Select the important frames of reference for the area.
FF Create a complete mental picture of the sketch map that you will make.
As you plan the map, remember the features that you want and interest
you, for instance, such features as:
KK appear in proportion to the map as a whole and to each other
KK correct placement so that locations could be recognizable in
relation to:
33 each other,
33 the map’s boundary,

2.4 Drawing Sketch Map

 Grade 12 Geography
54
33 the lines you draw to segment the map into rectangles or
squares,
33 simplicity in recognition.
FF Create the map’s boundaries. Be sure that the final boundary allows
you to place the features appropriately. You want them to appear in
proportion to the map as a whole and to each other. You also want their
locations be recognizable in relation to each other and to the boundary.
FF Divide the edges of the boundary horizontally and vertically to create
a temporary grid of squares or rectangles. Plan them carefully so that
you can use them to place the features as accurately as possible on the
map.

Boundary

FF Using a sharp 2HB pencil, a ruler and a soft rubber eraser, begin
sketching. Use simple lines or symbols to present the map’s features.
Do your best to present the features clearly and neatly.
FF Erase the quadrant lines or dividing lines after finishing the sketch.
FF Annotate your sketch map by including important marginal information
such as its title, key, and northings.

2.4.3 Producing Sketch Maps

Do you know that sketch maps also vary in type?

It is a fact that geographers use many types of sketch maps. Here are examples
of three types:
ÂÂ location ÂÂ route ÂÂ landscape

2.4 Drawing Sketch Map

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
55
A Location Sketch Maps
These are often used to show the relative location of built-up areas, vegetation,
human-made features, etc. An example of this is shown in Figure 2.18.
19th Century

Barn

Factory
Figure 2.18: A village

When you look at the figure, notice the relative locations of the forest, school,
farm, factory etc.

Activity 2.4
Based on your understanding of the sketch map (Figure 2.18) workout the following.
1 If the distance between the ship and the factory is 500 meters on the ground,
define the scale for this sketch map. What is the scale in R : F?
2 If the left margine shows the N-S direction, what is the direction of the
a ship from the factory
b barn from the mouth of the river
3 Identify the part of the map in which the forest is shown.

B Route Sketch Map

What distinguishes route maps from location or landsketch sketch maps?

Route sketch maps are useful for finding one’s way around a new place. They
are frequently used by tourists, travelers and people who have recently been
relocated to a new area. These people might use maps of cities and large towns
to help them spot the places that they visit; for instance, offices, stations, clinics
and the like.

2.4 Drawing Sketch Map

 Grade 12 Geography
56

Activity 2.5
Assume that the following route sketch map concerns you all. Then look at the sketch
map (Figure 2.19) and perform the following activities.
1 Identify the location of the Ministry of Education in relation to Miazia 27 square
of the city.
2 Describe the routes that take you to
a Sidist Kilo
b Birhanena Selam Printing Press
c Commercial Bank
3 Is it possible to use route A to go to the school? If yes, in what direction would
you go?

Sidest kilo

N Organization for
National Examination

School
A
Commercial Bank
Menelike the II
Abadir Supermarket secondary School

Home Bakery
Berhanena Selam AAU (Arat kilo
printing press Jolybar
Campus)
Post office

B
Bus Station Bank
Mekonen Bridge
Tourist Ministry of
Hotel education
Miazia 27 square

Figure 2.19: My route from home to school To

Stadium

C Landscape Sketch Maps

These are field sketches used to show surrounding areas. These maps could be
drawn from topographic maps, aerial photographs or from direct field observation.

2.4 Drawing Sketch Map

 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
57
Example:

a) Aerial photograph

b) Sketch map

Figure 2.20:

Activity 2.6
Students, after this lesson, arrange for one Saturday or Sunday, to make an educational
trip to a nearby out skirt. Decide to make the sketch map of a selected view. Do not
forget to apply the basic guidelines and decide the type of sketch map you want to
prepare . Finally show it to your teacher and get comments.

2.4 Drawing Sketch Map

 Grade 12 Geography
58

U

nit Review
UNIT SUMMARY
ÞÞ Based on their purpose, maps are classified into topographic and thematic
maps
ÞÞ Topographic maps are detail maps as well as general purpose maps. They
show both natural and human-made features. Because of this, they are
used as inferences.
ÞÞ In order to understand and interoperate topographic maps, it is necessary
to know the conventional signs and symbols used on topographic maps.
ÞÞ Unlike topographic maps, thematic maps show only one geographic
element at a time. Hence, they cannot be used as inferences.
ÞÞ Thematic maps are again reclassified or subdivided into qualitative and
quantitative distribution maps. Qualitative distribution maps show non-
qualitative attributes, while the quantitative distribution maps show
geographical elements representing quantities.
ÞÞ Qualitative distribution maps use colors, shades, symbols and letters to
show distribution.
ÞÞ Quantitative distribution maps use colors, shades, symbols and letters to
show distribution.
ÞÞ Quantitative distribution maps use graphs, dots and proportional figures to
show distributions.

 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT 2

I Choose the best answer among the suggested alternatives.
1 Topographic maps are described as scenery maps, because they:
A a re written in block letters
B show detail information
C show the whole parts of the earth
D are true to scale

Unit Review
 Unit 2: Map Use And Map Work
59
2 Thematic maps are different from topographic maps. Their differences lie in
A purpose C areal coverage
B scale D all of the above
3 Which standard colour is wrongly associated?
A brown-relief C green-vegetation cover
B blue-water bodies D yellow-urban centres
4 Which of the following features is not included in the topographic sheet of
Addis Ababa?
A roads C built-up areas
B settlements D weather and climate
5 Which of the following maps are used to show population density?
A Isoplethic maps C Chroplethic maps
B Flow maps D Chorochromatic maps
6 The most suitable map projection for the tropical areas is
A Cylindrical equal area projection
B Azimllthal projection
C Conic equal area projection
D B and C

II Short-Answer Questions: Provide brief descriptions for the

following.
7 State the contrasts between thematic and general purpose maps. Give one
example for each.

8 Distinguish chorochromatic maps from chroplethic maps. Give two

examples for each.

9 What is the distinction between a conventional map and a sketch map?

10 What factors necessitate the use of map projection techniques?

Unit Review
U 3 nit

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY OF ETHIOPIA

AND THE HORN
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ÞÞ describe the location and size of countries in the Horn of Africa;
ÞÞ recognize the geological history, structure and relief of the Horn of Africa;
ÞÞ discuss the significance and characteristics of the drainage systems of
Ethiopia and the Horn;
ÞÞ appreciate water-resource conservation and management policy;
ÞÞ identify the factors influencing the spatial and temporal distribution of
elements of climate in Ethiopia;
ÞÞ realize the different types of natural vegetation and wild animals of Ethiopia;
ÞÞ describe soil types, problems and conservation in Ethiopia.

Main Contents
3.1 LOCATION OF THE HORN OF AFRICA AND SIZES OF MEMBER
COUNTRIES
3.2 LOCATION, SIZE AND SHAPE OF ETHIOPIA
3.3 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND RELIEF OF THE HORN OF AFRICA
3.4 CLIMATES OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
3.5 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD ANIMALS OF ETHIOPIA
3.6 SOILS OF ETHIOPIA
FF Unit Summary
FF Review Exercise
 Unit 3: Physical Geography Of Ethiopia And The Horn
61
 INTRODUCTION
Where is the Horn located?
Do you know why this part of Africa is called the Horn?

To answer these questions, look at the map of Africa carefully. You will
immediately see why this name is associated with a certain area on the map of
the continent.

The Horn of Africa, a part of the continent, is a narrow tip that protrudes into the
northern Indian Ocean, separating it from the Gulf of Aden.

The Horn of Africa consists of four countries: Djibouti, Ethiopia, Eritrea and
Somalia. It covers an area of 1.88 million square kilometers and is inhabited by
more than 95 million people. It is also the home of different ethnic groups with
distinct cultures.

Physiographically, it is made up of these landforms:

FF uplifted mountains FF fault lines and rifts
FF depressions FF extensive lowlands
FF deep river-cut gorges FF plateaus
These physiographic features (landforms) play significant roles in the social,
economic and political values of the inhabiting people.

Recent paleonthological findings indicate that the Horn of Africa, especially

Ethiopia, is the birth place of homonids; see Figures 3.1 – 3.3.

Lucy
ÂÂ Amharic name, “Dinknesh”
ÂÂ Discovered November 24,
1974 at Hadar, Afar.
ÂÂ Lived 3.2 million years ago.
ÂÂ Discovered by Johanson
and his team members.

Figure 3.1: Lucy

Introduction
 Grade 12 Geography
62

Selam
ÂÂ Discovered by Dr. Zeresenay
Alemseged.
ÂÂ Lived 3.3 million years ago.
ÂÂ A three-year-old girl.
ÂÂ September, 2006
Figure 3.2: Selam (discovered)

Ardi
ÂÂ The name “Ardi” is a short form of
Ardipithecus ramid.
ÂÂ Lived 4.4 million years ago.
ÂÂ The oldest known fossil of a
human ancestor.
ÂÂ Discovered November 5, 1994 by
Yohannes H/Selassie.
Figure 3.3: Ardi

3.1 LOCATION OF THE HORN OF AFRICA

AND SIZES OF MEMBER COUNTRIES
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ indicate the location of the Horn of Africa;
ÞÞ compare the size of countries of the Horn.

Key Terms
³³ Absolute location ³³ Longitude
³³ Relative location ³³ Vicinal location
³³ Latitude ³³ Geological location

3.1 Location Of The Horn Of Africa And Sizes Of Member Countries

 Unit 3: Physical Geography Of Ethiopia And The Horn
63
3.1.1 Concept of Location and Location of
the Horn
What is your definition of location?
Why is the location of things important in geography?

In geography, the term location is a much more abstract concept than what an
ordinary person knows. This important term is expressed in the form of:
ÂÂ Absolute location ÂÂ Relative location
Absolute Location
Absolute location is expressed as a geographical extent, in terms of latitudes and
longitudes. The absolute location of the Horn of Africa is bounded within:
FF 18oN – 1oS latitudes
FF 33oE – 51o24'E longitudes
Because of this aspect of their
location, countries of the Horn have
tropical characters and lie in the
GMT+3 time zone.

18ºN
ERITREA
Asmara
GULF OF ADEN

DJIBOUTI
Djibouti

Addis Ababa
ETHIOPIA

SOMALIA
Moqadisho

KENYA
EQUATOR
0º
Nairobi 1ºS

5ºS
33ºE 51o24’E
Figure 3.4: Absolute location of the Horn

3.1 Location Of The Horn Of Africa And Sizes Of Member Countries

 Grade 12 Geography
64
Relative Location
Can you identify the relative location of your school or residence?
The frame of reference for a place’s relative location differs from that of its
absolute location, in that it is the surrounding bodies of water and landmasses
that come into account instead of latitudes and longtiudes. One way in which the
relative location of the Horn can be described is as a region or subregion bounded by:
FF the Indian Ocean in the southeast,
FF the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden in the northeast,
FF Sudan, in the north and west, and
FF Kenya in the south.

Relative location can also be expressed in terms of vicinal (nearness) and

geological (strategic) terms. The geological approach considers a broad aerial
extent.

For example, when we describe the geological location of the Horn countries we
list the Middle East, Southwest Asia, the Mediterranean, adjacent countries etc.

Activity 3.1
1 Draw a map of the Horn of Africa and show the political divisions of the
countries of the Horn.

2 Locate and name their capital cities.

3 Which non-Ethiopian capital city is the nearest to Addis Ababa?

3.1.2 Sizes of Countries of the Horn

Do you know the largest country in the Horn of Africa?

The countries of the Horn vary in size, i.e., in area coverage. This variation has
both advantages and disadvantages for individual countries.

3.1 Location Of The Horn Of Africa And Sizes Of Member Countries

 Unit 3: Physical Geography Of Ethiopia And The Horn
65
Table 3.1: Comparison of size among countries of the Horn of Africa

Countries of the Horn of Africa Total Area (in km2)

Dijibouti 23,200

Eritrea 118,000

Ethiopia 1,106,000

Somalia 637,661

Total 1,884,861

Comparatively speaking
FF Ethiopia is the biggest.
FF Djibouti is the smallest.
FF Eritrea and Somalia are less than Ethiopia by almost ten times and
twice respectively.

In geography, relative size implies relative possibilities for possessing diversities

in resources, culture, agro-ecological zones, etc. This concept applies to the
countries of the Horn.

The countries should consider these disparities and participate in many forms of
zonal cooperation in order to benefit one another.

Activity 3.2
Referring to your Grade 11 geography students’ textbook, answer the following
questions.
1 What are the major exports of the countries of the Horn?
2 Is there a duplication of exportable goods and products?
3 Do you think that trade among these countries is possible? If not, what barrier
is there?
4 Do you remember IGAD? Please discuss what IGAD’s present status is.
5 Applying your skills in statistical diagramming, show the proportionate size of
each country.

3.2 Location Of The Horn Of Africa And Sizes Of Member Countries

 Grade 12 Geography
66
3.2 LOCATION, SIZE AND SHAPE OF ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ demonstrate the relative and absolute location as well as the shape of
Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Compact ³³ Elongated ³³ Truncated

15ºN 15ºN

addis ababa
ETHIOPIA

3ºN 3ºN

EQUATOR
0º 0º

33ºE 48ºE Scale 1:15,000,000

Source: Adapted from School Atlas of Ethiopia
Figure 3.5: Location of Ethiopia

3.2.1 Location of Ethiopia

Do you know the extent to which the location of a given place is important in
world politics? What locational significance does Ethiopia have as a country
that is in the Horn and near the Red sea route?

In the study of spatial science, location is very significant. Every place has its
own particular location in relation to its surroundings. Ethiopia’s location can be
expressed in two ways: relative location and absolute location.
3.2 Location, Size And Shape Of Ethiopia
 Unit 3: Physical Geography Of Ethiopia And The Horn
67
Relative Location of Ethiopia
Relative location can be expressed in vicinal and geological terms.

I Relative (Vicinal) Location of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is a landlocked country that is surrounded by five neighboring countries.
Each country shares different lengths of Ethiopia’s borderlines. The total length
of Ethiopia’s boundary line is 5260 km.

Table 3.2: Ethiopia’s boundary line length, as shared with neighboring countries

Bordering Shared boundary-

S/N
Countries line length in kms
1 Djibouti 310
2 Eritrea 840
3 Kenya 760
4 Somalia 1600
5 Sudan 1750

Table 3.2 indicates that

FF Sudan shares the longest length of boundary line, followed by Somalia.
FF The Republic of Djibouti shares the smallest boundary line length.

II Strategic (Global, Geological) Relative Location of Ethiopia

Ethiopia’s geological location can be described in the following ways. It is found:

FF to the southwest of the Asian continent,
FF to the south of Europe,
FF to the northwest of the Indian Ocean,
FF in the Nile Basin, and
FF in northeastern Africa.

Absolute (Astronomical) Location of Ethiopia

Ethiopia’s absolute location is expressed as follows.

Ethiopia is located between

FF 3oN – 15oN latitudes and 33oE– 48oE longitudes

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As a result, Ethiopia’s extreme points lie at
FF Badime in the north (Tigray)
FF Moyalle in the south (Borena)
FF Akobo in the west (Gambella) and
FF The tip of Ogaden in the east (Ogaden).

Activity 3.3
1 Your teacher will help you and your classmates to form three groups. Each
group will collect information from different sources:
ÂÂ books and documents,
ÂÂ teachers and other knowledgeable people,
ÂÂ Internet or Encarta.
2 With your group members, investigate these issues, using the source material
assigned to your group.
ÂÂ The major religions practiced in your locality
ÂÂ The place of origin of each of the religions
3 Determine the factors that have influenced the acceptance and practices of
these religions by millions of Ethiopians.

3.2.2 Size of Ethiopia

What is size in terms of spatial distribution? Does size influence the economic
strength of a country?
Ethiopia is the tenth largest country in Africa, with a total area of 1,106,000
square kilometers. It contains about 0.7 percent of the world’s land area and
about 3.6 percent of Africa’s land mass.

Table 3.3: Comparison of Ethiopia’s areal size with its neighbors’

Total area Size in comparison to

Country Rank
extent (km2) Ethiopia
Ethiopia 1,106,000 2 −
Djibouti 23,200 6 Almost 50 times smaller
Eretria 118,000 5 9.42 times smaller
Kenya 580,000 4 1.91 times smaller
Somalia 637,661 3 1.73 times smaller
Sudan 2,505,813 1 2.3 times bigger

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Note

Ethiopia is the largest country in the Horn. This status in size,

in combination with its status of having a large population,
confers many advantages to Ethiopia in the Horn area.

What advantages and disadvantages does Ethiopia’s large size offer the country?

Advantages: Ethiopia’s large size lets it:

FF possess diverse agro-ecological zones, resulting in a wide variety of
fauna and flora,
FF possess a large amount of arable land,
FF have a great variety of mineral resources, and
FF be the home of diverse ethnic groups.

Disadvantages: Its large size compels Ethiopia to:

FF require great financial power to construct infrastructural facilities,
FF have a large army to protect its sovereignty,
FF preserve an efficient and popular government to administer its vast
territory.

3.2.3 Shape of Ethiopia

Look at the shape of Ethiopia and the neighbouring countries. Does Ethiopia
have shape similarity? Can you identify the shape of each neighbouring
country?

Countries vary not only in location and size but also in shape. Some have nearly
circular (compact) shapes, others have elongated (linear) shapes, and still
others have truncated (shortened) shapes. These shapes affect each country‘s
administration, defence and economic integration, both within the country and in
respect to outside areas.

Ethiopia’s shape is of the compact type. Its shape is considered to be compact,

or essentially circular, because the extreme north-south and east-west spans of
the country cover comparable distances. You can easily see this approximate
circularity in your school atlases and wall maps.
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There are three theoretical indicators of the compactness of an area:
FF the boundary-circumference ratio (B/C)
FF the area-boundary ratio (A/B)
FF the actual area-area of the inscribing circle (A/A')

Note

Each of these theoretical assumptions is based on a value of

1 as indicating a perfectly compact shape. They consider 0.5 –
1.5 values as deviating only slightly from circular/compact and
therefore indicating approximate compactness. In contrast,
smaller values indicate greater divergence from compactness,
especially as they approach zero (0). These small values reflect
tendencies to elongation or truncation.

For example, let’s use the boundary-circumference ratio to measure Ethiopia’s

degree of compactness or index of compactness. In the ratio, circumference is
based on an inscribing circle that touches the north, south, east and west boundaries
of Ethiopia described earlier in the “Absolute (Astronomical) Location” section.
Boundary length
Index of compactness =
Circumference of the inscribing circle
r – is not given, we have to find it.

Note

The inscribing circle is the circle drawn through the extreme

points on the boundary of Ethiopia. The radius is obtained by
taking half the length of the distance between the astronomical
extremes of west and east of Ethiopia i.e.,
48oE – 33oE = 15o/2 = 7o30’ (this is radius of the inscribing circle).

Then, change the obtained length (7o30') into kilometers:

1o = 110.5 km

7o30' × 110.5 km = 828.75 km

5260
Therefore, index of compactness = = 1.01
2 × 3.14 × 828.75
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The value obtained, 1.01, indicates that Ethiopia’s shape to be nearly a perfect
compact shape.

The value obtained indicates that Ethiopia’s shape deviates by only 32% from
being perfectly compact. Therefore, Ethiopia’s shape is closer to the compact
type than to either of the other shapes.

 Exercise 3.1
I Multiple Choice: Choose the appropriate answer from the
given alternatives.
1 Ethiopia experiences overhead sun twice in a year. This particular feature
could be attributed to its
A geological location C astronomical location
B vicinal location D A and B
2 Which neighboring country shares the longest boundary line with Ethiopia?
A Somali C Sudan
B Eritrea D Djibouti
3 Which of the following towns is not a border town of Ethiopia?
A Bademe C Moyallee
B Metema/Galabat D Negelle Borena
4 Which of the following countries of the Horn of Africa does not have an
outlet to the sea?
A Eritrea C Ethiopia
B Djibouti D Somalia
5 Which of the following geographical phenomena is not related to Ethiopia’s
astronomical location?
A relatively high temperatures throughout the year
B very little annual range of temperature
C its location within the range of GMT + 3 hours time zone
D its significant role in IGAD

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3.3 GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE AND RELIEF
OF THE HORN OF AFRICA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ explain geological structure and major events of the Horn of Africa;
ÞÞ describe major landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn;
ÞÞ discuss the general characteristics of Ethiopian rivers and drainage
patterns;
ÞÞ classify the Ethiopian lakes as highland and rift valley;
ÞÞ show appreciation for the significance of rivers and lakes of Ethiopia;
ÞÞ show interest for the implementation of water-resource conservation and
management policy.

Key Terms
³³ Era ³³ Regression ³³ Relief
³³ Period ³³ Endogenic force ³³ Geology
³³ Epoch ³³ Exogenic force ³³ Orogenic
³³ Transgression ³³ Drainage system ³³ Epeirogenic

3.3.1 Geological History of the Horn of Africa

Which geological era is significant regarding the formation of the various
landforms in Ethiopia and the Horn?

The geological history of the Horn cannot be separated from the geological
history of Africa. It deals with various geographic activities that have occurred
for many millions of years in the past.

The geological history of the Horn shows us that four major geological eras have
elapsed. Each era is divided into periods, and each period is subdived into epochs.
Each geological era is distinguished from the other’s, based on grounds of the
following three characteristics:
FF the relative positions of the continents
FF the character of the prevailing climate
FF the predominant life form

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Summary of Major Geological Events in the Horn
Let’s begin by considering the different geological eras and then study the events
that took place in those eras. Here are the geological eras, in chronological order.
FF the Precambrian Era – the oldest era (from 4.5 billion years to 600
million years ago;
FF the Paleozoic Era (from 600 million years to 250 million years ago)
FF the Mesozoic Era (from 250 million years to 70 million years ago)
FF the Cenozoic era (from 70 million years to the recent time)

The Precambrian Era (from 4.5 Billion to 600 Million years ago)
What do you understand by the term Precambrian?
FF the Precambrian Era is the oldest and longest geological era, covering
about 5/6 of the earth’s geological time. The following geological events
occurred in the Horn during this era.
FF frequent orogenic movements
FF intensive volcanic activities
FF denudation during the later periods
FF formation of folded mountain ranges in a NNE – SSW direction

Note
During the Precambrian era
ÂÂ The first forms of life emerged, such as amoeba, and
jellyfish.
ÂÂ The oldest rock formed – the old crystalline basement.
This rock underlies all other rocks.

Today, in a few areas of Ethiopia, outcrops of old crystalline basement complex

rocks are found on the surface, due to continuous denudation.

Example:
FF In central and northern Tigray.
FF In Mettekel, Assossa, Illubabor and the Abbay.
FF In central Sidama, southern Omo, southern Bale and Borena.
FF In central, western and northern Eritrea.

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GEOLOGY OF THE HORN

Old Basement Rocks

Sedimentary Rocks

RE
D
Tertiary Lava

SE
A
Recent volcanic Rocks
Asmara
Recent sedimentary Rocks
(Lake and marine deposits)

SUDAN
N
ADE
F OF
Gondar

GUL
Dessie

Harar
ADDISS ABABA

Gambella

Jimma

IA
Callafo

AL
Negheli

M
SO
KENYA
INDIAN
OCEAN
Figure 3.6: Geological map
of the Horn

The Paleozoic Era (from 600 Million – 250 Million years ago)
Which life form was dominant in the Paleozoic era?

The main geological events of the Paleozoic era were denudation and peneplanation.
No significant structural formation took place. The massive denudational activity
resulted in the formation of inselbergs in some parts of Ethiopia and the Horn.

Note

The Paleozoic era is known for the predominance of

invertebrates.

Mesozoic Era (from 250 Million – 70 Million years ago) an Era of Reptiles
Which life form was dominant in the Mesozoic era?

The most important geological occurrences of the Mesozoic era in the Horn were
the sinking and uplifting of the landmass.
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Periods Geological time scale

Cretaceous 70 m

Jurassic 142 m
Triassic 250 m

The landmass sank during the Mesozoic’s Triassic and Jurassic periods:
FF In the Triassic Period, the landmass sank due to internal forces. This
event was followed by transgression of a nearby sea into the mainland
of today’s Somalia, and southeastern Ethiopia. During the Triassic
Period, the oldest sedimentary rock known as Adigrat sandstone was
formed.
FF In the Jurassic Period, the transgression of the sea continued into the
mainland in the northwest direction. This event deposited another
sedimentary rock known as Hintalo limestone.
FF In the Cretaceious Period, the landmass began to rise and the sea started
to regress towards the southeast, depositing sedimentary rock known as
Upper Sandstone. Upper Sandstone is the youngest sedimentary rock,
and therefore overlies the rest.

Because of the direction of the regression and deposition, Upper Sandstone is

the youngest and thinnest in the southeast, and is the oldest and thickest in the
northwest.
The Mesozoic Era was an era of sedimentary rock formation in Ethiopia and
the Horn.
ÂÂ The deposited sandstones vary in age and thickness from the north-
west to the southeast direction.
ÂÂ The Adigrat sandstone is older and thicker in the southeast and
progressively decreases in age and thickness to the northwest.

Focus
The transgression of the sea extended up to northwestern Ethiopia, as
far as central Tigray and the western slopes of the western highlands.
The sedimentary rocks formed in the Mesozoic Era were later buried by
overlying Cenozoic igneous rocks. However, the sedimentary rocks have

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been exposed at the surface in some areas of Ethiopia. They are thinnest
(because they are the youngest) in the southeast and thickest (because
they are the oldest) in the northwest.
One can see them exposed at the surface mostly in the south eastern
lowlands of Ethiopia, central Tigray, and in the Abbay and Wabishebelle
gorges. (For more information, look at the geological map of Ethiopia.)

Biological Events of the Mesozoic Era

The Mesozoic is also known for the predominance of reptiles. Huge reptiles,
such as dinosaurs, were dominant. However, at the end of this era, two other
significant biological events occurred:
FF one was the disappearance of the dinosaurs, and
FF the other was the emergence of mammals, birds and flowering plants.

The Cenozoic Era (from 70 Million to Recent Years)

Do you know the era in which the human form of life appeared?

The Cenozoic is the most recent geological era. Very significant structural,
climatic and biological events have occurred in the Horn.

In order to make things simple and easily comprehendible, we shall discuss

only the geological events of this era into events of the Tertiary and Quaternary
Periods.

Geologic Events of the Tertiary Period - (70 million - 2 million years ago)

In the Tertiary Period, the uplifting that began in the Cretaceous Period of the
Mesozoic Era continued and reached its maximum height.

In Ethiopia and the Horn it formed huge blocks of dome over the greater part of
the region. As the uplifting continued through time, great cracks opened in the
crust and resulted in the pouring out of extensive basaltic lava (known as the
Trappean lava series). The lava resulted in the formation of:
FF The Eritrean Highlands
FF The Northwestern Highlands
FF The Southeastern Highlands
FF The Somali plateaus
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As the cracking continued during the period, it formed the Great East African
Rift Valley System – of which the Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part.

Geologic Events of the Quaternary Period (2 million - recent years)

In the Quaternary Period, these structures were formed in Ethiopia and the Horn:
FF The Afar Horst that extends into Djibouti
FF The active volcano of Ertalle in Afar
FF The dormant volcanic mountain of Fentalle in Eastern Oromia
FF The extensive lava field of Methara.

Photograph 3.1 Ertalle

Photograph 3.2 Mount Fentalle Photograph 3.3 The Lava field of Methara

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Climatic Events in the Cenozoic Era

In addition to the geological events that happened in this period, a significant

change of climate took place in the Horn and Ethiopia. A massive flood, called the
pluvial period, occurred. This flood formed deep gorges, moraines and lacustrine
deposits.

Note

One good example of the deep gorges formed as the result of

the flood is the Abbay gorge.

Photograph 3.4 The Abbay gorge

It is believed that Lake Langano, Lake Abijata and Lake Shalla were
one sheet of water during the time of the pluvia l period. The same is
believed true of lakes Abbaya and Chamo.

Today these lakes are widely separated.

Note

The Cenozoic Era in its Quaternary Period is assumed to be the

period in which modern human evolved.

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Activity 3.4
By looking at a geological map of the Horn of Africa, identify the areas where these
rocks are found on the surface as outcrops:
a metamorphic rocks
b sedimentary rocks
c quaternary lava deposits.
Here is a simplified presentation of the rock profile in Ethiopia and the Horn:
Quaternary lava (recent lava deposits –
Aden lava series) Cenozoic era Igneous rocks of
various periods
Tertiary lava deposits
Upper Sandstone (Cretaceous)
Mesozoic Era sedimentary rocks
Hintalo Limestone (Jurassic)
of different periods
Adigrat SandStone (Triassic)
Basement complex or old crystalline Basement complex rock of the
rock Precambrian Era

 Exercise 3.2
I Choice
1 Which of the following geological events did not occur during the
Quaternary period?
A the uplifting of the Suez landmass
B the occurrence of the pluvial rain
C the emergence of modern human
D the formation of the Ethiopian Rift Valley
2 The Paleozoic is an era of:
A significant structural formation
B peneplanation and denudation
C uplifting in the central part of Ethiopia
D the dominance of reptiles

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3 We cannot observe the outcropping basement complex rocks in one of the
following areas of Ethiopia:
A in central Tigray C in the Abbay gorge
B around Assossa D in central Shoa
4 As Adigrat sandstone is to Triassic, Hintalo limestone is to
A Permian C Cretaceous
B Cambrian D Jurassic
5 The Mesozoic old marine deposits are today extensively found in which
A Northern and western Tigray
B Western Benishangul
C The Ogaden and Elkerie lowlands
D Western Gojjam
6 The most overlying rock in Ethiopia is the
A The cenozoic/igneous deposit
B Adigrat sandstone
C Old crystalline basement complex
D Upper sandstone
7 Below, four sets of Ethiopian geological events are listed. Which one is in
correct chronological order?
A The formation of the old crystalline rock, Adigrat sandstone, Hintalo
limestone, upper sandstone and the Aden volcanic deposits
B The formation of metamorphic rock, the Rift Valley, the Afar Horst
and igneous rock
C The deposition of the Trappean lava series, the pluvial rains, the
formation of Adigrat sandstone
D The formation of Adigrat sandstone, Hintalo limestone, Upper
Sandstone and Metamorphic rock
8 Which geological era is known as an era of amphibians?
A Precambrain C Cenozoic
B Paleozoic D Mesozoic
9 One can associate the Mesozoic Era with the formation of
A Igneous rock
B Metamorphic rock
C Sedimentary rock
D A and B
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II Match the items in Column B with those in Column A.

A B
10 Lacustrine deposits A Deposits of sediments by rivers
along their banks
11 Fluvial deposits
B Deposits of sediments by lakes
12 Pluvial rains C Heavy rain that occurred during the
13 Old crystalline basement rock Quaternary period following the
last Ice Age
14 Aden lava series D The most underlying rock in
15 Marine deposits Ethiopia and the Horn
16 Horst E Part of the surface of the earth that
submerges due to tectonic activities
17 Rift Valley F The type of tectonic activity that is
18 Orogenic movement horizontal and often forms folds
G Type of tectonic activity which is
19 Epeirogenic movement associated with uplifting or sinking
of rocks
H An epeirogenic effect resulting in
the formation of mountains and the
like
I Quaternary lava deposits along the
Afar Triangle
J Deposits of sediments by sea

3.3.2 Landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn

en
of Ed
Gulf

Figure 3.7: The Relief of

the Horn of Africa

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Focus
Lake Tana is found in the physiographic subdivision between the plains of
Foggera in the southeast and Dembia in the north.

Look at the relief map of the Horn of Africa. It shows high mountains and
extensive lowlands mostly found at the coasts and the Great East African Rift
Valley that diagonally bisects the region and stretches to East Africa.

These landforms are the work of two opposite forces:

FF The endogenic force that originates from inside the earth. For example,
volcanic activity and tectonic forces.
FF The exogenic force that originates at the surface (denudation and
penepalantion).
It is a combination of these two forces that created the existing landforms of the
Horn of Africa.
Have you had opportunities to travel to the different regions of Ethiopia? If
you did, what did you notice along your routes?
If you have not had those opportunities, make an educational tour of your
surroundings with your geography teacher. Then write a short report on what you
observe.

The landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn are made up of river-cut gorges, valleys,
plateaus, mountains and rolling plains. These landforms are the results of exogenic
and endogenic forces that have acted alternately and, at times, simultaneously or
the last sixty million years

Altitude varies from about 116 meters below sea level at the Dallol depression
(Kobar sink) to 4620 meters above sea level at Ras Dashen in Semein. Between
these extreme points lie a number of mountains. If 1000 meters is chosen as
a demarcating contour line between highlands and lowlands, 56 percent of
Ethiopia’s land is highland. This fact has given Ethiopia the name “Roof
of Northeastern Africa.” It is the only country in the region with such a high
proportion of elevated surface. This elevated surface is bisected diagonally by the
Rift Valley which extends from Syria to Mozoambique across the East African
lakes.
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In terms of the geological and structural features that resulted from the two types
of forces, the relief of Ethiopia and the Horn can be divided into three main
physiographic divisions:
ÂÂ Highlands
ÂÂ The Rift Valley
ÂÂ The lowlands
The Highlands of the Horn
Highlands are lands with altitudes of over 1000 meters above sea level (masl).

The Horn’s highlands are:

1 The Northwestern Highlands
2 The Southeastern Highlands

1 The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn

Have you ever had a chance to go to Bahrdar, Gondar, etc.?

The Northwestern Highlands of the Horn stretch from Ras Kassar in Eritrea to
the highlands of Gamo-Goffa in southwestern Ethiopia. They are separated from
the southeastern highlands by the Rift Valley, which is part of the Great East
African Rift Valley. They consist of:
ÂÂ The Plateau of Eritrea
ÂÂ The Plateau of Tigray
ÂÂ The North Central Massifs
ÂÂ The Plateau of Shewa
ÂÂ The Southwestern Highlands

The Plateau of Eritrea

Are the Eritrean plateaus extensions of the Ethiopian plateaus?

The plateau of Eritrea is located between the course of the Barka River and the
coastal plain of Eritrea. It is bisected by the upper basin of the Mereb River. The
plateau is capped by basaltic rocks.

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The Plateau of Tigray
Is the plateau of Tigray contemporary to the other plateaus of Ethiopia?
The Plateau of Tigray is the most northerly plateau in Ethiopia. It is separated
from the Eritrean plateau by the Mereb River. It lies to the southeast of the upper
course of the Mereb/Gash River and to the northeast of Tekkeze River Gorge.

It is an area composed largely of sandstones and limestones, as the overlying

basalt have been eroded. As a result, the soils are poor and thin. The plateau has
been exposed to severe erosion due to long periods of human inhabitation.

There are very high mountains on this plateau with elevations of over 3000 meters
above sea level. Three of these are:
FF Mount Tsibet – 3988 m.a.s.l
FF Mount Ambalage – 3291 m.a.s.l
FF Mount Assimba – 3248 m.a.s.l

The North-Central Massifs

What makes the Northern central massifs distinct from the massifs of central
Ethiopia?
These are the most rugged and dissected plateaus of Ethiopia. They are capped
by basalts and surrounded by deep gorges. Within each of the plateaus are small
arable lands known as ambas. The ambas are isolated from one another by gorges.
The Tekezze, together with its tributaries, is the main river that drains the region.
Tekezze River has divided the North Central Massif area into western and eastern
massifs, which are connected by the Yejju-Wadla-Dilanta plateau. The western
massifs make up the massifs of South Gondar (Semein), while the eastern ones
make up the Lasta and Wollo Massifs. South of these is found the Gojjam Massif.
The Semein Massif is dominated by Ras Dashen, while the eastern forms the
watershed of the Nile drainage basin.
The Gojjam Massif is the most extended tableland and is comparatively less
dissected. It is formed on the core of the Amedamit-Choke mountains. It is
carved by the Abbay river that effectively separated it from the Shewa plateau in
the south and the Amahara Saynt Massif in the northeast.
The North-Central Massifs are made up of numerous high mountains. They are
known for the production of cereals, such as teff, pulses and oil seeds.

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Famous mountain peaks on these massifs are
FF MT. RAS DASHEN (in Semein) – 4620 masl
FF MT. LEGEDA (in Gondar) – 4532 masl
FF MT. ANALU (in Gondar) – 4480 masl
FF MT. TEFAW LEZER (in Gondar) – 4456 masl
FF MT. KOLO (in Lasta) – 4300 masl
FF MT. GUNA (in Gondar) – 4231 masl
FF MT. ABUNA YOSEPH (in Lasta) – 4190 masl
FF MT. HEY (in Gondar) – 4154 masl
FF MT. BIRHAN (in Gojjam) – 4100 masl

The Plateau of Shewa

Have you ever had the opportunity to travel from Addis Ababa to Debre Markos
or Bahir Dar? If yes, what do you recognize all the way through until you
reach the Abbay Gorge?

The Shoan Plateau is a dome-shaped plateau that serves as a watershed between

the Awash and Abbay River basins. It extends westwards into western Wellega
through Horo Guduru and forms a crescent shape which causes the Abbay to
swerve and drain northwards. The Shoan plateau is separated
FF from the plateau of Gojjam by the Abbay gorge in the north
FF from the southeastern highlands by the Awash River and the Rift Valley.
FF from the Highlands of Keffa by the Ghibe River.
The Plateau of Shewa is drained by the tributaries of the Abbay River in the west
and the Awash River in the east. Its high mountains are found on its northeastern
and south eastern margins; they are:
FF Mt. Abbuye Meda (on the northeastern margin) – 4000 masl
FF Mt. Guraghe (on the southeastern margin) – 3721 masl

The Southwestern Highlands of the Horn

Which regional zones are found in the southwestern highlands of the Horn?
These include the highland areas of Wellega, Illubabor, Gamo Goffa and Keffa.
These Ethiopian highlands lie south of the Abbay trough which is greatly eroded
due to torrential rain that pours down on in the area for almost all of the year. It
is the wettest region of the country with a total average annual rainfall of above
1500 mm.

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The region is drained:
FF northwards, by the Dabus and Diddeessa tributaries of the Abbay River
FF westwards, by the headstreams of the Baro-Akobo River
FF southwards, by the Omo-Ghibe River, which ends in Lake Turkana
FF eastwards, by the right-bank tributaries of the Omo-Ghibe (the Gojeb-
Ghibe River of Jima and Yem zone)

The general elevation of these highlands is relatively low, when compared to that
of the Northern and Eastern Highlands. Only a few areas are above 2500 meters.
The highest points in the region are the:
FF Gamo-Konso Highlands (in GamoGoffa)
FF Maji-Korma Highlands (in Keffa Zone)
FF Kulo-Konta Highlands (Keffa zone)
FF Benishangul mountain (in Benshangul Gumuz)
FF Tullu Wallel (in West Wellega)
Mt Gughe has the highest altitude: 4200 masl. It is found in the Gammo plateau.

Note

These highlands are well-known for the production of coffee,

inset and maize.

The Southeastern Highlands of the Horn

Can you suggest what feature separates these highlands from the northwestern
highlands?
Which highlands are said to be the components of southeastern highlands of
the Horn?
The Southeastern Highlands of the Horn include the plateaus of
ÂÂ Hararghe ÂÂ Bale
ÂÂ Sidama ÂÂ Somali highlands
ÂÂ Arsi
Their formation is similar to that of the North and Southwestern Highlands; and
they are capped by basaltic rock. They are the main sources of the Wabishebelle
and Genalle rivers.
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They are bounded:
FF in the west, by the fault line of the Rift Valley
FF in the east, by the Ogaden Lowlands
FF in the south by the Elkerie and Borena Lowlands.
These highlands are subdivided into the plateaux of Hararghe, Arsi, Bale and
Sidama. Each is discussed in turn as follows.

The Plateau of Hararghe

The Plateau of Hararghe rises sharply from the fault line of the Rift Valley and
extends gently to the east up to Jijiga. After Jigjiga, a fall in elevation takes place,
giving way to the Ogaden Lowlands. The Plateau is drained by the left-bank
tributaries of the Wabishebelle River. The basaltic rocks have been worn away,
exposing limestones and earlier sedimentary rocks.
The Hararge Plateau area and its foothills are significant producers of coffee,
chat, sorghum and millet. The highest points of this plateau are Mount Gara
Muleta (3381 masl) and Mount Jebel Tita (3122 masl).

The Plateau of Arsi

This plateau area consists of the Gugu and Chillalo Massifs. It is an extendingly
rolling plateau; it is a very suitable plateau for farming. These features are due
to the fact that erosion on the Arsi plateau has been comparatively low. The Arsi
plateau is known for its wheat.
The highest points on the Arsi plateau are Mount Chillallo (4136 masl), Mount
Bada (4139 masl) and Mount Kaka (4180 masl).

The Bale Massif

The Bale Massif is next to the Arsi Plateau but is separated from it by the
headstreams of the Wabishebelle River (popularly known as the Wabe). In the
north, the massif consists of a flat form that is similar to basaltic plateaus. In the
south, the massif consists of huge mountains. The Bale Massif is dominated by
FF Mount Tulu Dimtu (4377 masl)
FF Mount Batu (4307 masl)

The Plateau of Sidama

This plateau area is next to the Bale Massifs, but is separated from them by the
Genalle River. The area constitutes the southwest extension of the southeastern
highlands. The plateau slopes away gently to the south and is drained by the
Dawa River and its tributaries. The Jemjem is the dominant part of the plateau.
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The Somali Highlands
The highlands are the extension of the southeastern highlands of Ethiopia. Their
average altitude doesn’t exceed 1500 masl. They rise gently in the west and
descend sharply to the Indian Ocean coasts.

The Rift Valley System

What is the difference between a river valley system and a rift valley system?
Can you give examples?

The Ethiopian Rift Valley System is part of the Horn’s Rift Valley System, which
is part of the Great East African Rift System. The Great East African Rift System
is a set of fractures in the earth’s crust that extend from the Dead Sea in the north,
through the Red Sea, and then across East and Central Africa to Mozambique in
the south.

Major faulting and rifting took place at the end of the Tertiary Period of the
Pleistocene Epoch as a result of tectonic epeirogenic activity. These events
formed the Great East African Rift System.

Let’s now consider the Ethiopian Rift Valley System. It has been the scene of
intense volcanic activity and minor faulting. Even today, active volcanic activity
exists there. It is therefore, the most unstable physiographic division of the area.

As you can see in the following map, the Rift Valley runs diagonally from
northeast to southwest and divides Ethiopia east-to-west. It covers a total length
of 1700 kilometers in Ethiopia and Eritrea.

Afar Triangle

Figure 3.8: The Rift Valley

System of Ethiopia
and the Horn

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Focus
From an economic point of view, the Afar Triangle is becoming increasingly
significant for its great potential in the extraction of salt, geothermal energy
and irrigable agriculture.

Subdivisions of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System

Can you forward the main natural/physical factors that make up the subdivisions
of the Ethiopian Rift Valley?

Covering a length of 1700 km, the Ethiopian Rift Valley System comprises 18
percent of the country’s total area. It is subdivided into three main parts:
ÂÂ The Afar Triangle (northern)
ÂÂ The Main Ethiopian Rift (central)
ÂÂ The Chew-Bahir Rift (southern)

The Afar Triangle (Northern Subdivision)

The northern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift Valley System, i.e., the Afar
Triangle, is the largest and widest part of the system. Its altitude is generally low,
ranging from 116 meters below sea level at the Kobar Sink to about 900 meters
above sea level at Awash.

This part of the Ethiopian Rift System is characterized by

FF faulted depressions (the Dallol Depression) and grabens (also called
troughs)
FF volcanic mountains.
Also, a large part of the area is covered by extensive salt plains and lakes (Lake
Assale and Lake Afrera).
The Afar triangle is bounded by parallel fault lines on the east and west. Its floor
is made up of:
FF grabens such as the Tendaho Graben
FF volcanic ash and lava deposits
FF Lacustrian and fluvial deposits, and
FF Volcanic mountains such as Mount Fentalle.

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What is more, the Afar Triangle has special characteristics that do not exist
in other regions of Ethiopia. It consists of:
KK fossil rich sediments
KK rich archeological sites which have shown us that the area was the
home of the ancient ancestors of primates and hominids.

The Main Ethiopian Rift (Lake Region or Central Part)

FF The central subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system, i.e., the Main
Ethiopian Rift, covers the area from the lower Awash basin up to Lake
Chamo. This subdivision is the most elevated part of the Ethiopian Rift
Valley. It is also the wettest, most densely vegetated, and most densely
populated.
FF Sedentary farming is practiced here. The area also includes numerous
lakes of enormous aesthetic value.

The Chew-Bahir Rift (Southern Subdivision)

The southern subdivision of the Ethiopian Rift system, the Chew-Bahir Rift, is
also known as the Omo-Ghibe trough. It is the smallest section of the Ethiopian
Rift System. It consists of an extensive shallow marshy area covered by tall
grasses.

In the vicinity of Arba Minch, this part of the Ethiopian Rift valley system is split
into the Ganjuli and the Galena Valleys by the Amaro mountain range.

Activity 3.5
1 Draw a map of the Rift Valley System in Ethiopia and demarcate its subdivisions.
2 For each subdivision, show two important towns.

The Lowlands of the Horn

These landform divisions occupy the peripheries of Ethiopia on its eastern and
western sides, running from north to south. They are generally below the 1000
meter contour line and have relatively harsh and very hot climates. The lowlands
constitute more than 35 percent of the total area of the country. They are inhabited
mainly by pastoralists.

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The lowlands of the Horn are subdivided into
ÂÂ Western lowlands ÂÂ Southeastern lowlands

The Western Lowlands

These lowlands extend from western Eritrea in the north up to the Omo-Ghibe
River in the south, bordering the Sudan. They have a general elevation of 500 –
1000 masl.

These lowlands are sub-divided into

FF The Setit and Barka Lowlands (in Eritrea)
FF The Tekezze and Angereb Lowlands (in Tigray and Amhara regions)
FF The Abbay Dinder Lowlands (in Benishangul Gumuz Region)
FF The Baro-Akobo Lowlands (in Gambella)
FF The Omo-Ghibe Lowlands (in SNNP)

The Western Lowlands are characterized by arid and semi–arid conditions. The
Baro-Akobo lowland is the wettest lowland.

Because of climatic hardship in most parts of these lowlands, the communities

practice nomadic and semi-nomadic pasturalist ways of life. However, there are
notable towns, such as Humera, Kurmuk, Omedla and Metema, that serve as
business centers for the communities living along the Ethio-Sudanese border.

The Southeastern Lowlands

Like the Western Lowlands, the Northeastern and Southeastern Lowlands run
from northwest to southeast. They begin in Djibouti and run all the way to
Somalia in the southeast, bordering the Indian Ocean. They consist of
FF the Red Sea coastal plains (in Eritrea)
FF the Afar plains (in Afar) which are included in the Afar Triangle.
FF the Ogaden plains (in Somali region)
FF the Elkeri plains (in Bale)
FF the Borena plains (in Oromiya)
FF the Benadir plains (in Somalia)
FF Djibouti

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These lowlands are highly extensive lowlands. They are characterized by low
annual rainfall-often below 500 mm. Most of these lowlands are covered by
sandstones and recent marine deposits. The people practice a pastoralist way of
life because of the harsh climate.

Activity 3.6
1 Draw a map of Ethiopia showing the major physiographic divisions.
2 Name three very important towns for each division.
3 Briefly explain the current economic significance of each division and, if you
can, predict its future prospects.
4 Explain why the Baro-Akobo Lowlands are the wettest of all lowlands.

 Exercise 3.3
I Tell whether the following statements are true or false.
1 All the highlands of Ethiopia are the result of tectonic activity.
2 The Plateau of Shewa is a dome-shaped plateau with a crescent shape at
the center.
3 The Southwestern Highlands are lower in altitude than the other highlands
of Ethiopia.
4 The plateaus of Semein, Lasta and Wollo are the most dissected and rugged
subdivisions.
5 The Plateau of Shewa is one of the sources for the water that flows to the
Abbay
6 Lake Tana lies between the plateaus of Gojjam and Southern Gondar and
has a crater shape.
II Choose the best answer among the suggested alternatives.

7 The plateau of Tigray is separated from the plateau of Eritrea by the

A Tekezze River C Tributaries of the Setit River
B Mereb River D The Danakil Lowlands
8 The difference in altitude between the lowest and highest point in Ethiopia is
A 4736 meters C 4760 meters
B 4504 meters D 4620 meters

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9 As the highest point is in the Semein, the lowest point is in the
A Western margins C Afar Lowlands
B Elkere Lowlands D Ogaden Lowlands
10 Imagine that you could travel in a straight line from Ras Dashen to the
Dallol Depresion. You would encounter all of the following features except
for one or two. Identify the exception(s).
A The Rift Valley escarpments C The Tekezze gorge
B The Lasta Massif D Lakes Shalla and Abijata
11 Which one of the following mountains is found to the north of Lake Tana
Basin?
A Mount Guna C Mt. Abuye Medda
B Mount Abuna Yoseph D Mt. Ras Dashen
12 Mt. Kolo is found in
A Semein C Amahara Saint
B Lasta D Gojjam
13 The most extended tableland in the northern part of Ethiopia is the plateau of
A Shoa C Southern Gondar
B Gojjam D Tigray
14 Which one of the following appears to be different from the others?
A The Choke-Amedamit mountains
B The Gamo-Konso Highlands
C The Maji-Korma Highlands
D The Kullo-Konta Highlands
15 Which one of the following areas is not drained by the tributaries of the
Tekezze?
A Southwest Wello C Semein
B Southern Tigray D Northern Shewa
16 All of the following are drained by the Abbay and its tributaries, except,
A The Southwestern Highlands
B The North and Western Highlands
C The Central Highlands
D The Southeastern Highlands

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III Short Answers
17 Tell why sandstone and limestone are seen as surface outcrops in the
Plateau of Tigray.
18 Assume that you are travelling from the Dallol Depression to Mt. Ambalage
in a straight line. Create a graph of your trip using the x–y axis. The x–axis
represents the travel line. The y axis represents elevation variation. Let
point O be your origin, in distance. Let D stands for Dallol and point M
stand for Mt. Ambalage.

3.3.3 Drainage Systems and Water Resources

of Ethiopia
Are drainage systems and drainage patterns alike? What is Ethiopia’s status
with regard to water resources?

In geography, drainage patterns differ from drainage systems. The term patterns
refers to the fabric or surface arrangement of the main rivers and their tributaries.
These features are the result of factors of the underlying rock and slope. In
contrast, the term systems refers to the direction and destination of the rivers.

For example, drainage patterns are expressed as radial, dendrite, trellis, etc.,
while drainage systems are expressed as endoric, exotric and aeric.

The drainage patterns and systems of Ethiopia are the results of various structural
events that took place in the Cenozoic era.
Major Rivers of Ethiopia and their Characteristics
Do you know the major rivers of Ethiopia?
Ethiopia is among the few countries that have many rivers. Ethiopia has
enormous potential water resources. As well as being numerous, Ethiopian rivers
are energetic. They flow from the highlands of the interior to the peripheral
lowlands and then to seas and lakes bouncingly. These conditions have made
Ethiopia known as the “water tower of Northeastern Africa” and as the watershed
between the Mediterranean Sea and the Indian Ocean drainage systems.

Characteristics of Ethiopian Rivers

Are all Ethiopian rivers perennial and non-fluctuating in their volume of
water?
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Ethiopian rivers are characterized by:
FF steep profiles; they arise from very high places and flow to the country’s
borders across lowlands.
FF they gush through rapids and waterfalls along their courses.
FF they show seasonal fluctuation in water volume.
FF they run through steep-sided river valleys and gorges.
FF they serve as boundaries, both international and domestic (administrative
units).

Focus
Some of the Ethiopian rivers are given new names after they cross the
country’s borders.
Examples:
FF River Abbay becomes Bue Nile in the Sudan.
FF River Tekezze becomes River Athbara in the Sudan.
FF River Ghenalle becomes River Juba in Somalia.
FF River Baro becomes River Sobat in the Sudan.
Table 3.4: Major rivers of Ethiopia and their tributaries
Catchment Length in km
Rivers Major Tribitaries
area (km ) 2 Inside Outside Total
Ramis, Erer, Dakata,
Wabishebelle 205,407 1340 660 2000 Fafen, Yerer, Gobelle,
Galleti, Mojo
Dabus, Didessa Fincha,
Abbay 198,508 800 560 1360 Guder, Muger, Jemma,
Beshillo, Shinta, Dinder
Dawa, Weyb, Welmel,
Ghenalle 168,141 480 570 1050
Mena
Akaki, Kessem,
Awash 113,709 1200 - 1200
Borkena, Mille
Tirari, Anghereb,
Tekkezze 87,733 608 560 1,168
Ghiba, Guang
Ghibe/Omo 77,205 760 - 760 Gojeb, Gelgel Ghibe
Baro 75,718 227 280 507 Akobo, Gilo
Sources: Grade 12 Geography Students text, 2006.

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Drainage Systems of Ethiopia
What natural factor influences the drainage systems of Ethiopia? Where do
most rivers of Ethiopia end?
The drainage systems of Ethiopia are basically divided into three major groups:
ÂÂ The Western (Mediterranean) drainage system
ÂÂ The Southeastern (Indian Ocean) drainage system
ÂÂ The Inland (Rift Valley) drainage system
THE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS OF ETHIOPIA

I The Mediterranean Drainage System

1 Tekezze
II The Rift Valley Drainage System
2 Abbay
III The Indian Ocean Drainage System
3 Baro-Akobo
4 Omo-Ghibe
1 5 Awash
6 Wabishebelle
7 Genalle
I
2
5

3
II 6

4 7 III

Source: Wubushet (2008)

Figure 3.9: Drainage Systems of Ethiopia

The Western (Mediterranean) Drainage System

This system is the largest of all, both in aerial extent and volume of water
outflow. It contributes sixty percent of the country’s total annual water discharge.
It consists of three major rivers and their tributaries:
FF River Tekezze – This river drains the massifs of western Lasta, northern
Gondar/ Semein and southwestern, western and central Tigray.
FF River Abbay – This one has its origin in the Gojjam plateau. A large
number of streams join the river from the plateaus of western Shoa,
southwestern Wello, northern Wollega, and northern Illubabor.
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It has a semicircular course from Lake Tana, separating southeastern
Gondar from Gojjam and separating Gojjam from Shewa.
FF River Baro-Akobo – This water course drains the wettest highlands of
the southwest and crosses the border to join the Nile.

Photograph 3.5 Abbay River

The Southeastern Drainage System
Where do the rivers in this drainage system finally end? Which highlands are
the main source of the rivers flowing in this drainage system?
This system is the second largest drainage system. It consists of the Genalle
and Wabishebelle. These rivers collect waters from the highlands of Hararghe,
Sidamo, Bale and Arsi. This drainage system flows southeast, across the Somali
arid and semi-arid areas. It contributes about 32% of the country’s total annual
water flow.
The Wabishebelle, the longest river in the country, does not reach the Indian
Ocean. It ends at the Benadir coast of Somalia. The Ghenalle, on the other hand,
reaches the Indian Ocean. It joins the Dawa River at the Ethio-Somalia border,
where it acquires the name Juba.

The Inland (Rift Valley) Drainage System

What do you know about the term in-land drainage system?
This system is the smallest of the three systems in terms of catchment area,
discharge of water and volume of water. There are a number of lakes and smaller
streams, like the Bilate and Gedabo, which flow into Lake Abbaya; the Segan,
which flows into Chew Bahir; and the Meki and the Katar, which flow into Lake
Ziway. The major rivers in this drainage system are the Awash and the Omo-
Ghibe.
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The Awash River basin is the most utilized in the Rift Valley. The basin covers a
total area of 110 thousand square kilometers and serves as home to 10.5 million
inhabitants.

Photograph 3.6 The Awash River

The river rises from the Shewan plateau near Ginchi town, a town at about 100
kilometers west of Addis Ababa, and flows along the Rift Valley. It terminates
in the salty lake of Abbe on the border with Djibouti. The middle and lower
courses are part of the Great Rift Valley system (the upper course is not part of
the system). The lower Awash River basin comprises the deltaic alluvial plains of
the Tendaho, Assaita, and Dit Behri areas, and of the terminal lakes area.
FF The Omo-Ghibe Basin in southwestern Ethiopia is filled with water and
sediments carried by the rivers from the highlands.

Activity 3.7
1 Draw a map of Ethiopia and divide it into the three drainage systems.
2 Identify the drainage pattern that prevails in each of the three drainage systems.
3 Your teacher will help you and your fellow students to form three groups – one
group for each of the drainage systems of Ethiopia. In your group, write down
every development-based project of the basin to which you are assigned for.
Then present your findings to the class.

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Lakes of Ethiopia
Does Ethiopia have many lakes when compared to other African countries?

Compared to other countries, Ethiopia is rich in lakes. They are found dispersed
on the plateaus and clustered in the Rift Valley.

Most of the lakes are the result of structures that occurred during the Quaternary
Period; i.e., they are not outcomes of climate. This fact is proved by the location
of these lakes in the drier parts of the country. The natural lakes found in Ethiopia
can be classified into highland and Rift Valley lakes.

Highland Lakes
These lakes are found dispersed on the plateaus, either as crater or watershed
lakes. These types of lakes resulted from different types of structural formations.
A crater lake is formed after an explosive volcano breaks a mountain open,
leaving a deep mouth. The mouth is filled with water – from either small streams
or subterranean sources.

A watershed lake is formed when a sheet of lava dams up a shallow surface

depression. For example, Lake Tana was formed during the Quaternary Period,
when a sheet of flowing lava dammed the shallow depression that had already
been formed between the Gojjam and Gondar massifs.

Example:

Crater lakes in Ethiopia:

FF Bishoftu, Kuruftu, Babbo Gaya, and Arsedi, all around Bishoftu
FF Wonchi and Dendi around Ambo, Ginchi and Wellisso
FF Zequala near Bishoftu
FF Hashenge near Korum in Tigray
FF Haik, (some 30 kilometers away from Desse on the road to Woldiya

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Lake Wonchi

Lake Bishoftu

Lake Shalla

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Lake Zequala

Rift Valley Lakes

What is the structural difference between crater lakes and Rift Valley lakes?

Unlike the highland lakes, the Rift Valley lakes are clustered. They are found in
a linear pattern along the floor of the Rift Valley.
LAKES KEY
1 LAKE ABBE
2 LAKE ZIWAY
3 LAKE ABIJATA
4 LAKE LANGANO
5 LAKE SHALLA
6 LAKE HAWASSA
1
7 LAKE ABAYA
8 LAKE CHAMO
9 LAKE CHEW BAHIR

2
3 4
5
6
7
8

Source: Grade 12 Geography Students text, 2000.

Figure 3.10: Major Rift valley lakes of Ethiopia

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Table 3.5: Depth, area and location of Ethiopian lakes

Lakes Area (km2) Maximum Location

depth (meters)
Tana 3,600 9 Highland
Abaya 1,160 13 Rift Valley
Chamo 551 10 Rift Valley
Ziway 434 4 Rift Valley
Shalla 409 266 Rift Valley
Langano 230 46 Rift Valley
Hawassa 229 10 Rift Valley
Abijatta 205 14 Rift Valley
Haik 35 23 Highland
Hashenge 20 25 Highland
Source Grade 12 Geography Students text, 2006

Significance of Ethiopian Lakes and Rivers

Economic Functions of Ethiopia’s Lakes and Rivers
What do you know about the concept of economic function? Are there rivers
and lakes in Ethiopia that have non-economic functions?

Lakes and rivers are Ethiopia’s main water resources. Their usefulness is measured
in terms of their significance to current and planned economic development
projects. Ethiopia’s level of technology is a significant factor for developing
these economic resources.

Here is a list of some important functions of Ethiopia’s lakes and rivers.

FF They are the main source of hydroelectric power (H.E.P.) supplies for
the country

Example:
River Ghibe – Gilgel Gibbe – 1, 2 and 3 H.E.P. plants
River Awash – Awash 1, 2 and 3 H.E.P. project
River Fincha – Fincha H.E.P. project,
FF They are also the country’s main source of fish.

Example:

Lake Chamo. Lake Abbay, Lake Tana, River Baro, etc

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FF They are again very important water sources for irrigation.
Example:
River Awash is the most utilized in this regard; this is because of the
flat plains it crosses for hundreds of kilometers.
FF What is more, one river provides transportation services.
Example:
The River Baro is the only river in Ethiopia used for transportation.

Photograph 3.7 Cotton plantation served by Irrigation

Activity 3.8
Make an educational trip to a nearby river or stream with your teacher and perform
these tasks:
a Determine how far the river or stream is from your school, in kilometers.
b Draw a sketch map of the stream or river area. Then, answer the following
questions:
i does the stream or river have a steep profile?
ii is it of a gentle profile?
iii do the local people use the river for small scale irrigation purposes such
as growing vegetables? How?
iv if so, how? If not, why not? Present the case to your teacher and discuss it.

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Ethiopia’s lakes and rivers provide recreation resorts and aesthetic value. They
are also important sources of the nation’s fish.

Their scenic beauty emanates the rich variety of birds, fish and other wildlife,
spectacularly deep gorges, waterfalls of all description and the mists these
produce. These panoramic features win the affection of the Ethiopian people
and tourists and are sites of the country’s best recreational resorts. The economic
potential of these scenic resources is enormous but is still not well developed.

3.3.4 Water-Resource Conservation and

Management in Ethiopia
Why do we conserve water resources? Are our water resources running out?
How do they support our existing needs? Are policy measures the correct
solution to problems?
As you know, Ethiopia has been known as the “Water Tower of Northeastern
Africa” for the last fifty to sixty years. Ethiopia is the second richest African
country in terms of water-resource potential, following the Democratic Republic
of Congo. However,
FF drought is recurring every 3 to 5 years.
FF some highland lakes are disappearing or are on the verge of disappearance.
Example:
Lake Haromaya in Hararghe zone and Lake Cheleklektu in Bishoftu.
FF the volume and purity of Ethiopia’s rivers is decreasing. Pollutants are
increasingly contaminating the country’s water resources.
FF due to the rapid growth of human population, there is a crucial growing
demand for potable water.
These and other factors have led to the need for the conservation and management
of water resources in Ethiopia. In response to this need, the Federal Democratic
Republic of Ethiopia has adopted a national conservation strategy for natural
resources under the Ethiopian Environmental Protection Authority. The Authority
has developed policy goals, objectives and guiding principles.

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Overall Policy Goals
The overall policy goals are:
FF improve and enhance the health and quality of life of all Ethiopians
FF promote sustainable social and economic development through sound
management and use of
KK natural, human-made and cultural resources
KK the environment
FF perform these tasks in a manner that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs.

Policy Goals Related to Water Resources

In relation to water resources, the goals of the Ethiopian Environmental Protection
Authority are:
FF ensure that the control of environmental health hazards is a necessary
condition in the design, constitution and use of dams and irrigation
systems.
FF recognize that natural ecosystems, particularly wetlands and upstream
forests, are fundamental for regulating water quality and quantity,
and integrate their rehabilitation and protection into the construction,
development and management of water resources.
FF ensure that any proposed introduction of exotic species into water
ecosystems as subject to detailed studies and environmental-impact
assessment.
FF promote the protection of the interface between water-bodies and land
(for example, lake shores, river banks and wetlands).
FF involve water-resource users, particularly women and animal herders,
in the local planning, designing, and follow up of water policies,
programs and projects, in order to promote these activities without
affecting the ecological balance.
FF recycle waste water when it is found to be safe for health and the
environment.

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FF promote, to the extent possible, viable measures to artificially recharge
ground and surface-water resources.
FF promote effective water-management techniques at the farm level for
improved performance of medium-to-large-scale irrigation schemes.
FF provide technical and credit support to the private sector in water-
resource development activities.

Note

The Hydro Politics of Ethiopia

Ethiopia is the main source of the Nile waters. More than 86
percent of the water of the Nile originates from Ethiopia.
However, it is a country that has made the least use of it.

During the past forty years Ethiopia was engaged in internal

wars and did not have the time to harness the Nile waters for
development.

However, Ethiopia’s interest in utilizing the Nile waters was

clear. For example, in 1927, it sent Martin to the United States
on a diplomatic mission to discuss the Lake Tana development
project and recruit American engineers. However, the project
failed to materialize due to opposition on the part of Britain
and to the impending Italian invasion.

In the 1950s, Ethiopia contracted a US engineering firm to

conduct a comprehensive study of the Abbay river. Sadly, at
that time Egypt and the Sudan were engaged in negotiations
regarding the full utilization of the Nile waters. Ethiopia was
not included in the negotiations. It was in this context that the
Ethiopian government protested, asserting Ethiopia’s right to
utilize the water resources within its borders.

Despite these setbacks, Ethiopia’s rights to utilize its own water

resources remain valid, reach on allocation has persisted the
simple reasons that it is firmly committed to place and a win-
win situation that can be derived from cooperation.
(Dr. Kinfe Abraham, 2000)

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 Exercise 3.4
I Are these statements True or False?
1 In geography, drainage pattern and drainage system have the same
meaning.
2 Most Ethiopian drainage patterns are dendritic.
3 One can confidently state that the plateau of Shoa serves as a watershed
between the Abbay and Awash river basins.
4 Altitudinal factors cause the energetic flow of Ethiopian rivers.
5 The Abbay is the longest river in Ethiopia.
6 Almost all rivers in Ethiopia are navigable.

II Choose the best answer among the given alternatives

7 All the rivers below drain the Southeastern Highlands except.

A Wabeshebelle C Omo-Ghibe
B Ghenalle D Juba
8 Ethiopia’s largest surface water is found in the
A South and northwest
B Rift Valley System
C Western Lowlands
D A and B
9 The southeastern drainage system consists of
A Genalle and Wabeshebelle rivers
B Omo and Gibbe rivers
C Baro and Akobo rivers
D Tekezze and Angereb rivers
10 The Awash River rises from the plateau of
A Hararge C Shewa
B Bale D South Wello
11 Which of the following rivers does not end in a lake?
A Segen C Omo-Ghibe
B Awash D Baro-Akobo

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12 The Ethiopian lakes are said to be the results of structural activity. This is
proved by their
A location in wet areas C location at high altitudes
B location in dry areas D h aving less volume of
water
13 Which one of the following lakes is not a crater lake?
A Lake Ashenge C Hawassa
B Lake Wonchi D Lake Arsedi
14 What distinguishes the Rift Valley Lakes from the highland lakes?
A the fluctuation of their volume of water
B their significance for transportation
C their richness in chemicals that produce soda ash
D their location along transport lines
15 The deepest and shallowest lakes of Ethiopia are, respectively:
A Ziway and Shalla C Tana and Shalla
B Shalla and Zeway D Abbaya and Abyatta
16 No Ethiopian river is navigable except
A Abbay C Baro–Akobo
B Athbara D Omo
17 The Awash River is the most utilized in Ethiopia for irrigation purposes.
This is mainly due to its:
A surrounding terrain,
B flow to the Afar lowlands
C unfluctuating volume of water
D great number of tributaries
18 One of the following is not a strategy adopted by the FDRE in conserving
and managing water resources.
A Rehabilitating wetlands and headstream areas
B Providing technical support to the private sector in participating in
the conservation strategy
C Recycling waste water when it is found to be safe
D Paying little concern to women’s role in the local involvement tasks.

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19 Which of the following statements is not correct about Ethiopia’s current
water-resource status?
A Ethiopia is rich in rivers and lakes, but they are not utilized at all.
B Available water resources in Ethiopia are being widely used.
C Policy intervention is necessary to conserve Ethiopia’s water
resources.
D A number of development projects are underway regarding the major
rivers of Ethiopia.

3.4 CLIMATE OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ discuss the factors that influence the spatial distribution of the climatic
elements of Ethiopia and the Horn;
ÞÞ describe the spatial and temporal variation of temperature in Ethiopia and
the Horn;
ÞÞ explain the spatial and temporal variation of rainfall in Ethiopia and the
Horn;
ÞÞ compare the rainfall regions in Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Latitude ³³ Rotation
³³ Altitude ³³ Inter-Tropical Convergence zone
³³ Weather ³³ Equatorial westeries
³³ Climate ³³ North easterlies
³³ Revolution of the earth ³³ South easterlies
Are you aware of the weather information that is broadcast and televised by
the Ethiopian Radio and Television Service Agency every morning and night?
These reports inform the people of the projected daily maximum and minimum
temperatures, cloud cover, humidity and other air conditions for the coming
day. This information about air condition relates to weather. In contrast, climate
information gives us long-term data about the average weather conditions of a
place or a region over a long period of time; such a period is typically as long as
30 years or more.

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3.4.1 Factors Influencing the Spatial and
Temporal Distribution of Climatic
Elements in Ethiopia and the Horn
What do you know about the concepts of weather and climate? Do you watch
weather broadcast every day? What is the significance of knowing the weather
condition of a place?

Both weather and climate are composed of the following elements.

FF precipitation FF humidity FF wind
FF temperature FF air pressure FF sunshine, etc.

The distribution of these elements over the surface of the earth is uneven in
terms of magnitude and time. For example, Ethiopia and the Horn as a whole
experience different temperatures on the same day or within a month. This spatial
and temporal distribution of climatic elements is governed by the climate control
factors described in the sections below.

The following factors influence the control of the spatial and temporal distribution
of the climatic elements in Ethiopia and the Horn:
ÂÂ latitude
ÂÂ altitude
ÂÂ revolution of the earth and the inclination of the earth’s axis
ÂÂ distance from the sea
ÂÂ mountain barriers
ÂÂ weather systems
ÂÂ cloud cover

Latitude
Are latitudes and parallels the same?

Latitude, as a climate control, is the angular location of a place or point with

reference to the direct rays of the sun. When we speak of the latitudinal impact
on the climates of Ethiopia and the Horn, we are considering the intensity of
temperature in the region.

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Ethiopia’s and the Horn’s location within the tropical zone results in
FF high temperatures during most of the year
FF high daily (diurnal) ranges of temperature
FF relatively small annual ranges of temperature
FF little difference between summer and winter in the ratios of daylight to
night.

Altitude
Do you have information about the altitude of the place where you are living?
Is it a highland or lowland? Is the temperature mild or hot or cold?

Altitude is height above mean sea level. Ethiopia’s altitudinal variation ranges
from 116 meters below sea level up to 4620 meters above sea level. This
altitudinal variation plays a significant role in temperature variation from place
to place. If you travel from Addis Ababa to Awash Arba through Bishoftu, Adama
and Metahara, you can recognize a variation in temperature due to altitudinal
changes. You may also like to note similar variation in your area.

Note

Under normal conditions, there is a general decrease in

temperature for increases in elevation. The average rate at
which temperature changes per unit of altitudinal difference
is known as lapse rate. This decrease in temperature upward
from the earth’s lowest surface is noticeable at every other 8 to
16 kms rise in the atmosphere. The rate of change is 6oC per
1000 meters. This change is called environmental lapse rate or
atmospheric lapse rate.

Altitude is the main factor that determines the spatial distribution of temperature
in Ethiopia. Different places that exist on the same plane or angle of the rays of
the sun might be expected to experience equal temperatures. However, due to the
impact of altitude, they do not.

For example, three Ethiopian cities, Bako, Addis Ababa, and Awash all lie on the
9oN latitude, and therefore they might be expected to receive equal magnitudes
of direct rays from the sun and therefore equal temperatures. However, their
altitudes vary, and therefore their temperatures vary, as shown in Figure 3.11.

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Example:
ADDIS ABEBA
2200 masl
BAKO (W.Shoa) Average annual temperature
1800 masl 16oC
Average annual temperature
17oC Awash
900 masl
Average annual temperature
>25oC

West East

9oN lat. 9oN lat.

Figure 3.11: The role of altitude in modifying temperatures

The diagram illustrates the effect of altitude on temperature, confirming the fact
that temperature decreases as altitude ascends from the lowlands towards the
interior highlands.

Revolution of the Earth and Inclination of the Earth’s Axis

The axis of the earth inclines 23½o to the normal of the elliptic. As the earth
revolves around the sun, this inclination produces a change in the direction of the
sun’s rays, thereby affecting the length of time that the sun shines on the earth
every other day.

Changes in the length of the day and in the directness of the sun’s rays cause
seasons. These different seasons result in the temporal variation of temperature
in a year in Ethiopia and in the Horn as a whole.

Distance from water bodies

Don’t you expect that water bodies or lakes (at local levels) have a moderating
effect on the vicinal or adjacent land areas?
Water bodies and landmasses have different levels of heat absorption. Land masses
absorb and release heat energy more quickly than water bodies do. Distance from
the sea affects the Horn’s climate only in coastal areas that are adjacent to the Red
Sea and the northwestern Indian Ocean. In all other areas, the role of distance
from the sea in climate control is insignificant.
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Mountain Barriers
Mountain barriers can affect climate in that they exert influence on the spatial
distribution of rainfall. Places located on the leeward side of mountains (also
called rain shadow) receive little rain. This effect occurs in the northwestern and
northeastern lowlands of Ethiopia and the Horn.

Weather Systems
Weather systems are actually the effects of spatial variation of the overhead sun,
which in turn results in the variation of temperature, pressure and rainfall.

In the Horn of Africa, the apparent shift of the overhead sun between the Tropic
of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn contributes to the prevalence of different
wind systems in different seasons. The major weather systems that impact over
Ethiopia and the Horn are:
FF The Northeast Tradewinds (prevalent in December, January and
February)
FF The Equatorial Westerlies (prevalent in June, July and August)
FF The Equatorial easterlies (prevalent in September and October, March
and April).

It is because of these weather systems that the rainfall period varies in Ethiopia
and the Horn.

3.4.2 Spatial and Temporal Variation of

Temperature in Ethiopia
What do we mean by spatial and temporal in the context of Geography?

A Spatial Variation of Temperature in Ethiopia

The two factors that most affect the spatial variation of temperature in Ethiopia
are:
ÂÂ cloud cover and
ÂÂ altitude

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Cloud Cover

Cloud cover, or cloud protection, as these names imply, is the covering of parts
of the earth by clouds. The cover acts as temperature insulation for the earth, for
both day and night hours. By day, it can prevent the full force of sun’s rays from
heating the earth. By night, it can prevent the heat absorbed by the earth from
escaping into the atmosphere. Therefore, the presence or absence of cloud cover
produces spatial temperature variations in Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn.

Altitude
Do you know what agro-climatic zone mean?
Is it different from the Greeks’ classification of temperature zones?

Because altitude has such a large effect on temperature, it is a major determining

factor of Ethiopia’s agro-climatic zones. These zones have traditionally been
defined in terms of temperature.

Table 3.6 presents Ethiopia’s agro-climatic zone types, giving the altitude and
mean annual temperature for each one.
Table 3.6: Ethiopia’s Agro-Climatic Zones

Mean annual Traditional agro-

Altitude in meters Global equivalence
temperature in oC ecological name

3,300 and above <10 Wurch/Kur Alpine or Afro-Alpine

2,300 – 3,300 10 – 15 Dega Temperate

1,500 – 2,300 15 – 20 Woina Dega Subtropical

500 – 1500 20 – 30 Qolla Tropical

below 500 > 30 Bereha Desert

Wurch-Zone Areas
Do you know that the term wurch has resemblance to temperature severity?

The Wurch-zone areas have the highest altitudes and lowest temperatures.
Frequently they have temperatures of less than 10oC. These areas exist only in
the very high mountains of South Gondar, Wollo, Shoa, Arsi and Bale.

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Example:
Mt. Ras Dashen in Semine Gondar
Mt. Guna in South Gondar
Mt. Megezez in North Shoa
Mt. Batu in Bale, etc.

Dega-Zone Areas
What crops are grown in Dega areas?
The Dega-zone areas are highland areas with lower altitudes and higher
temperatures than Wurch-zone areas. Historically, Dega-zone areas were the
home of concentrated human settlement. They were chosen because of the
features below:
i secure location (from which people could defend themselves from
threats)
ii reliable rainfall
iii absence of diseases such as malaria, etc.

Note

Most of Ethiopia’s medieval and later settlements are

concentrated in Dega-zone agro-climatic areas.

Due to this high concentration of human population, the Dega zone has been
intensively cultivated and has a high rate of soil erosion, overgrazing and
deforestation.

Some of the humid areas of this zone support two growing periods per year under
rain-fed agriculture.

Example:
FF Dinsho in Bale
FF Chillallo in Arsi
FF Hulla in Sidama
FF Debresina in North Shewa

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Woina-Dega-Zone Areas
What is your understanding why the term Woina Dega comes after Dega? Does
the term mean milder Dega?

The Woina-Dega-zone areas contain most of Ethiopia’s agricultural land. They

are the country’s main areas producing:
FF Surplus grain FF Inset and its derivatives

In the Woina-Dega zone, as in the Dega zone, there can be two growing seasons
when rainfall reliability is high.

Qolla Zone and Bereha-Zone Areas

What are the dominant crops grown in Qolla areas? Can we grow crops in
Bereha zone areas?

The Qolla and Bereha agro - climatic zones are largely confined to lowland areas
with altitudes of 1500 meters and below. They are sparsely populated and their
populations are primarily engaged in pastoralist activities. They occupy
FF The peripheral areas of Ethiopia and Eritrea
FF Most of Somalia
FF Djibouti

B Temporal variation of temperature in Ethiopia

Can you identify the temperature differences in Ethiopia between the months of
April/May and those of October/November? How do these differences occur?

In Ethiopia and elsewhere in the Horn, temperatures vary from season to season.
For example, in most of Ethiopia, high temperatures are recorded from March
to June. Conversely, low temperatures are recorded from November to February
These variations are primarily due to.
FF the tilting of the earth at 23½º to the normal elliptic
FF the distance of the overhead sun and its apparent north-south movement
across the equator as the earth revolves around the sun

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The position of the overhead sun The position of the overhead sun
January July

Figure 3.12: The position of the overhead sun

Activity 3.9
1 Identify your own agro-climatic zone by referring to your area’s altitude. You
might be able to obtain the masl (Meters Above Sea Level) value of your
altitude from your area’s kebele offices or from those of other agencies in your
area. Your teacher may help you as you try to get that information so that you
can use it to identify your agro-climatic zone.

2 Identify all the characteristics of your agro-climatic zone.

3 Write a report on your agro-climatic zone.

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3.4.3 Spatial and Temporal Variation of
Rainfall in Ethiopia and the Horn
Do you distinguish the two concepts spatial and temporal? Which of the two
terms is very much explanatory in the distribution of rainfall in time series?
Rainfall is one of the main climatic elements, as we indicated in the preceding
discussion on the effects of weather systems and the distribution of climatic
elements in Ethiopia and the Horn. Let us now consider the variation in detail.
A Spatial Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia and the Horn
Ethiopia and the Horn experience marked spatial and temporal variations of
rainfall. The spatial variation is the result of the strength and nature of prevailing
weather systems.
As described earlier, Ethiopia’s and the Horn’s weather systems result from
FF the apparent movement of the overhead sun
FF prevailing winds
FF the associated Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone
The first two factors were described in detail earlier. Now let’s focus on the
effects of the associated Inter-Tropical Convergence zone.
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
It is a low pressure zone formed by the convergence of Northeast Tradewinds and
the Equatorial Westerlies. It shifts north and south of the equator following the
position of the overhead sun.
In July, its position is at the Tropic of Cancer. During this time, Ethiopia and the
Horn come under the influence of the Equatorial Westerlies and Easterlies. These
winds bring moisture to the highlands but decrease their magnitude and length of
rainy periods northwards.
In January, its position shifts to the Tropic of Capricorn leaving the region for the
prevalence of the Northeast Tradewinds that are non-moistrue-laden. During this
time only the Eritirean coastal lands and the Afar region receive rain. In most of
Ethiopia, western Eriteria and Somalia, it becomes dry season.
In March and September, the position of the ITCZ is around the equator. Hence,
the Equatorial Easterlies provide rain to the highlands of Somalia, and to the
Central and Southeastern lowlands and highlands of Ethiopia.
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RAINFALL REGIONS OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
International boundary

Re
Boundary of rainfall region

dS
ea
Winter rainfall

Spring and Autumn rainfall

en
Summer and Spring
of Ad
Summer rainfall
Gulf
All year round rainfall

Source: Adjusted and

modified from the Atlas
for secondary schools
in Ethiopia Equator 0o

Figure 3.13: Rainfall regions of Ethiopia and the Horn

B Temporal Variation of Rainfall in Ethiopia

Ethiopia’s rainfall is characterized by seasonal variation. There are two main
rainy seasons: “Kiremt (summer) and Belg (spring)”. These two rainy seasons
contribute more than 90% of the country’s rain supply. There are two other rainy
seasons – the autumn rains, called the Metsew, and the winter rains. Compared to
the two main seasons, the duration, volume, and aerial coverage of Metsew rains
are less. The winter rainy season is insignificant for the highlands. It supplies rain
only to the Afar lowlands, the Red Sea coastal areas and the eastern escarpment
of the Eritrean highlands.

Activity 3.10
1 Identify your locality, based on its rainfall seasons. In which seasons do you
experience rain?
2 What moisture-bearing winds prevail over your area?
3 What is the attractive factor for the moisture coming as rain to your locality?
4 Identify the hottest and coldest months in your area.

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3.4.4 Rainfall Regions in Ethiopia and the
Horn
Does rainfall regions indicate variation in rainfall magnitude and duration
within Ethiopia and the Horn?
Based on rainfall distribution, both in space and time, five types of rainfall regions
can be identified in Ethiopia and the Horn. These are:
FF year-round rainfall region (wet in most months)
FF summer rainfall region
FF autumn-and-spring rainfall region
FF winter rainfall region
FF merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region
Let us consider each region in turn.

Year-Round Rainfall Region

In Ethiopia, the area of year-round rainfall:
FF includes the southwestern plateau comprising the highlands of Wellega,
Keffa, Illubabor and Gamo Goffa.
This region can be represented by the following stations:
Gore, Mizan, Metu, Bonga, Gambella, etc.
The region has more rainy days than any other part of the country. The average
rainfall varies from 1400 mm to 2200 mm.
The year-round rainfall region is represented by the letter B on Figure 3.14.

Summer Rainfall Region

The summer rainfall region is the largest in the country. This region consists of
the Northwest Highlands and Western Lowlands, and can be represented by the
following stations.
Debremarkos, Fitche, Gondar, Bahrdar, etc.
Its moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial Westerlies and Easterlies. The
summer rainfall region is represented by the letter A in Figure 3.14.

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Autumn-and-Spring Rainfall Region
The autumn-and-spring rainfall region covers the southeastern highlands and
associated lowlands up to the Somalia coasts. They can be represented by the
following stations:
Gode, Moyalle, Jigjiga, Yabello, Baydhabo.

The region’s moisture-bearing winds are the Equatorial Easterlies. They pick
up moisture from the Indian Ocean, and they blow over the autumn and spring
rainfall region when the Northeasterlies and Equatorial Westerlies are weak. The
region’s average rainfall varies from less than 500 to 1000 mm.

The autumn-and-spring rainfall region is represented by E in Figure 3.14.

Winter Rainfall Region

The winter rainfall region consists of the eastern escarpment of the western
highlands, the middle Rift Valley section, the Afar subdivision and Eritrea. The
winter rainfall region can be represented by the following stations.

Mitswa, Assaita and Djibouti.

The region’s moisture-bearing winds are, for the most part, the North Easterlies.
The air mass is continental (dry) and has only a short sea trajectory (that is the
Red Sea).

It is represented by letter D in Figure 3.14. The region’s total annual moisture is

very low and of short duration.

Note
In Ethiopia, highland rainfall is more dependable than lowland
rainfall. However, highland dependability decreases from
the southwestern highlands in all directions. In short, rainfall
variability (deviation from the expected amount and time)
decreases from areas of heavy rains to areas of low rainfall.

Merged Spring, Summer and Autumn Rainfall Region

The merged spring, summer and autumn rainfall region is the smallest in the
country. It consists mainly of the western foothills of the Southeastern Highlands.
3.4 Climate Of Ethiopia And The Horn
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The region’s total annual rainfall varies from 1500 mm to 1000 mm. It covers a
corridor that stretches from the Sidama Highlands to the Hararge Plateau.

The merged spring, summer, and autumn rainfall region is represented by the
letter C in Figure 3.14: stations-Assaita, Awash, etc.
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
14
14

D
12
12

A
10
10

8
8
B C
E
6
6
Scale
0 50 100 200 300 400

Kilometers 4
4
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48

Figure 3.14: Rainfall Regions of Ethiopia

 Exercise 3.5
I Match the items of Column A with the items of Column B.
A B
1 Experiences rain almost all year round. A Northeasterlies
2 Experiences mostly summer rains. B The highlands of South
3 Temperature zones that are largely Gondar
confined to places over 3,300 masl.
C Bereha
4 Temperature zones that are largely
confined to the southeastern lowlands. D Alpine or Afro-Alpine
5 Moisture-bearing winds to the central E The Equatorial Westerlies
and northern parts of Ethiopia. F The Indian Ocean
6 Pools for the autumn and spring rains
G The Atlantic Ocean
of Ethiopia.
7 Pools for the summer rains of Ethiopia. H The plateaus of Illubabor
8 The continental winds that prevail in and Western Wellega
winter over the greater part of the Red
Sea and central Ethiopia.

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II Questions to Think Over.
9 What natural factors are responsible for the all year round wet conditions
of the southwestern part of Ethiopia?
10 What do we mean by the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone? Why does it
apparently shift north and south of the equator?
11 If the axis of the earth were perpendicular, what effect would it have on
temporal variation of temperature?
12 By referring to the rainfall regions of Ethiopia and the Horn,
a Identify the rainfall region in which you live.
b Suggest the total annual rainfall that your area experiences referring
to the theoretically proposed amount in the text.
c For each rainfall region, select a representative town. Then draw
a bar graph that shows the rainfall of each of the towns you have
chosen. For source materials, use references such as your school
atlas, the National Atlas of Ethiopia, textbooks, and other sources of
information.
d Which region has the least rainfall variability?

3.5 NATURAL VEGETATION AND WILD

ANIMALS OF ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ relate types of natural vegetation to climatic regions;
ÞÞ identify the wild animals of Ethiopia;
ÞÞ discuss the effects of human intervention on forest lands;
ÞÞ show interest to participate in the conservation of natural vegetation and
wild animals.

Key Terms
³³ Afro alpine ³³ Overgrazing
³³ Forest ³³ Endemic
³³ Desert ³³ National park
³³ Gallery forest ³³ Game reserve
³³ Coniferous trees ³³ Overcultivation
³³ Deforestation ³³ Soil conservation

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3.5.1 Types of Natural Vegetation of Ethiopia
What are the major types of natural vegetation in Africa? Which type of
vegetation is dominant in Ethiopia?
Please go to a nearby church, mosque, or other sacred place. Observe the
predominant trees among the natural vegetation. If there is a forest nearby, visit
that too, and identify the predominant trees. They indicate the natural vegetation
of the area.

Natural vegetation refers to any original plant grown in and covering an area.
The distribution of natural vegetation is influenced by many factors. The most
important ones are:
FF altitude FF soil type, and
FF climate FF drainage
The types of natural vegetation in an area are strongly determined by temperature
and rainfall. That is why the natural vegetation of an area is a good indicator of
the area’s climatic conditions.
Natural Vegetation’s Relationship to Altitude and Rainfall
In Ethiopia, the types of the natural vegetation of an area are highly correlated
with altitude and rainfall, as they are with temperature. The lowlands have harsh
environments due to low rainfall and are characterized by xerophytic plants,
while the highlands are chracterised by different types of tree stands and forests.
34
18 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 18
ETHIOPIA-NATURAL VEGETATION
High altitude vegetation zone Bush and low woods Thorn savanna
Wet evergreen mountain forest 16 Open deciduous forest Semi-desert
16
Dry mountain forest Bamboo forest Desert
Mountain savanna Dry savanna Marsh
Te

14
ke

14
ze

12
12

ash
Aw
Lake Tana
10
10
Abay

8
8

o
Om
Wa
Lake Abaya bi S
heb 6
6 ale
ele
Gen
Scale
0 50 100 200 300 400

4
Kilometers 4
Figure 3.15: Natural vegetation
34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48
map of Ethiopia

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Based on altitude, we can classify the natural vegetation of Ethiopia into the
following five types:
ÂÂ Afro-alpine and sub-Afro alpine
ÂÂ Forests
ÂÂ Woodland savanna
ÂÂ Steppe vegetation
ÂÂ Desert and semidesert vegetation
Afro-Alpine and Sub Afro-Alpine Vegetation
What do you know about the difference between Afro - Alpine and Sub Afro
Alpine?

This type of vegetation is found at very high altitudes (above 3300 meters).
Afro-alpine and sub-afro-alpine vegetation is very similar to European alpine
vegetation. Sub-afro-alpine vegetation is found between 3000 – 3300 m, while Afro-
alpine vegetation is found at higher altitudes than these. In Ethiopia, Afro-alpine
and sub-Afro-alpine vegetations are found in the:
FF Highlands of Semein and
FF Highlands of Bale

Afro-Alpine vegetation consists of tussock grasslands, serules, scattered mosses

and lichens. SubAfro Alpines are predominantly woodland scrubs. Gibra
(Lobelia rhynchopetalum) and Asta (Erica arborea) are dominant plant species in
this region of natural vegetation.

Forests
What is the present status of Ethiopia’s forest resources when compared to the
other countries of the Horn?
In Ethiopia, forests are characterized by broad altitudinal ranges (450 – 3300 m) and
large variations in mean annual rainfall (200 – 2200 mm). This wide variation
in altitude and rainfall results in the formation of highland and lowland forests.
These two types of forests have very different characteristics since they are the
results of altitudinal zonation.

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A Highland Forests (forests that grow between 1500 - 3300 masl
altitude)
Ethiopia’s highland forests consist of
FF Kerkha (Arundinarial) 2800 – 3000 masl
FF Tid (Juniperous Procera) or Coniferous trees 2200 – 2800 masl
FF Zigba (Podocarpus) 1800 – 2200 masl
FF Woira (Oliia Africana) and Kosso (Hagenia Abbyssinia (1500 – 1800)

B Lowland Forests (forests that grow below 1500 m altitude)

What are the temperature and rainfall limits for the formation of forests?
Is there a strong relationship between altitudinal variation and types of forests?
Which part of Ethiopia is currently under dense forest cover?

These forests are known as gallery/riverine forests. In Ethiopia, they grow along
the banks of the Awash, Wabishabelle, and Ghanalle Rivers where moisture is
available in the soil. The predominant trees are Sholla and Warka. In areas where
mean annual rainfall exceeds 500 mm, Baphia forest predominates.

Woodland Savanna
Can you remember the sub-divisions of the African Savana? Do you expect
certain similarities between woodland Savana and proper Savana?

Like forests, Savanna woodlands are found in both highland and lowland areas.
Their altitudinal range is 250 – 2300 m, and their mean annual rainfall range is
between 200 – 1400 mm. (Example: acacia, grass etc.)

However, such vegetation is dominant at lower elevations and drier climates than
the forests.

Savanna grasslands experience marked seasons and are characterized by scattered

acacia trees.

In areas where mean annual rainfall is more than 1000 mm, these grasslands can
form attractive park-like areas with acacia, wild fig, sycamore and kosso trees.
Ethiopia’s savanna grasslands are found in the southern half of Ziway, Langano,
Abiyatta and Hawassa.

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Altitude
(m)

4000
AFROALPINE REGION

N
LPINE REGIO
SUB AFRO A

3000
ARUNDINARIA
ION FOREST
REG
EST
FOR JUNIPERUS FOREST
NNAH

ANINGE
RIA FOR
EST
2000
WOODLAND SAVA

Acacia PODOCARPUS
REGION

xiphocorpa w. FOREST

JUNIPERUS
WOODLAND OLEA FO
Acacia REST
etbaica w.

ACACIA
STEPPE REGION

WOODLAND
1000 Acacia MIXED
mellifera Acacia DECIDUOUS BAPHIA
w. FORES
seyal w.
WOODLAND T
SEMI DESERT
REGION

Precipitation
(mm)
500 1000 1500 2000

Figure 3.16: Vegetation regions correlated to altitude and mean annual rainfall

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Semi-desert and Desert Vegetation
Is there a remarkable difference between semi desert and desert vegetation?
How can you differentiate the two?

Sem-idesert and desert vegetation consists of short acacia, thorn bushes, succulent
plants and a few rough grasses. In Ethiopia, vegetation of this kind is found in the
Eastern, Northwestern and Southeastern Lowlands, i.e., in areas where annual
rainfall is below 500 mm and drought persists for a long period of time.

Note
Concern for the preservation of Ethiopia’s forests must be a
major issue on the public agenda. Communities and individuals
must participate in the conservation and management of the
country’s forest resources. Our pressing needs to perform
these tasks is a call to every citizen.

Activity 3.11
1 With your teacher, schedule an educational trip to nearby natural areas. If possible,
the teacher will have a camera or video camera to use during the trip.
2 Draw a sketch map of the target area.
3 Write a short report describing the area’s
FF predominant trees FF rainfall seasons
FF temperature
4 With your classmates, discuss and then list the area’s natural vegetation.

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 Exercise 3.6
Match the items in Box A with those in Box B
1 Natural vegetation
2 Baphia forest
3 Juniperous procera
4 Arundinaria forests
5 Riverine forests
Box A
6 Afro-alpine forests
7 Practicing agro-forestry
8 Developing school curricula in forestry management
9 Promoting the role of youth in conserving local forest
resources
A Forests found in humid areas of about 1000 masl or below
B An indicator of an area’s climate
C A highland forest similar to forests of coniferous trees
D Institutional development to conserve forest resources
E Community capacity building to conserve forest resources
Box B
F A highland forest that grows between 2500 – 3000 meters
G Gallery forests
H Type of forest that grows above 3000 meters
I Community practices to conserve or reduce the destruction
of forests

3.5.2 Wild Animals of Ethiopia

Do you think that wild animals have significance to the national economy? If
so, can you mention some?

The diversity in Ethiopia’s topography, climate, and vegetation has given the
country a wide variety of wild animals. Ethiopia’s wild-animal stock is generally
similar to that of East Africa as a whole, due to topographic similarity and other
aspects.

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Ethiopia has about 277 species of mammals and 862 species of birds. Of these,
seven species of mammals and twenty five species of birds are endemic to
Ethiopia.

Types of Wild Animals in Ethiopia

Can you identify or state some of the common and endemic wild animals of
Ethiopia? Which type is prevalent in your wereda or zone?

The many types of wild animals found in Ethiopia can be grouped into the
following broad categories.
FF Common wild animals: These ones are animals commonly found in
many places of the world. Many areas of Ethiopia have many common
wild animals, including the hyena and the jackal.
FF Game animals: These are animals that are killed for sport. Ethiopia’s
game animals include herbivores and carnivores. They are found in the
lowlands.
Here are some examples of Ethiopia’s game animals:
browsers – giraffes
KK Herbivores
grazers – wild asses, zebras, etc.
KK Carnivores lions, leopards, cheetahs etc.
FF Arboreals: These animals are animals that climb up trees. Ethiopia’s
arboreal animals, such as the Colobus monkey and baboons, are mostly
found in the rainforest regions of Ethiopia.
FF Aquatic animals: These creatures are animals that liveinlakesandrivers.
Example: Fish, crocodiles and hippopotamus.
FF Birds: Ethiopia has different kinds of both endemic and migratory
birds; for example, Pelicans and flamingoes.
FF Rare/Endemic animals: These are wild animals found only in
Ethiopia. These days Ethiopia’s endemic animals exist in only very
small numbers. They inhabit highland and other areas. They are at
great risk of extinction. The following are some of them.
KK Walia Ibex (wild goat), found in the Semein highlands.
KK Mountain Nyala (Dega Agazon), found in the Bale mountains.

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KK ‘Gelada’ or ‘Chelad’ baboon, found in the Semein highlands.
KK Menilik’s Bushbuk (‘Dikula’) in the Shoan and Bale highlands.
KK Swayne’s Hartebeest (‘Korkay’), found in the Nechsar park and
the Sankalle sanctuary.
KK Semein Fox (‘Key Kebero’), found in the Bale and Semein
Highlands.
KK Wild Ass (Yedur Ahiya), found in the Afar and Southeast Lowlands.

Photograph 3.8 Wildlife of Ethiopia

These rare animals, especially the Walia Ibex and Semien Fox, are approaching
extinction.

Causes of the Extinction of Wild-Animals

What does the concept or term extinction mean? Have you ever thought of the
situation?

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The main reasons for such conditions are the shrinking and destruction of habitats,
which are mainly forest land by way of:
FF rapid expansion of farmland, settlements, and industrialization
FF expansion of grazing land
FF wide spread practices of illegal hunting by the local people in search of
meat, skin, fur, horn and ivory.
FF frequent wild fires
What is more,
FF migration of the wild animals to neighboring countries, due to shortages
of food and water in Ethiopia adds to their perpetual disappearance.

Conservation Measures
What can we do to save, sustain and protect wildlife resources?

Here are some conservation measures that have been recommended:

FF establish national parks, game reserves and sanctuaries.
FF Monitor and administer existing conservation areas properly.
FF establish and implement strong laws that effectively prohibit illegal
hunting.
FF educate the public about environment protection.
FF protect habitats.
FF educate and encourage local communities to protect their animals’
habitats and resources.

As you can see, some of these mitigation measures involve direct protection of
the animals – for example by establishing and properly administering protected
areas; and by training people in how to protect these areas.

Establishing Protected Parks, Reserves, and Sanctuaries.

National Parks
Are there national parks in your region? Have you had an opportunity to
participate in educating the community about the conservation of wild animals?

National parks are conservation areas for wild animals in which legal hunting is
allowed, with some restrictions. The Ethiopian National Parks are.

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Table 3.7: Ethiopian National Parks

Name Area in km Location

Gambella 5,061 Gambella
Yongudirasa 4,731 Afar
Omo 4,068 SNNPR
Gerallea 3,858 Somali
Allattish 2,665 Amhara
Bale Mountains 2,471 Oromiya
Maggo 2,162 SNNPR
Cheberra churchura 1,215 SNNPR
Abiyatta – Shalla Lakes 887 Oromiya
Awash 756 Oromiya-Afar
Nech Sar 514 SNNPR
Semein Mountains 225 Amhara

Photograph 3.9 Awash National park

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Game Reserves
Game reserves are wild-animal conservation areas where tourists are allowed
to practice licensed hunting. The game reserves of Ethiopia are listed in
Table 3.8.

Table 3.8: Ethiopian game Reserves

Name Area in km Location
Borena 45,366 Oromiya
Lower Wabishebelle 23,788 Somali
Arsi 10,876 Oromiya
Bale 9,663 Oromiya
Western Shoa 9,136 Oromiya
Afdim Gewane 5,932 Afar-Somali
Akobo 5,049 Gambella
Mursi 4,561 SNNPR
Mizan Teferri 4,172 SNNPR
Jikawo 3,375 Gambella
Western Omo 3,200 SNNPR
Chercher-Arbagugu 3,045 Oromiya
Erer – Gotta 2,386 Somali
Geddeo 2,347 SNNPR
Dabus Valley 2,127 Benshangul-Gumuz
Boyyo 58 SNNPR
Segan Valley N:A SNNPR

Sanctuaries
Sanctuaries are wild-animal conservation areas where hunting is strictly
prohibited. Example: Afar Gewane.

Table 3.9: Sanctuaries of Ethiopia

Name Area in km2 Location

Babille 6982 Oromiya
Sankele 54 SNNP
Yabello (yavello) 2500 Oromiya

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3.5.3 Human Intervention in Forest Lands
How do human beings interfere with forest lands?

One intervention is in deforestation. At the beginning of the 20th C, the forest

cover of Ethiopia was estimated at 40 percent of the entire country. Now it is
less than 3 percent. This deforestation rate is alarming. We estimate that Ethiopia
loses 100,000 – 200,000 hectares of forestland every year.

Causes of Deforestation
What are the major causes for this drastic rate of destruction?
The main causes are:
FF unwise tree cutting for supplies and materials
FF overgrazing
FF slash-and-burn practices
FF fuel wood
FF furniture
FF construction etc.

Overgrazing: This is the practice of placing too MANY livestock on a given

piece of land. The activities of these animals strips the land bare.

In addition to overgrazing pasture areas, people are increasingly converting forest

land to pasture land. This practice has expanded grazing land at the expense of
forest land – in other words, through deforestation.

Slash and burn practices: People are involved in slash-and-burn practices to

clear forestland in order to prepare it for farming. This practice essentially strips
the forest bare by slashing (cutting down and digging up) all or most of the trees
and other vegetation and then burning the piles away.

Slash-and-burn is also used to periodically strip an area of farmland in order to

leave it lying fallow to regain its nutrients.

In Ethiopia, slashing and burning forests destroys a large area of forest annually.
This approach to gaining farmland is commonly practiced in southwestern
Ethiopia.

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Expansion of built up areas: Built-up areas are areas occupied by factories,
residence, recreational sites etc. Ethiopia’s expanding human population
increasingly requires more area for housing and other services. Some of the land
that is converted to built-up areas is forestland.
Mitigation Measures
What should be done to protect, rehabilitate and achieve sustainable use of
forests in Ethiopia?

The following approaches have been suggested for slowing down and/or
mitigating Ethiopia’s rapid deforestation rate:
ÂÂ conservation
ÂÂ capacity building
ÂÂ institutional development

These approaches are described below. However, despite their having great
potential, these approaches alone are not enough. More ideas are needed, and
sustained effort must be applied to enhance the mitigation effort.

Conservation of Natural Vegetation

Have you developed attitude of conserving resources?
What measures do you often take to conserve resources at household level?

These conservation measures have been suggested for preserving Ethiopia’s

forests:
FF Reforestation – planting trees after every tree harvest.
FF Afforestation – planting trees on bare and unproductive lands.
FF Controlling burning practices (i.e., the slash-and-burn activities).
FF Practicing agro-forestry.
FF Reducing the use of fuel wood by adopting alternative sources of energy
for household consumption.
FF Controlling overgrazing.

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Photograph 3.10 Reforestation

Capacity Building and Institutional Development

Here are some approaches to preserve Ethiopia’s forests through capacity building
and institutional development:
FF Providing environmental education to enhance public awareness about
the use and management of natural vegetation.
FF Developing forest-related curricula for schools, colleges, universities,
forestry institutions, and forestry-management institutions. Then
implement those curricula.
FF Supporting and protecting community forests by applying strict legal
measures.
FF Moderating the existing rapid rate of population growth
FF Facilitate community participation in combatting deforestation.
FF Changing the life style of the people in terms of ongoing deforestation
activities.

These goals must be vigorously implemented if we are to attain the country’s

ongoing goal of defeating deforestation. For example, the anti-deforestation rules
and laws must be vigorously executed by relevant agencies.

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3.6 SOILS OF ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ relate formation of soils of Ethiopia with geological events of the past;
ÞÞ distinguish major soil types in Ethiopia; and
ÞÞ realize soils problems and its conservation in Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Parent material ³³ Leaching
³³ Humus ³³ Soil
³³ Conservation

3.6.1 Formation of Soils in Ethiopia

Why is soil erosion a serious issue in Ethiopia?

Soils are the uppermost loose or unconsolidated material overlying the earth’s
crustal rocks. Its major components are water, air, organic and inorganic minerals.
It is a dynamic, natural and complex substance which can support animals and
plants.

Soils of Ethiopia owe their origin to:

FF parent rock material, which has been broken into small particles by way
of weathering and natural decomposition
FF climatic conditions, which largely determine the speed and nature of
the processes that form the soil; for example, extreme heat, or cold,
could stop the work of bacteria, and the amount of moisture influences
on several aspects of soil formation.
FF vegetation cover, which adds humus to the soils and renders support to
the soil making animals and bacteria

On the plateaus that make up extensive areas in north, north western, south
western, and central and south eastern Ethiopia the parent rocks are volcanic
origin and experience sufficient rainfall. The soils formed in these areas are red
basaltic and black basaltic soils. Unlike the red basaltic soils, the black soils have
high clay content that makes the soil difficult for farming.

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In areas where the hard crystalline rocks are the parent rock, the soils are poor
and thin. They are also rocky and acidic. They range in colour from grey to
brown. They are found in Hararghe plateaus and Borena lowlands.

In the Afar region where recent volcanic deposits and dried-out lake deposits had
occurred, very shallow and saline-dominated soils are formed. Due to time and
climatic effects, these soils are not deep and fertile.

In the southeastern lowlands where the parent rocks are sedimentary rocks, the
soils lack humus but are rich in phospherous and potash. They are also low in
nitrogen content.

In the lower course of the major rivers, transported soils often known as alluvial
soils are dominant. These soils because of their volcanic origin and continuous
nourishment of water, are fertile.

People depend on soils; conversely, the quality of the soils depends on how
wisely people use the land. Not only in countries like Ethiopia, whose economy
is largely agrarian, but also in highly industrialized countries like the USA, soil
is one of the most important bases of life.

3.6.2 Types of Soil in Ethiopia

Can you describe what soil is and how it is formed?

The soils of Ethiopia are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and Mesozoic
sedimentary rocks. According to the latest classification made by the FAO, there
are eighteen classes of soil in Ethiopia.

Here are the main soil types. They cover more than 85 percent of the country.
ÂÂ Nithosols (red basaltic soils): These soil types:
FF cover about 12 percent of the country.
FF are basically associated with high rainfall and are found in areas that
were previously covered with forest.
FF are predominant in the Western Highlands of Wellega, Keffa, Illubabor,
the Southern Highlands of Sidama, the Central and Western Highlands
of Shoa, the Highlands of Gojjam and the Eastern Highlands of
Hararghe.

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FF are matured soils with deep profiles. They are highly leached and lack
soluble minerals like Sodium, Calcium, etc., but they are rich in iron
and aluminum.
FF are potentially good for farming and other agricultural practices since
they are friable, and have a stable structure; as a result,
FF are the most widely cultivated soil type. They are the best soils for
coffee, inset and cereals.
ÂÂ Vertisols (black Basaltic soils): soil types of these sort:
FF cover about 10 percent of the total land of Ethiopia.
FF have high clay content; so, are sticky. For this reason and for poor
drainage qualities, such soils are difficult to be used for farming
purposes.
FF have excellent nutrients that could provide support for agriculture, but
their poor drainage qualities limit their use for grazing purposes.
FF are largely found in Arsi, Bale and central Hararghe, where there are
pronounced wet and dry seasons.
ÂÂ Acrisols: These soil types:
FF are found associated with Nithosols.
FF cover about 4.5 percent of the country.
FF are widely found in the Southwestern Highlands of Ethiopia,where
there is high rainfall.
FF are extremely leached; and therefore, have low productivity capacity.
ÂÂ Cambisoils: Such soils:
FF are soils that developed from the recent lava deposits of the Quaternary
Period.
FF are young and shallow.
FF are found on the rugged and sloping terrain of the Plateau of Shoa
(eastern escarpment) and Chercher Highlands.
ÂÂ Regosols: These types:
FF like the cambisols, are shallow and young; but they are coarse-textured.
FF have low agricultural value.
FF are found in the Danakil and Ogaden plains.
ÂÂ Xerosols: These soils:
FF These soils are generally young and shallow, and are found in arid and
semi-arid regions. They have a weakly developed profile.

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FF are found extensively in the Northeastern escarpment, Northwestern
and Southeastern Lowlands.
FF are characterized by high salt content and humus deficiencies.
FF have little significance for agriculture except places where they could
be irrigated.
ÂÂ Yermosols: Soils of this sort:
FF are found in desert and semi-desert areas, as are xerosols.
FF are salty, acidic and have a weakly-developed profile.
FF are not suitable for cultivation, even when irrigated, due to their salty
and acidic nature.
ÂÂ Luvisols: These soils:
FF are well-developed in areas where there are clearly marked wet and dry
seasons and when leaching is not very high.
FF are among the best soils, since they have good chemical nutrients.
FF are intensively cultivated, except in areas that are steeply sloped or
water-logged.
FF are found around Lake Tana, and in the eastern part of the Northern
Central Highlands and in the Southern Lowlands.
ÂÂ Lithosols: Such soils:
FF are similar to cambisols and regosols in their poor maturity and their
location on steep slopes.
FF are found in areas of low precipitation.
FF cover the escarpments of the Northeastern and Chercher Highlands.
ÂÂ Fluvisols: This type of soils:
FF are soils that rivers have transported from highlands to lowlands.
FF cover about 10 percent of the country’s total area.
FF are associated with river, sea and lake deposits.
FF have very good agricultural potential.
FF are found extensively in the lower regions of the Omo, Awash, Abbay
and Baro-Akobo Rivers.

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 Exercise 3.7
1 Compare and contrast
a cambisols with regosols and xerosols
b nithosols with vertisols
c luvisols with fluvisols

2 List the soils of Ethiopia in order of their suitability for agriculture from the
best to the worst.

Match the items under Column A with those under Column B.

A B

3 Extremely leached soils A Fluvisols

4 Young and shallow soils found in B Vertisols

arid and semi-arid areas C Nithosols
5 Young and shallow soils covering D Xerosols
the rugged slopes of the Shoa
E Cambisols
Plateau and the Chercher Highlands.
F Acrisols
6 Plentiful along the lower regions of
the Omo, Awash, Rivers etc.
7 Black soil that is hard to plough
during the rainy season
8 Red basaltic soil

3.6.3 Soil Problems and Conservation in

Ethiopia
Ethiopia’s Soil Problem – Erosion
What is the basic difference between soil erosion and leaching?

For countries like Ethiopia, where the mainstay of the peoples’ livelihood is
agriculture, issues related to soil are extremely important. Therefore, whatever
setback happens must be carefully handled. One such setback is erosion.

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Soil Erosion by Running Water
Every year enormous quantities of soil are carried away by Ethiopia’s rivers to
neighboring countries. As a matter of fact, the main problem related to soil in
Ethiopia is erosion by running water.

Examples:
FF River Abbay alone carries away 3000 – 4000 million cubic metric
tons of soil annually.
FF The Ethiopian highlands experience a loss of about 2000 tons of soil
per square kilometer per year.

Factors that Accelerate Soil Erosion in Ethiopia

It is known that natural and human-made factors accelerate soil erosion.
Which of the two factors is prevalent in your locality?

Both natural and human-made factors play a role in accelerating erosion.

Natural Factors
Two main natural factors contribute to soil erosion in Ethiopia.
FF Topography: Many Ethiopian rivers set in motion from high places and
have steep profiles as they progress to lower altitudes. These conditions
are highly conducive for erosion to take place at ease.
FF The heavy summer rains: Although most of Ethiopia’s rivers have very
low flows during the dry season, the heavy summer rains turn them into
rushing torrents. The cracks that have appeared during the dry seasons
turn rapidly into deep gullies. These conditions greatly facilitate the
mechanical action of raindrops to wear away the surface soil, eroding
it deeply.

Human-Made Factors

Human activities accelerate the soil erosion that is caused by the natural factors
that we have just considered. Here are some of the many ways in which people
have contributed to the erosion of the land that they depend on.

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FF Deforestation: Most of the highlands of Ethiopia were once covered
by forests. These forests provided cover for the land and protected the
soil from the physical action of rainfall. Deforestation is progressing
at a rapid rate and has become one of the main causes for Ethiopia’s
hastened erosion rate.
FF Bad cultivation practices: Bad cultivation practices also speed up
erosion by making the soil vulnerable to the natural forces that we have
just described a few lines above. For example,
KK Overcropping – This is one bad cultivation practice. It is the act of
planting an area too densely. This approach to farming uses up the
soil’s nutrients faster than natural processes can replenish them
and destroys the land’s fertility.
KK Overcultivation – This one entails tilling land every year. For
example, in order to keep up with increasing food requirements,
people overcultivate their lands. Too frequent tilling can remove
nutrients from the soil faster than natural processes can replenish
them.
KK Slash and burn – With such a practice, people slash (cut down and
dig up) all or most of an area’s vegetation and then burn the results.
In farming, this practice is sometimes used periodically to strip an
area before leaving it to lie fallow to regain its nutrients. However,
since the soil is now bare and therefore unprotected, the land is
vulnerable to the forces of erosion. Slash-and-burn techniques are
also used to clear forestland in order to prepare it for farming, but
unwittingly exposing the soil for erosion.
FF Keeping too many livestock (overgrazing): Most areas used for
pastoral activities are overgrazed because too many animals have been
kept there relative to their grass. The livestock destroys the vegetation
faster than it can replenish itself. When the vegetation is destroyed,
the land is laid bare and is therefore vulnerable to erosion. Goats are
particularly damaging. They destroy all kinds and parts of an area’s
vegetation, including the roots.
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FF Unscientific tilling: Most peasants do not use (being unaware) scientific
farming techniques, such as terracing and contour ploughing, which
serve as checks against soil erosion.
FF Using inadequately maintained tracks and trails: Without adequate
maintenance, frequently used routes across the countryside can
gradually change into deeply eroded gullies and eventually make them
impassable, for they are partly eroded. Most of this destruction is
caused by the action of rain and other running water on the soil, which
has been laid bare by continual foot and vehicle traffic.

Conservation Measures to Combat Soil Erosion

What does conservation of resources mean? What are the problems encountered
by soil erosion?

Here are some conservation measures that have been recommended for minimizing
soil loss by erosion in Ethiopia.
FF Reforestation – replanting trees immediately after tree harvesting;
FF Afforestation of areas that are not used for cultivation, are along steep
slopes that are exposed to erosion.
FF Proper terracing of slopes and are set a side for cultivation.
FF Intercropping – this is the practice of growing two or more crops on the
same field so that the land is not exposed to erosion.
FF Controlling livestock populations.
FF Developing improved grass types that can feed more livestock.
FF Installing fences to control the movement of grazing animals, thereby
restricting their activities and protecting the areas outside of the fences.
FF Proper construction of tracks and routes so that drainage could not
wash them easily.
FF Constructing check dams.
FF Installing shelter-belts and windbreaks in arid and semi-arid areas.

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FF Extending irrigation schemes along the major river basins and their
tributaries so that water will be available in proper quantities at proper
times. This measure would alleviate both drought and flood conditions.
Stored water would be used during dry periods, and flood waters would
be controlled and therefore would no longer be destructive or wasteful.

Activity 3.12
1 Collect a sample of your locality’s predominant soil type in a small plastic
container. Then examine it so as to:
a Identify its color.
b Check whether it has high clay content. Use your saliva to perform this
check, as follows: Wet it and press it with your finger. If you find that the
soil is sticky then it has significant clay content.
c Is it friable? Ask your community’s farmers.
d What crops are widely grown in your area?
2 Are there gullies near your school? How wide are they? Ask older members of
your community whether the gullies have changed in size over the years. What
do you think will happen to them after ten or eight years?
3 Are attempts being made to check soil erosion in your locality? If not, organize
a conservation club with your friends, classmates or community members with
the goal of planting trees in your area. Locate trees to plant, and then create a
schedule for planting them. You will be performing a noble task.

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U nit Review
 UNIT SUMMARY
ÞÞ Ethiopia and the Horn countries occupy a tropical location in Eastern Africa
within the 1oS – 18oN latitudes and the 33oE – 51o24’ E longitudes.
ÞÞ The countries of the Horn vary in size. Ethiopia is the biggest while Djibouti
is the smallest. This variation of size among the countries has resulted in
advantages and disadvantages.
ÞÞ Regarding shape, Ethiopia and Djibouti have more or less compact shapes,
while Somalia and Eritirea have elongated shapes.
ÞÞ Ethiopia and the other Horn countries have experienced four geological
eras. The geological structure of the region is the result of the geological
events that occurred during these eras.
ÞÞ The landforms of Ethiopia and the Horn are largely the results of the
geological forces that took place in the Cenozoic era’s, Tertiary and
Quaternary periods. Altitudes increase from the peripheries to the centers.
The highest peak is Ras Dashen (4620 meters) in Ethiopia.
ÞÞ The altitude plays a significant role in determining the climate, natural
vegetation, drainage systems as well human activities in the region.
ÞÞ Due to the altitude effect we see spatial variation of
FF Temperature; FF Vegetation
FF Rainfall FF Population density
ÞÞ The drainage system itself is the altitudinal effects, rivers as flow out from
the central highlands to the peripheral lowlands. This has made the rivers
flow swiftly.
ÞÞ The highlands are homes of different wild animals of which some are
endemic. These endemic animals are at the risk of extinction.
ÞÞ Although the forests are confined to the highlands, human intervention for
both economic and other purposes is destroying it at an alarming rate.
The forest resource stock that had covered 40 percent of the country has
come to less than 3 percent these days.
ÞÞ Ethiopia has different types of soils. The volcanic soil, especially nithosol, is
the most widely utilized soil. The country’s cereals, coffee, inset, etc. are
grown on this soil type. However, the topography, climate and traditional
practices have become major accelerants of its removal. Attempts have

Unit Review
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been underway to check erosion. Awareness is being created at all levels
through school syllabi and extension services to mitigate the problem.
ÞÞ Soils are the upper most loose or unconsolidated material overlying the
earth’s crustal rocks. Soils of Ethiopia owe their origin from their parent-
materials. They are basically derived from crystalline, volcanic and
mesozoic sedimentary rocks. The main types of soil in Ethiopia are nithosols,
vertisols, acrisols, cambisols, regosols, xerosols, yermisols, luvisols, fluvisols
and lithosols.
ÞÞ The major problems of Ethiopia’s soils is erosion by running water. Both
human-made and natural factros are responsible for erosion.

 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT 3

I Short Answers
1 Describe the major geological events that occurred during the Cenozoic
Tertiary Period in Ethiopia and the Horn.
2 Identify the dominant factors that determine the drainage systems and
change patterns in Ethiopia and the Horn.
3 Name two areas in Ethiopia with
a high rainfall variability b very low rainfall variability
4 Which soil classes in Ethiopia are very unproductive? What are the reasons
for this unproductivity?
5 Which regional administration is involved in the protection of wild animals
and conservation of areas for them? Name at least four of Ethiopia’s
protected wild animals.

II Completing Sentences: Complete the sentences below by filling

in the spaces left blank.
6 The two non-anthropogenic factors that accelerate soil erosion in Ethiopia
are __________ and __________.
7 One of the attainable measures for reducing soil erosion is afforestation. It
is the __________.
8 The year-round rainfall region corresponds to __________.
9 The current economic potential of the Ethiopian Rift Valley is assumed to
be __________.
Unit Review
U 4 nit
POPULATION OF ETHIOPIA AND
THE HORN
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ÞÞ discuss population theories, trends, growth, structure, spatial distribution
and factors affecting population distribution in Ethiopia; and
ÞÞ explain settlement patterns, determinants of population changes, impacts
of rapid population growth and urbanization in Ethiopia.

Main Contents
4.1 POPULATION THEORIES
4.2 TRENDS OF POPULATION GROWTH AND STRUCTURE IN ETHIOPIA
4.3 THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF POPULATION IN ETHIOPIA
4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN ETHIOPIA
4.5 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF ETHIOPIAN POPULATION
4.6 DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION CHANGE IN ETHIOPIA
4.7 IMPACTS OF RAPID POPULATION GROWTH IN ETHIOPIA
4.8 POPULATION POLICY OF ETHIOPIA
4.9 URBANIZATION IN ETHIOPIA
FF Unit Summary
FF Review Exercise
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INTRODUCTION
A human population is all of the people living in a specified area-such as a city,
region, country, or continent-at a given time. Population is one of the most critical
factors that determine the socio-economic and environmental conditions of every
country in the world.

The issue of population is multi-disciplinary, so it is studied by a variety of fields,

such as demography, geography, sociology, anthropology, economics, biology,
statistics, and history. In geography, population geography is a branch of human
geography that usually focuses on the spatial patterns and variations of the various
characteristics of human populations. It particularly emphasizes the spatial
dimensions of population size, structure, composition, distribution, settlement,
density, migration, growth, and other demographic processes and facts. It also
considers demographic facts in terms of both their present contexts and causes,
characteristics and possible consequences to the geographical environments (i.e.,
both the physical and cultural environment).

Population studies in geography and other fields yield knowledge essential for
planning, especially by governments, in fields such as health, education, housing,
social security, employment, food security, and environmental preservation.
Moreover, the studies provide information needed in the formulation of
governments’ population policies, which seek to modify the trends of population
size, composition, and distribution in order to achieve economic, social, and
environmental objectives.

This unit focuses on the study of the general features of Ethiopia’s population.
The unit has nine sections, which present major topics such as population
theories, trends of population growth, population structure and composition,
spatial distribution and settlement patterns determinants of population growth,
nature of urbanization, and population policy.

Introduction 
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4.1 POPULATION THEORIES
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ analyze the population theories of Malthusian and anti-Malthusian.

Key Terms

³³ Theory ³³ Preventive-checks
³³ Malthusian ³³ Positive-checks
³³ Anti-Malthusian ³³ Food supply
³³ Over-population ³³ Resource
What do you know about theories?
How do you think a theory is developed?

The problem of population, particularly population growth, has been a major

concern of humankind since ancient times. Based on political, social, economic,
and military considerations, statesmen and thinkers held opinions about the need
to stimulate or retard population growth. On the basis of these factors, they also
formulated public policies. In ancient times, such policies were not based on
theories. However, those policies and practices have been used as starting points
for modern population theories.

Modern population theory is generally thought to have evolved in the late

eighteenth century, in the writings of Malthus. Malthus’s work stimulated interest
in population and in the economic and social issues associated with it. His work
also prompted controversy, and that controversy spurred further investigation into
demographic problems, which stimulated continuing observation and analysis of
these issues, which, in turn, led to formulation of other population theories.

With the help of the theories, various scholars have attempted to explain the
relationships that exist between population and factors such as resources,
economy, politics, and other social issues.

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Focus
The main purpose of population theory is to seek appropriate answers to
the following population-related questions.
FFHow large can world population ultimately become, and more
particularly how many human beings can the planet feed and the
environment sustain?
FFHow does population growth determine the socio-economic issues of
countries?
FFHow do biological, economic, social, and political factors determine
population growth?

The theories of population developed by different scholars, in response to the

above questions, can be grouped into two broad categories: Malthusian/neo-
Malthusian and anti-Malthusian. The two groups of theories have opposing
views about the relationship between population growth and socio-economic,
political, and environmental factors. Malthusian and neo-Malthusian theories are
pessimistic, and the anti-Malthusian theories are optimistic.

The next figure indicates the characteristics and differences between these two
types of population theory.

A Malthusian (Malthus) B Anti-Malthusian (Boserup)

Population Increase Population Increase

Increased Demand for Food Increased Demand for Food

Less Food per Person Improvement in Technology

Increased Mortality/Death Population Growth Continues

Decrease in
Population
Growth
Decreased Fertility/Birth

Figure 4.1: The opposing views of Malthusian and anti-Malthusian

population theories

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Activity 4.1
Study the two diagrams in Figure 4.1 to investigate the opposing views of Malthusian and
anti-Malthusian population theories. In small groups, discuss the following questions.
1 What do the two diagrams in the figure tell us about the differences between
the two theories?
2 Identify the optimistic one and the pessimistic one, regarding the effects of
population growth. Discuss your reasons.
3 Which one do you support? Discuss your reasons.

4.1.1 Malthusian Population Theory

Historical Note
Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) was an influential English
economist who founded the science of modern demography.
His theory, which appeared in 1798 in “An Essay on the
Principle of Population”, was an important work that marked
the beginning of modern population theories.

Thomas Robert Malthus

In his work, Malthus warned of a constant tendency for human population growth
to exceed food production. He classified the various ways that such growth would,
in consequence, be slowed.

Malthus took an exceedingly pessimistic view, arguing that human populations

are inescapably caught in a conflict between their “need for food” and the “passion
between the sexes”.

Focus
In his essay, Malthus put forward the following three basic propositions.
FFPassion between sexes is inevitable and universal;
FFFood production is limited, and population cannot increase beyond the
means of subsistence; and
FFIf population growth outstrips the means of subsistence, “positive
checks” will apply.

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Activity 4.2
Read the following edited excerpt from Malthus’s “Principle of Population” and discuss
in your group what he tried to say about the causes, consequences, and solutions of
population growth.

The passion between the sexes is so great that human beings will
produce more and more children, until there is not enough food for
all…. The power of population growth is indefinitely greater than
the power in the earth to produce subsistence for IVman. Hnce there
must be strong and constantly operating checks on population to
prevent difficulty of subsistence, followed by violent competition for
increasingly scarce resources. Gigantic, inevitable famine stalks in the
rear of misery and vice to limit the numbers of IVmankind.

Malthus’s “Principle of Population”

Malthus was concerned that population would grow faster than the supply
of food. He believed that the supply of food can only increase by a constant
amount, in arithmetical progression (1 – 2 – 3 – 4 – 5), but that the
human population has a tendency to multiply in geometric progression,
(1 – 2 – 4 – 8 – 16), multiplying itself by a constant amount each time. Therefore,
eventually population would outstrip food supply until a catastrophe occurred.
This would be in the form of famine, diseases or war. Such catastrophes would
occur as human beings fought over increasingly scarce resources.

Malthus referred to the catastrophes as positive checks that control fast population
growth and in the long term maintain a balance between population and resources.

Malthus considered that, in order to avoid the inevitable occurrence of the

positive checks, human beings should adopt preventive checks. By preventive
checks, Malthus meant “moral restraint”, which includes late marriage, avoiding
sexual conduct before marriage and having fewer children. However, Malthus
was against family planning methods; he was totally against all artificial methods
of conception or birth control. Malthus, therefore, appealed to people to control
their natural sexual urges in order to control the fast growth of population and to,
therefore, avoid the occurrences of the disastrous positive checks.

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Focus
In general, Malthus believed that the “hot passion or sexual urge” of people
could lead to overpopulation, which, in turn, would result in poverty and
other catastrophes (positive checks). He concluded that “the poor are to be
blamed for their own poverty. Neither wages nor providence, nor society
is to be blamed.”
Today, supporters of Malthus’s pessimistic view, who fear that population
growth will outstrip food supply and other resources, leading to the catastrophic
consequences (the positive checks) predicted by Malthus, are called Malthusi-
ans or neo-Malthusians.

Activity 4.3
In small groups:
1 Discuss Malthus’s positive checks, and his idea of using preventative checks, as
a way of controlling rapid population growth.
2 Discuss what Malthus meant by the statement “the poor are to be blamed for
their own poverty”.

4.1.2 Anti-Malthusian Population Theories

Anti-Malthusians are optimists who argue against Malthus. They believe that
either population growth will slow down well before it is limited by scarcity of
food and other resources or the ingenuity/cleverness of humankind will solve the
problems, overcoming potential scarcities of food and other resources.

Let’s consider two anti-Malthusian theories – one was developed by Karl Marx,
and the other by Ester Boserup.

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A Marxian Population Theory

Historical Note
Karl Marx (1818-1883) was an influential German economist,
revolutionary, political thinker, sociologist, socialist, and all
round major figure historian, of the 19th century. He was
one of the leading opponents of Malthus. Marx’s “surplus
population theory” was a reaction to malthus’s theory.

Karl Marx

In his theory, Marx stated that there could be no population problem under a
socialist mode of production and of ownership of resources. He believed that
population becomes a problem of surplus people only under capitalist modes of
production. His view was that the capitalist system not only views some of the
population as surplus in an economic sense, but also causes this phenomenon:
When existing food supplies are inadequate to support some of the population,
capitalism calls the unsupported people surplus population. However, Marx stated,
such food scarcities are purely the result of unequal distribution of resources by
capitalism.

Marx believed that the capitalist system can produce food and other necessities
for an indefinitely expanding population, and that it is only capitalism’s unequal
distribution of social wealth that makes it seem as though these resources were
limited and, therefore, that population growth must have a natural limit.

Moreover, in Marx’s view, the system of capitalist production is not targeted to

meet the needs of poor people. Instead, its aim is to increase the accumulation of
capital for the wealthy. Along the same lines, Marx stated that capitalism benefits
from the conditions that produce a so-called surplus population. Those conditions
create competition for jobs, thus driving down wages and therefore maximizing
profits for the wealthy. Marx’s solution to the problem of overpopulation was
socialism with a new economic structure of society within a new social order.

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Focus
While Malthus focused on individual actions and considered “moral
restraint” (preventive checks) to be the solution to population problems,
Marx focused on the economic structure of society and believed the solution
would be found in a new social order.

Activity 4.4
Summarize the opposing views of Malthus and Marx on the following issues.
a How did their views differ regarding the relationship between the scarcity of
food (and other resources) and rapid population growth?
b How did their views differ about poor people?
c How did their solutions to overpopulation and its problems differ?

B Boserupian Population Theory

Historical Note
Esther Boserup (1910-1999) was a Danish economist of the
20th century. In 1965, she developed a “Theory on Population
and Agriculture”, in which she argued against Malthus. In her
theory, Boserup argued that technological advancement
would ensure that food supply would keep up with population
growth.
Esther Boserup

Boserup formulated an optimistic theory about the influence of population growth

on agricultural development in support of her theory; she elaborated facts that
showed population growth would lead to agricultural development. For Boserup,
population is a variable that contributes positively to agricultural development,
because it leads human-kind to innovation.

In order to explain the positive effect of population growth on agriculture,

Boserup presented the following series of historical agricultural transformations
that were caused by population growth, in which humans progressed from “a”

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through “e” in their approach to agriculture between the nth and nth centuries. For
each transformation, Boserup
FF described the approach to agriculture of the specified time and explained
how it used land
FF examined the labor requirements of that approach between the nth and
nth centuries

Boserup noted that, as the human population grew, the amount of land available
per-capita shrank but that, in response, people developed more effective ways
to use the land. With each development in land use, labor requirements grew,
and the increasing population provided the labor – and, therefore, the means to
implement these developments. In addition, the increased labor requirements
provided occupation for the growing number of people.
a Forest-Fallow Cultivation
FF Long periods of forest growth alternate with short periods of cultivation.
FF Per-capita, the population owns and must cultivate large areas of
land. However, because the work required - and therefore the labor
requirement - of the forest-fallow approach to cultivation is low, food
supplies are adequate.
b Bush-Fallow Cultivation
FF Relatively long periods of bush growth alternate with short periods of
cultivation. The bush-growth periods are not longer than the forest-
growth periods.
FF The labor requirement is larger than for the first (forest-fallow)
approach.
c Short-Fallow Cultivation
FF The land is cultivated with intervals of only a few years of abandonment.
These intervals last only for only a few years. They allow the land to
regenerate and are used to enhance its productivity.
FF The labor requirement is larger than for the first two approaches.
d Annual Cropping
FF The land is cultivated annually.
FF Fertilizers are required.
FF Labor requirement is larger than for all of the earlier approaches.
4.1 Population Theories
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e Multiple Cropping
FF Different crops are grown at the same time, on the same land, throughout
the year. The land is used throughout the year.
FF The labor requirement is larger than for all of the earlier approaches.

Boserup concluded that population growth could not be controlled by scarcity

of food and other necessities, as Malthus believed. Instead, population would
continue to grow because the increased demand for food and other necessities
would lead to new innovations and technological advancement which, in turn,
would allow production to keep pace with the needs of the increasing population.

Activity 4.5
Summarize the opposing views of Malthus and Boserup on the relationship between
the scarcity of food and population growth.

Focus
Boserup thought that “As the size of population increases, it results in
technological innovations and advancement.” For her, population is an
independent variable/factor, and agriculture is a dependent variable/factor.
She believed that population growth could not be controlled by scarcity of
food supply. Rather, the increasing demand for food caused by population
growth would increase agricultural productivity by stimulating innovation
in agricultural systems and technologies. In this regard, she said that
“Necessity is the mother of invention”.

4.2 TRENDS OF POPULATION GROWTH AND

STRUCTURE IN ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ explain the trends of population growth and structure in Ethiopia.

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Key Terms
³³ Census ³³ Sex structure
³³ Survey ³³ Population pyramid
³³ Growth rate ³³ Age dependency ratio
³³ Age structure ³³ Sex ratio

4.2.1 Trends of Population Growth in

Ethiopia
What do you know about census and surveys? What do you know about the
nature of population growth in Ethiopia?
The most important source of population information (demographic data) that
enables us to understand population growth rate and its trends in a country is a
census. Census is defined as the periodic counting of the entire population of a
country. In Ethiopia, census is a recent phenomenon introduced after the late 20th
century.

In addition to census, from the 20th century onwards, several sample surveys were
conducted in Ethiopia in order to estimate the total population of Ethiopia and to
generate other reliable demographic data.

Activity 4.6
In small groups, discuss the following questions.
1 What are the advantages of conducting census and surveys for any country?
That is, what is the use of understanding the trends of population growth in any
country by conducting census and surveys?
2 Why is the Ethiopian population growing so fast?

Ethiopia is the third most populous country in Africa, next to Nigeria and Egypt.
According to the 2007 Census, the population of Ethiopia is 73.8 million. The
country’s population is among the fastest growing in the world. The 2008 estimate
of the annual growth rate of Ethiopian population is 2.23 percent.

It was estimated that, in 1900, Ethiopia had only 11.8 million persons. This
number increased to about 13 million in 1920 and to 23.5 million in 1960, as is

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shown in (Table 4.1). The table shows that, in 1960, the country had twice the
population it had in 1900 . These values show that, during those decades, it took
60 years for the population to double in size. In contrast, since 1960, the time
required for the population to double has been on the decline. This is because
of rapid rate of population growth. For instance, the population doubled in size
between 1960 and 1987, indicating a doubling time of only 27 years.

A historical profile of the growth rates of the Ethiopian population since 1900
shows that the population increased by less than 1.0 percent until about 1920.
After 1920, however, the rate of growth slightly increased; and then, by 1950, it
went up to 2.0 percent. The slow rate of population growth before 1920 reflected
the country’s high mortality rate. With worldwide efforts to control malaria and
other diseases in the 1950s and later, the growth rate rose from year to year
and reached 2.8 percent in 1980. Between 1980 and 1990, the growth rate of
Ethiopian population was around 3.0 percent.

According to the results of the three census, there was a slight decline in the
population growth rate over recent decades, changing from 3.1 percent in 1984
to 2.9 percent in 1994, and to 2.0 percent in 2007. This was mainly the result of
the government’s efforts to regulate fertility rates through the delivery of family
planning services. Since 1987, family planning services have been rendered
through government health institutions such as hospitals, clinics, and health
centers.

Table 4.1: Population estimates and growth rates in Ethiopia (1900-2007)

YEAR 1900 1920 1940 1960 1970 1984 1994 2007
Population (Million) 11.8 12.9 16.3 23.5 29.5 42.6 53.5 73.8
Growth Rate (%) 0.2 1.0 1.5 2.2 2.8 3.1 2.9 2.0

Source: CSO (2009)

Focus
Although there has been a slight decline in the population growth rate
between the three censuses, Ethiopia has one of the fastest growing
populations in the world. Over the two decades between the three censuses,
for instance, the population of Ethiopia increased from 42.6 million in 1984
to 53.5 million in 1994 and to 73.8 in 2007.

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4.2.2 Age and Sex Structure of the
Ethiopian Population
What do you know about age and sex structure? What are the benefits of
knowing the age and sex structures of a given population?

A Age Structure
Age structure is the distribution of a given population into age groups. This
structure becomes clear after we group all of the people in that population by
age. In other words, age structure is the pattern that results from the distribution
of members of a population into different age categories.

Two important statistical tools for understanding age structure are

FF Age groups FF Population pyramids

Age Groups: Although we can use different sets of numbers to define age groups,
the most widely used age groups are the five-year age groups 0-4, 5-9, 10-14, …,
60-64, 65+ and broad age groups 0-14, 15-64, 65+.

In the broad age groups, age groups 0-14, 15-64 and 65+ are known, respectively,
as young age (the young dependent population), working age (the economically
active population) and old age (the elderly dependent population).

Table 4.2: Population of Ethiopia by Broad Age Groups and Census Periods
(2007)
Population (%), by Census Year
Age Group
1984 1994 2007
0-14 49.8 45.4 45.0
15-64 50.2 51.4 51.8
65+ 3.4 3.2 3.2
Source: CSO (2009)

Population Pyramid: It is the graphic representation of the age distribution of a

given population by sex. In countries where birth rates are high and death rates
are also high, the population pyramid has the form of a triangle. This pattern is
typical of the population of developing countries like Ethiopia, in which many
children are born, but few reach old age. In contrast, in the developed countries,

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with their lower birth rates and fewer people dying young, the population pyramid
is more rectangular, narrowing only near its top. In these countries, both birth and
death rates decline, with a result showing the number of people in each group at
equivalent state.

Activity 4.7
Perform the following activity in small groups. Study the population pyramids of
Ethiopia in Figure 4.2 and any other country for which you can get data.
Compare and contrast the two population pyramids and then write a short essay
describing the characteristics of the populations of the two countries in connection
with:
FF the nature of the birth and death rates.
FF the distribution pattern of the child, young and old-age populations.
FF the nature of the age-dependency ratio.
Finally, choose a group representative who reads your essay to the class for further
discussion.

75+

70-74

65-69

60-64

55-59

50-54
Age Group

45-49

40-44

35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19

10-14

5-09

0-04
20 15 10 5 0 5 10 15 20

Population (percent)
Figure 4.2: Population Pyramid of Ethiopia

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In general, population pyramids of developing countries like Ethiopia have
very broad bases, showing the dominance of the young-age population. These
pyramids become increasingly narrower towards the top, advancing through the
age groups, showing that the percentage of the population becomes less and less
in the upper age groups (65-69, 70-74, etc.).

Focus
FF Age structure/composition is one of the most important demographic
characteristics of a population.
FF Age information is often used to understand the sizes of school-age,
labor-force, elderly, and other populations.
FF A population pyramid is usually employed to show the age distribution
of a given population by sex.
FF The population pyramid of Ethiopia has a broad base that narrows
towards the top as age increases. This shape is typical of a population
with high fertility rate.

As shown in Table 4.2, Ethiopia’s young-age (0-14 years) dependent population

declined from 49.8 percent in 1984 to 45.0 percent in 2007 but was still very
large. In contrast, Ethiopia’s old-age (65+ years) dependent population was very
small - only 3.2% in the 1994 and 2007 Census.

Although the proportion of the population of working-age group (15-64) has

shown modest increases over the course of time of the three census, it accounts
for only a little more than half of the total population.

The population pyramid for Ethiopia demonstrates that the country’s population
as a whole has a high preponderance of young population, with a median age of
not more than 18 years. This is a typical feature of a rapidly growing population.

The high percentage for the young-age group in Ethiopia is the result of a high
birth rate, while the small percentage of the old-age group reflects a high mortality
rate, which accounts for the low life expectancy of the population of the country.

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Age Dependency Ratio
What do you think age dependency is? Do you think that it is a problem in
Ethiopia?

The Age Dependency Ratio (ADR) is the relationship between the working or
economically active population and the non-working population. It is generally
accepted that people in the young and old ages are dependent on the working-age
population. The Age Dependency Ratio (ADR) is used to show the magnitude of
this dependency in a given population. This means that the dependency burden,
represented by the non-working population in the young and old age groups,
on the working-age population can be shown by the age dependency ratio. The
formula for calculating the age dependency ratio (ADR) is:
(% of population aged 0 − 14) + (% of population aged 65+)
ADR = × 100
% of population aged 15 − 64

Activity 4.8
Use Table 4.2 to calculate the age dependency ratio of the Ethiopian population for
the three census. Explain what these ADRs mean.
The age dependency ratio for more developed countries is usually between 50
and 75. In contrast, less developed countries like Ethiopia have ratios between
85 and 105. In Ethiopia, the age dependency ratio is very high. In other words,
the dependency burden of the young and old age populations on the working or
economically active population is very heavy. For example, the value of 93 for
the age dependency ratio of Ethiopia in 2007 shows that for every 100 persons
in the working-age group, there are about 93 dependents. In other words, every
person in the working-age group has nearly one dependent.

Focus
The negative implications of heavy youth dependency in Ethiopia can be
summarized as follows.
FFEven higher levels of fertility are likely to be reached when the youth
group reaches reproductive age.

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FFThe capacity to save is highly constrained at both the household and the
national level.
FFLimited national resources must be diverted from investment and other
developmental activities in order to use those resources to provide
services and meet the young peoples’ basic needs, such as food, housing,
education, health care, etc.
FFThe demand for the nation’s employment opportunities will increase
as the youth group reaches working age; this results in a further high
levels of unemployment.

In general, knowing about the age structure of a country’s population helps its
policy-makers and socio-economic planners to predict for the future what sorts of
goods and services might be needed for how many people in which age group. As
we have said, a large proportion of children means growing demands for schools;
a large number of people entering their child-bearing years signals probable
population growth; an increasing number of elderly people may strain pension
plans and health services.

The age structure of a population also affects its growth rates. A population that has
been growing rapidly will keep growing even when current birth rates slow down
to replacement levels. This is because, when the large child population reaches its
reproductive years, it will reproduce offsprings, unless that reproduction is kept
at replacement level. In fact, reproduction will create an even larger new youth
population. Thus, because the same thing is likely to happen again when that new
generation reaches its reproductive years, the danger of a rising population spiral
becomes higher and higher. For example, in Ethiopia, even if there were slight
declines in the average number of children that each woman has, (Total Fertility
Rate) in future years, these children will reproduce, producing more individuals
than their own generation contains. Thus, the population of the country will
continue to expand.

B Sex Structure
What is sex structure? What are the benefits of knowing the sex structure of a
given population?

The sex structure of a population is shown by its sex ratio, which is the ratio
of male population to female population. Sex ratio is usually expressed as the

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number of males per 100 females in a population. A ratio greater than 100 shows
a greater number – called an excess – of males than females. The formula for
calculating a sex ratio is:
Male Population
Sex Ratio = × 100
Female Population

Activity 4.9
In small groups, discuss the following questions.
1 Why do sex ratios differ both between and within countries?
2 Why do sex ratios vary among different age groups?

The sex ratio of Ethiopia’s population increased from 99.4 in 1984 to 101.3 in
1994; and to 101.9, in 2007. The low sex ratio during the 1980s appears to be due
to political unrest and civil war. During those years, a large number of the male
population was killed or was forced to migrate to other countries to escape being
killed or forcibly conscripted into the military.

Table 4.3: Sex ratios of Ethiopian population, by area

Census Year Rural Urban Nation

1984 100.9 86.8 99.4
1994 102.6 93.3 101.3
2007 102.5 98.8 101.9

Source: CSO (2009)

As you can see in the Table 4.3 above, Ethiopia’s sex ratios vary between rural
and urban areas; furthermore, rural ratios are higher. The table also shows that
the 1984 Census showed Ethiopia’s national sex ratio to be 99.4, which means
that there were about 99 males for every 100 females. The respective figures for
the rural and urban populations were 100.9 and 86.8. The 1994 Census indicated
that the national sex ratio had increased to 101.3. The respective figures for rural
and urban populations are 102.6 and 93.3. The 2007 Census showed Ethiopia’s
national sex ratio as 101.9, and that of the rural and urban as 102.5 and 98.8,
respectively.

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Note

Sex ratios in Ethiopia are generally lower for urban areas and
higher for rural areas. This is primarily due to large number of
females migrating to urban areas.

Sex ratio in Ethiopia also varies with age. As you now know, males predominate
among newborns and the very young. However, their numbers lessen as age
increases. Hence, sex ratios are high for young age groups and low for adult and
old-age groups. However, in rural areas this pattern does not hold for later age
groups. In the country, the situation of more male than female newborns accounts
for the normal high sex ratio in the young age groups. Then, the usual situation of
higher mortality among male than female children narrows the gap, which gives
the normal drop in sex ratio. By the time these children reach their twenties and
thirties, the ratio is below 100. However, in their later age groups, this trend – and
with it, the normal development of a population’s sex-ratio pattern – is reversed.
This is because more rural females than males migrate to urban areas. In the
above 50 age groups, males predominate in the countryside, and the sex ratio
rises. After age 70, the rural ratio exceeds 120.

4.3 THE SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF

POPULATION IN ETHIOPIA
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
ÞÞ discuss the spatial distribution of population in Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Population distribution ³³ Dense population
³³ Population density ³³ Sparse population

Do you know what population distribution means? How about population

density?

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Population distribution refers to the way how population spreads out over a given
area, i.e., of any size from a small area to the earth as a whole. The distribution
of population is indicated by population density.

Population density is the average number of people per square kilometer in a

given area.

Activity 4.10
Use the table given below to answer the questions that follow it.

Ethiopia in 1994
Total population 53,477,265
Rural population 46,154,058
Total area (km2) 1,106,000
Arable land (km2) 969,680
Cultivated land (km2) 185,177
1 Calculate the crude density of Ethiopia in 1994.
2 Interpret the results you obtained for each measure.
In Ethiopia, the population is unevenly distributed for various physical and human-
related reasons. In the nation, people mostly live in areas with agreeable life
conditions such as moderate climate, adequate supply of water, good vegetation
cover, fertile soil and absence of disease causing-insects. For such preferences,
most people are found concentrated in the highlands and plateaus of the country.
These places have the country’s most favorable natural conditions for settlement
and crop cultivation. Therefore, they have attracted denser populations than the
lowlands. The highlands, where there are no vector-born diseases, have generally
been the areas of high population concentration. On the other hand, the lowlands
are of low population concentration. Thus, 77 percent of the population of Ethiopia
lives in the highlands at altitudes above 1800 meters, and only 11 percent lives at
altitudes below 1400 meters.

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Woredas

Persons per square km

<5
6 - 10
11 - 25
26 - 50
51 - 100
101 - 150
151 - 250
251 - 350
> 350

Figure 4.3: Population Density in Ethiopia

Densely and Sparsely Populated Areas of Ethiopia

We can clearly see wide variations in population distribution and density among
the various regions of the country. To understand this better, study the following
table, which shows the total population, and total area of each region of the
country.

Table 4.4: Regional Distribution of Population in Ethiopia (2007)

Region Total Population Total Area (km2)
Tigray 4,316,988 50,078.64
Afar 1,390,273 96,754
Amhara 17,221,976 159,201.66
Oromiya 26,993,933 353,006.81
Somali 4,445,219 209,252
Benishangul 784,345 49,281.46
SNNP 14,929,548 112,343.19
Gambela 307,096 25,802.01
Harari 183,415 311.25
Addis Ababa 2,739,551 530.14
Dire Dawa 341,834 1,213.20
Source: CSA, Statistical Report of the 2007 Census

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Spatial distributions of population by region vary significantly. Table 4.4 shows
that the percentage share of the regions ranges from the smallest proportion of 0.5
percent in the Harari region to the largest, 36.6 percent, in the Oromiya region.
That is, the largest proportion of population is found in the Oromiya region
(26,993,933) while the smallest proportion of persons is in the Harari region
(183,415). The Amhara region (17,221,976) and the SNNP region (14,929,548)
have the second and third largest population in the country, respectively.

Note

According to the 2007 Census, Ethiopia had significant variation

of population distribution between the rural and urban areas.
At the national level, 83.9 % of the total population lives in
rural places, while the urban population accounts for only
16.1 %.

Activity 4.11
Use the data in Table 4.4 to calculate the crude density for each region.
Excluding Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, and Harari Regions, (which are mostly urban areas
with relatively small geographical sizes) identify the three most densely populated
and three most sparsely populated regions of Ethiopia.

In terms of density of population, Addis Ababa, Dire Dawa, and Harari Regions
have exceptionally different and much higher population densities than the
rest of the nation. This is because they are urban-dominated regions with high
population concentration in very small geographical areas. Excluding these
regions, the most densely populated region in Ethiopia is the Southern Nations,
Nationalities and Peoples Region (SNNP) (133 persons/km2), followed by the
Amhara (108.2 persons/km2) and Tigray (86.2 persons/km2) regions. On the other
hand, the Somali, Afar and Gambela regions are the most sparsely populated
regions in the country.

When population densities are considered in terns of zones, the variation of

population density in Ethiopia is generally greater than the differences among the
regions. Nation wide, there are several zones with population densities of over
200 persons per square kilometer. Some of the zones with very high population
4.3 The Spatial Distribution Of Population In Ethiopia
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densities are Ghedeo (424 persons/km2), Sidama (299 persons/km2), Kembata-
Alaba-Tembaro (299 persons/km2) and Hadiya (264 persons/km2). In contrast,
there are zones with population densities of less than 10 persons per square
kilometer, two of which are Kamashi (5.7 persons/km2) and Metekel (7.7 persons/
km2). Some of the zones in the Somali and Afar regions, for which densities have
not been calculated, have even lower densities.

4.4 FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION

DISTRIBUTION IN ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ state factors affecting population distribution in Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Altitude ³³ Tropical disease
³³ Soil fertility ³³ Crop farming
³³ River valley ³³ Nomadic herding
You can easily see from the preceding information, that the distribution of
population in Ethiopia is extremely uneven. This extreme unevenness is the result
of a number of factors operating in combination. These factors can be grouped
into two as: physical and human.

4.4.1 Physical Factors

Do you know the reasons for the significant variation of population distribution
over the highlands and lowlands of Ethiopia?

The most significant physical factors affecting the distribution of population in

Ethiopia are the following.
FF Climate (mainly rainfall and temperature)
FF Soil fertility
FF Natural water supply
FF Relief (slope and altitude)
FF Vegetation cover

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Activity 4.12
In small groups discuss the following questions.
1 What are the major factors that attract large populations to the highland areas
of Ethiopia for settlement?
2 Why are the lowland areas of Ethiopia sparsely populated?
3 In most parts of the world, valleys of major rivers are zones of large concentrations
of population. In contrast, the valleys of major rivers of Ethiopia are areas of
sparse population distribution. Why is this so?

In Ethiopia, most of the physical factors are influenced by altitude. Therefore,

altitude is the most crucial physical factor influencing patterns of population
distribution and settlement in the country. Studies in climatology make it clear
that rainfall increases while temperature decreases with an increase in altitude.
Incidentally, this means that rainfall is very low and temperature is high in
lowland areas, while rainfall is high and temperature moderately low in the
highlands. Since soil formation and vegetation growth are closely associated
with adequate rainfall and moderate temperature, highlands tend to have better
soils and vegetation cover.

Lowlands in Ethiopia are characterized by scarcity of rainfall, high temperature,

and poor vegetation and soil conditions. In addition to these negative factors, the
prevalence of tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever contributes to
the sparse population distribution in such areas.

For reasons of tropical diseases, most of the valleys of the major rivers of Ethiopia
are also characterized by sparse population concentration. The main exception is
the Awash River Valley, where irrigation agriculture is practiced. This overall
pattern differs from what can be seen in other parts of the world, where valleys
of major rivers are zones of large concentrations of people. However, with
improvements in agricultural and medical technology, Ethiopia’s lower major
river valleys might, in the future, attract more people from the densely populated
highland areas.

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One dot = 500 people

Figure 4.4: The Physical and Population Source: CSA (2007)

Density Maps of Ethiopia

Table 4.5: The Relationship between Altitude and Population in Ethiopia

Altitude (Meters) Area (%) Population (%)

Above 2600 5.8 10.4
1800-2600 31.8 67.1
1400-1800 28.1 11.5
1000-1400 13.4 8.2
Below 1000 21.5 2.8

From the Table 4.5, we can understand that 77.5 percent of the population of
Ethiopia lives in areas with altitudes above 1800 meters, and that these areas
constitute only 37.6 percent of the total area of the country. Areas below 1800
meters, which constitute about 63 percent of the total area of Ethiopia, supports
only 22.5 percent of the total population of the country. This information
clearly shows that altitude is the most significant physical factor that affects the
distribution of population in Ethiopia.

4.4.2 Human Factors

Can you mention the major human factors that have influenced population
distribution in Ethiopia?

The major human factors which have influenced population distribution in

Ethiopia are the following.
ÂÂ Types of economic activity
ÂÂ Historical patterns of population movement

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Activity 4.13
In small groups, discuss this question.
Why do Ethiopia’s crop farming areas have high carrying capacities and high
population densities, while its areas of pastoralists have low carrying capacities and
low population densities?

A Types of Economic Activity

The types of economic activity performed in an area strongly influence the
carrying capacity of that land. Consequently, the carrying capacity influences
the number of people that can inhabit a given area. Being a country of diverse
environmental and cultural conditions, Ethiopia offers ample evidence of these
relationships.

The arid and semi-arid lowland areas of Ethiopia are areas that are more suitable
for pastoralist activities than for crop farming. By its nature, pastoralism is an
economic activity that requires large areas of grazing lands. In most pastoralist
areas of Ethiopia, the land requirement for grazing is as large as 20 hectares or
more per head of cattle. Each household might possess hundreds of cattle, and as
a result, people need large areas of grazing land. This forces them to move from
one area to another in search of better pasture lands and water for their animals,
as these resources become exhausted over time at each place of arrival.

Under such conditions, the distance separating one pastoralist community from
another is usually be large. That is why pastoralism is considered as“greedy of
space”. Due to these conditions, population densities are extremely low in areas of
pastoralism.

Figure 4.5: Pastoralist

Area in Ethiopia

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As has been said earlier, compared to pastoralist areas, crop-farming areas have
greater carrying capacity and higher densities of population. This is typically
the case in the highland areas of Ethiopia where natural conditions are suitable
for crop cultivation. In the crop-farming highland areas, the human-land ratio is
significantly higher than the one in the pastoralist lowlands.

However, the crop-farming areas of Ethiopia do not have uniform carrying

capacities or population densities. Population density is significantly influenced
by the types of crops cultivated. For instance, in the northern and north central
highland areas of Ethiopia, the most cultivated crops are cereals. Cereals have
relatively low yields per unit area. Therefore, these areas tend to have relatively
lower carrying capacities and population density. In contrast, the southern enset
and coffee growing regions of the country have greater yields per unit area. This
is an important reason for the very high population densities in some zones and
weredas of the southern region that you read about earlier.

Figure 4.6: Crop Farming Area in Ethiopia

The development of commercial farms in some parts of Ethiopia, such as Awash
valley, is another significant factor in population movements and their resulting
effects in population distribution. Some decades ago, there were very few people
in the Awash valley. However, because of the development of many small and a
few large commercial farms, several thousands of settled and migratory people
are found there now.

In Ethiopia, urban and industrial growth/expansion are other human factors that
bring about population re-distribution over time, and they are responsible for
considerable spatial variation of population density at present.

B Historical Pattern of Population Movement

In the history of Ethiopia, the pattern of movement of two major groups of people
4.4 Factors Affecting Population Distribution In Ethiopia
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had direct impact on the distribution of population in the country. These two
groups, which make up the largest part of Ethiopia’s population, are the Semitic
and the Cushitic populations. The two waves of population movement, one from
the north (the Semitic) and the other from the south, (the Cushitic) led to the high
concentration of people in and around the central highlands of Ethiopia.

4.5 SETTLEMENT PATTERNS OF ETHIOPIAN

POPULATION
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ realize settlement patterns of Ethiopian population.

Key Terms
³³ Settlement ³³ Villagization
³³ Urban settlement ³³ Nucleated settlement
³³ Rural settlement ³³ Dispersed settlement

Activity 4.14
In small groups, discuss the following questions.
1 What do you know about the concept of settlement?
2 Do you know why settlement patterns differ from place to place in Ethiopia?

Focus
In Ethiopia, different settlement types have been developed in response to
mainly the following and other physical and human factors.
FF Relief (altitude and slope of the land)
FF Climate (the magnitude of rainfall and temperature)
FF The kind of land ownership
FF The level of development (transportation and industrialization)
FF The need for community defense
FF The need for communal field labor

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Ethiopian settlements are broadly categorized as rural and urban. The primary
bases for this dichotomy are the dominant economic activities and the degree of
population density. Urban settlements are usually branded by non-agricultural
economic activities, while the rural settlements are typically agricultural. Leaving
social, cultural and physiological differences aside, rural and urban settlements in
Ethiopia can very well distinguished by population densities, which are generally
very high in urban settlements compared to the relatively lower densities of
population in rural settlement areas.

4.5.1 Rural Settlements

What kinds of settlements exist in the rural areas of Ethiopia?
Settlements in the rural areas of Ethiopia can be broadly grouped into two:
permanent and temporary/mobile settlements.

Permanent Settlements
What kinds of settlements are considered as permanent? In which areas of
Ethiopia that these types of settlements mostly found? Highlands or lowlands?

Settlements are considered permanent if their locations do not frequently change,

i.e. if they remain in place for more than ten years. In this sense, most rural
settlements over the highland areas of Ethiopia are permanent. The permanent
rural settlements of Ethiopia are mostly associated with the crop-farming highland
areas of the country.

The permanent rural settlements of Ethiopia can also be broadly divided into
two: the scattered (diffused or dispersed) settlements and the grouped (nucleated)
settlements. In areas of scattered settlements, homesteads are separated by relatively
long distances. On the other hand, the grouped settlements are characterized by a
large number of homesteads/households concentrated in one place.

In Ethiopia, the Derg Regime’s compulsory villagization program resulted in the

formation of grouped settlements (villages) in many parts of the country. In most
parts of the northern regions of the country, such settlements have remained in
place for years with the idea that they would enhance communal ownership of
land and the provision of social services. But, because the program was conducted
by forcing people into villages against their will, and because the services were

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non-existent, people began to return to their original sites, in a manner of reversal
move. This movement began even before the regime was overthrown. The current
government of Ethiopia has recently conducted villagization programs that are
based on peoples’ will to leave their original settlement sites.

Temporary Settlements
What kinds of settlements are temporary? Do you know the areas of Ethiopia
in which these types of settlements mostly found? What do you think are the
reasons?

The lowlands in most parts of the Rift Valley and peripheral areas of Ethiopia
are characterized by pastoralism with temporary settlements. The settlements in
these areas are temporary because the pastoralists have to look for new sites for
water and pasture lands for their livestock when these resources are exhausted at
each new site.

The major problem posed by mobile settlements in these pastoralist areas is the
difficulty in providing the people with social services like clean wellspring water,
schools, hospitals, electricity, etc. Because most of these services cannot move
from place to place as do the pastoralists, the only way that the pastoralists could
receive and benefit from them is by settling in permanent locations. However,
making such a change can happen only after major alterations have been made
in the peoples’ values and attitudes. The current government is involved in
progressive activities to help the pastoralists make permanent settlements in a
gradual manner.

4.5.2 Urban Settlements

What kinds of settlements are considered urban? Can you mention some
examples of urban settlements in Ethiopia? Do you know the features that
make urban settlements different from the rural settlements in Ethiopia?

Urban settlements include residence in cities and towns. The process of

development of urban settlements is known as urbanization. In most parts of
Africa, urbanization is a recent phenomenon, and is attributed to colonialism.
Urbanization in Ethiopia is not influenced by European colonialism. It is an
unplanned, natural phenomenon of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

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Focus
Not all grouped settlements are classified as urban centers. Different
countries use different criteria for assigning the status of urban center to a
settlement. The major criteria used in Ethiopia are
a the settlement has a minimum of 2000 people.
b two-thirds of the population in the settlement are engaged in non-
agricultural activities.
c the settlement has a chartered municipality.
Historically, two major factors contributed to the development of urban centers
in Ethiopia. They are:
FF The interconnection of the different parts of the country by all-weather
roads, which radiate from Addis Ababa.
FF The five-year Italian occupation, which intensified the construction of
roads, and the development of small-scale industries and service-giving
institutions.
Most urban settlements of Ethiopia have developed along major transport routes,
which have attracted people to settle in those areas. Consequently, the areas have
turned into centers of greater transport-route network, home of larger numbers of
urban populations and, generally, spot of higher population densities.

Activity 4.15
In small groups, discuss this question.

Why are Ethiopia’s urban settlements concentrated along the nation’s major transport
routes and networks.

Two main areas in the country have relatively large concentrations of urban
populations: the Shewan and the Harerghe plateaus. Together, these regions
account for more than 50 percent of the urban population of the country. The
major reasons for this situation are:
FF relatively high concentration of industries

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FF greater assemblage of social services, such as schools, health
institutions, water supplies, electricity, transportation, etc.

Peoples’ needs for such facilities, services, and employment opportunities

captivated urban setters to come to those places.

4.6 DETERMINANTS OF POPULATION

CHANGE IN ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ compare fertility and mortality from a given data.

Key Terms
³³ Mortality ³³ Natural increase
³³ Fertility ³³ Birth rate
³³ Migration ³³ Death rate
As you are aware from your previous classes in population geography, population
change in any country is affected by three major factors: fertility (births), mortality
(deaths), and migration (movement into or out of the nation).

Focus
Population change in any country is the result of the following.
FF The difference between fertility (births) and mortality (deaths), which
is called natural increase.
FF The balance between immigration (in-migration) and emigration
(out-migration), which is known as net migration.

Look at Figure 4.7, below; it is an input-output model of population change.

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Immigrants
Births
Natural Net Mi-
Increase gration

Emigrants
Deaths
Figure 4.7: Population change

Activity 4.16
In pairs, perform the following activity.
Using the preceding input-output model of population change, categorize the four
factors of change as an input or an output. Explain your reasons for each of your
categorizations.

Example:
FF Population of X at the beginning of the year: 5000
FF Population change during the year:

The following example presents the population changes of a hypothetical

population, X, during a given year. The changes are the result of births, deaths,
immigration, and emigration.
Additions Losses
Births: 150 Deaths: 60
Immigrants: 20 Emigrants: 10
Rates of change based on the preceding data:
Rate of Natural Change:
Birth Rate: 30/1000 Death rate: 12/1000
+18/1000
Rate of Net Migration:
Immigration rate: 4/1000 Emigration rate: 2/1000
+ 2/1000
Total population of X at the end of the year:
= 5100 (5000 + 90 of natural change + 10 of net migration)

As indicated in the previous sections, Ethiopia is characterized by a high rate

of population growth. Fertility and mortality are the most important factors
4.6 Determinants Of Population Change In Ethiopia
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contributing to high population growth nation wide. The effect of migration is
insignificant.

4.6.1 Fertility in Ethiopia

How does fertility determine the size and structure of the population of a
country?

Fertility is one of the three principal components of population change that

determine the size and structure of the population of a country. In its general
sense, fertility refers to the occurrence of birth in a given country or region.

Focus
Before studying the fertility characteristics of the population of Ethiopia,
become familiar with the following measures of fertility.
FF Crude Birth Rate (CBR): this is the total number of births occurring
in a given year, per 1000 population.
FF General Fertility Rate (GFR): this one is the number of births
occurring in a given year per 1000 women in the reproductive ages
(i.e., women aged 15-49).
FF Age Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR): this is the number of births that
occur in a given year per woman in the reproductive ages, presented
in five-year age groups.
FF Total Fertility Rate (TFR): this is the number of children a woman
may have produced by the end of her reproductive period, given the
current ASFR.

Fertility Levels and Differentials in Ethiopia

Ethiopia, like most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, has rapid population growth,
characterized by a high level of fertility. The result of the most recently conducted
demographic and health survey of Ethiopia (EDHS 2005) indicate that the fertility
level of Ethiopia’s population, as measured by TFR (5.4), GFR (179) and CBR
(35.7), is among the highest in the world.

There is also significant variation in fertility levels between the urban and rural
populations of the country. As expected, fertility is considerably higher in the

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rural areas than the urban areas. For instance, EDHS 2005 showed that the TFR
in rural areas was 6.0, which was almost two and half times higher than the 2.4
TFR in urban areas.

Study the following figure, which shows the level of fertility (TFR and CBR) for
Ethiopia as a whole, and for its urban and rural areas.

40 37.3
35.7
7 35
6 6.0
30
5.4
5 25
23.4
4 20
3 15
2.4
2 10
1 5
0 0
Urban Rural Total Urban Rural Total
TFR CBR
Figure 4.8: Levels of Fertility in Ethiopia (TFR and CBR) (2005)

Activity 4.17
1 How do you interpret the following rates of fertility for the population of
Ethiopia?
FF TFR = 5.4 FF CBR = 33.5 FF GFR = 179
2 What are the reasons for the considerably higher rates of fertility in rural areas
than urban areas in Ethiopia?
3 The 6.0 TFR in rural areas is almost two and half times higher than the 2.4 TFR in
the urban areas. What does this mean?

Focus
The total fertility rate (TFR) for Ethiopia is 5.4 children per woman. This
means that the total number of children an Ethiopian woman would have by
the end of her child-bearing period (reproductive age) is about 5.4 children.

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In Ethiopia, there are also substantial differentials in fertility among regions,
ranging from a low TFR of 1.4 in Addis Ababa to a high of 6.2 in Oromyia.
With the exception of Somali and SNNP, fertility levels in the other regions are
lower than the national average (5.4). Look at the following figure, which shows
regional distribution of total fertility rate in Ethiopia.

Dire Dawa 3.6

Addis Ababa 1.4
Harari 3.8
Gambela 4
SNNP 5.6
Benishangul 5.2
Somali 6
Oromiya 6.2
Amhara 5.1
Affar 4.9
Tigray 5.1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

TFR
Figure 4.9: TFR by Region (2005)

Focus
In general, fertility rates are high in Ethiopia due to the following major
factors.
FF Low levels of family planning practices, due to lack of awareness
and religious beliefs;
FF Early marriage, particularly of females;
FF Perception of high social and economic value of children;
FF Low social status of women; and
FF Relatively high infant and child mortality (death) rates, which leads
parents to produce larger number of offspring, in compensation.

4.6.2 Mortality in Ethiopia

How does mortality determine the size and structure of the population of a
country?
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Mortality is the second principal factor in population change that determines the
size and structure of the population of a country. In its general sense, mortality is
the occurrence of deaths in a given population.

Focus
Before studying the mortality characteristics of Ethiopia’s population,
become familiar with the following measures of mortality.
FF Crude Death Rate (CDR): this is the total number of deaths occurring
in a given year, per 1000 people.
FF Infant Mortality Rate (IMR): this is the number of deaths in a year
among infants under one year of age, per 1000 live births.
FF Child Mortality Rate (CMR): this is the number of deaths in a year
among children between one and five years of age, per 1000 children
between the same ages.
FF Under-Five Mortality Rate: this is the number of deaths in a year
among infants and children between birth and five years of age, per
1000 live births.
FF Maternal Mortality rate (MMR): this is the annual number of
maternal deaths occurring during pregnancy, child birth, or within
two months after the birth or termination of pregnancy, per 1000
women between 15 and 49 years of age (reproductive age).
FF Adult Mortality Rate (AMR): this is the number of deaths in a year
among adults between 15 and 49 years of age, per 1000 adults in
the same age group.
FF Age-Specific Death Rate (ASDR): this is the number of deaths that
occur in a given year per 1000 of the population in five-year age
group.
FF Life Expectancy: this is the average number of years a newborn
baby is expected to live if he/she is exposed throughout life to the
prevailing pattern of age-specific death rates.

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Levels and Differentials of Mortality in Ethiopia
In general, mortality rates have been declining around the world, including
in Ethiopia. However, as in most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, Ethiopia is
still characterized by a high level of mortality. The most recently conducted
demographic and health survey of Ethiopia (EDHS 2005) showed that the
mortality level of Ethiopia’s population, as measured by IMR (80), CMR (56),
MMR (1.34) and AMR (5.99), is among the highest levels in the world.

Mortality Rates of Ethiopia (2005)

90
80
70
Rates per 1000

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
IMR CMR MMR AMR

Mortality Rates of
80 56 1.34 5.99
Ethiopia

Figure 4.10: Mortality levels in Ethiopia (2005)

Activity 4.18
In pairs, work on the following questions.
How do you interpret the following mortality rates in Ethiopia?
FF IMR = 80 FF CMR = 56 FF MMR = 1.34 FF AMR = 5.99

Crude Death Rate

Do you know what crude death rate means and how it is calculated?
The crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1000 people during a given year.
In 2005, there were just over than normal deaths in Ethiopia, for a CDR of deaths
per 1000 population. However, the CDR of a given population reveals neither the
age and sex patterns of mortality levels nor the socio-economic characteristics of
a given population. Therefore, IMR, CMR, MMR, AMR and life expectancy are
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generally regarded as better indicators than CDR of mortality in relation to the
socio-economic characteristics of population of a given country.

Infant and Child Mortality

What is the difference between infant and child mortality rates? What are the
benefits of measuring infant and child mortality rates?

Infant mortality rates and child mortality rates are used, respectively, to indicate a
countries’ health status and socio-economic development status. (Infant mortality
rates and health status are considered more specific indicators and measures than
are child mortality rates and socio-economic development status.). The analyses
of these rates are thus useful in identifying needs and planning health programs
and initiating child-survival efforts. In addition, these measures are useful for
population projection.

Focus
Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of deaths among infants between
the moment of birth and the first birth day. Child mortality rate (CMR), on
the other hand, is the number of deaths among children between the exact
ages of one and five, (i.e. From the first birthday, up to but not including
the sixth birth day). The under-five mortality rate, however, includes both
IMR and CMR, as it refers to the number of deaths of infants and children
between birth and the fifth birth day.

One of the targets of Ethiopia’s millennium development goal (MDG) is a

two-thirds reduction in infant and child mortality by 2015, to be achieved
by way of:
FF upgrading the proportion of births attended by skilled health
personnel.
FF increasing immunization against the six vaccine-preventable diseases.
FF upgrading the status of women through education and enhancing
their participation in the labor force.
As shown in Figure 4.11, the IMR and CMR in Ethiopia in 2005 were 80 and 56,
respectively. The under-five mortality rate for the same period was 132 deaths per
1000 live births. This means that one in every thirteen (1/13) Ethiopian children
died before reaching age one, while one in every eight (1/8) did not survive to
the fifth birthday.

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The IMR of Ethiopia’s population is not only significantly higher than the global
average (52/1000), but is also much higher than the average in the less developed
countries (57/1000). Ethiopia’s very high IMR is even more striking when we
compare it with the lowest rates among the world’s developed countries, such
as Japan (4.4/1000 – the lowest in the world), Sweden (5.7/1000), Finland
(5.8/1000), Taiwan (6.0/1000), Switzerland (7.3/1000) and the USA (8.8/1000).

140 135
120
100 98
81
80
66
60 58

40 34
20
0
Infant Mortality Child Mortality Under-Five
Mortality

Urban Rural
Figure 4.11: Mortality Rates in Ethiopia by Urban and Rural
Residence (2005)

Activity 4.19
Answer the following questions, based on Figure 4.11.
1 Which area (urban or rural) has the highest rates of mortality?
2 Discuss the reasons for the differentials in childhood mortality rates for urban
and rural areas of Ethiopia.

It is clear that infant and child survival in Ethiopia is influenced by maternal

socio-economic characteristics, and that those conditions differ between regions
and between rural and urban areas. There is significant urban-rural and regional
variation in child mortality levels. Mortality in urban areas is consistently lower
than in rural areas. For example, EDHS 2005 showed that infant mortality in
urban areas was 66 deaths per 1000 live births, compared to 81 deaths per 1000
live births in rural areas.

There are wide regional differentials in infant, child and under-five mortality

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levels in Ethiopia. The lowest level is that of Addis Ababa (72/1000), which is
the most urbanized part of the country. On the other hand, the highest levels are in
Benishangul-Gumuz (157/1000), Gambela (156/1000) and Amahara (154/1000).

Focus
Survival of infants and children in Ethiopia is strongly influenced by
maternal education and socio-economic status, age at birth, child birth
order, birth interval, and gender. For instance, EDHS 2005 showed that:
FF Under-five mortality among children born to mothers with no
education is more than twice as high as that among children born to
mothers with secondary or higher education.
FF Childhood mortality is higher among children born to mothers under
age 20 and over age 40.
FF Children born within two years of a preceding birth are more than
three times as likely to die within the first year of life as are children
born after an interval of three or more years.
FF First births and births of order seven and higher also suffer significantly
higher rates of mortality than births of orders two to six.
FF Male children experience higher mortality than female children.
FF Children born at home with the help of traditional birth attendants
experience higher mortality than those born in modern health centers
with skilled medical personnel.

Maternal Mortality
What do you think maternal mortality is? What are the benefits of measuring
maternal mortality rates?

Maternal mortality is any death that occurred during pregnancy, childbirth, or

within two months after a birth or termination of a pregnancy. Maternal mortality
rate is the annual number of maternal deaths per 1000 women aged 15-49. Such a
rate is an important indicator of reproductive health status, broadly, and maternal
health status, specifically, of the population of a given country.

The maternal mortality rate in Ethiopia is high, in relation to such rates in the
developed countries. For instance, the average Ethiopian value for the maternal
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mortality rate for the period 1994-2005 was 1.34. The figure seems low, but
during this period, maternal deaths in the country accounted for 21 percent of
all deaths of women aged 15-49. In other words, more than one in five (1-5)
Ethiopian women who died in this period died from pregnancy or pregnancy-
related causes. This shows how high the maternal mortality level is in Ethiopia.

Activity 4.20
In small groups discuss, this question.
Why does Ethiopia have a high rate of maternal mortality?

4.7 IMPACTS OF RAPID POPULATION

GROWTH IN ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ analyze the impact of rapid population growth on Ethiopia’s socio-
economic and environmental conditions.

Key Terms
³³ Deforestation ³³ Famine
³³ Pollution ³³ Health care
³³ Environmental degradation ³³ Housing
³³ Food scarcity ³³ Employment
³³ Drought

Can you mention some of the challenges of rapid population growth in

Ethiopia? Can you mention some of the real problems that have resulted from
population growth in your locality?

As we have already discussed, the size of Ethiopia’s population has been growing
very rapidly. The population growth rate is much higher and is increasing much
faster than the economic growth rate and is growing beyond the carrying capacity
of the country’s natural resources, such as land, water, soil, forest, etc. These
negative results of rapid population growth have caused many environmental and
socio-economic problems.

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For example, population growth causes serious environmental degradation in the
area where it occurs, including deforestation, pollution, soil erosion, depletion of
resources, etc.

Activity 4.21
In small groups, discuss these questions.
1 What do you know about global warming?
2 How does rapid population growth lead to environmental degradation?

4.7.1 Deforestation
What is deforestation? Can you mention some of the problems caused by
deforestation? is deforestation a problem in your locality?

Forests are the lungs of the earth. They absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere
and exhale oxygen. They also store energy from the sun, bind topsoil to land, and
aid in climate control by capturing and releasing water. They also provide a habitat
for innumerable species of plants and animals, serving as a global storehouse of
genetic diversity.

Deforestation refers to the removal of forest cover of an area without adequate

replacement. In other words, it is the process of the indiscriminate destruction
of the natural vegetation cover of a forest area.

The forest cover resource of Ethiopia has been declining significantly over time.
This is caused mainly by rapid population growth and the increasing population’s
needs for forest resources such as wood and land. Many people in the country
use wood for cooking, heating, and lightning, as well as for houses and furniture.
Similarly, the increasing demand for agricultural and settlement lands is a major
cause of forest destruction in the country. In Ethiopia, there is a direct correlation
between population density and deforestation – the more people there are in an
area, the more trees they cut down. New trees do not spring up to replace the old
ones.

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Focus
In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to deforestation mainly because
of peoples’ increasing needs for more:
FF wood FF settlement land
FF agricultural land FF grazing land

Such deforestation has various negative consequences, both directly on the natural
environment, and indirectly on the socio-economic conditions of the people. Its
direct consequences include the following.
FF It accelerates soil erosion.
FF It destroys biodiversity.
FF It affects rainfall by decreasing evapotranspiration.
FF It results in shortages of wood supply.
FF It affects the natural beauty of the affected areas.

Activity 4.22
In pairs, discuss this question.
What are the indirect consequences of deforestation on socio-economic conditions?

4.7.2 Pollution

Pollution refers to any undesirable change in natural conditions of water,

air, and other components of the natural environment that has negative
effects on the health and activities of human beings and other living
creatures.

Can you mention some of the causes of air and water pollution? Is pollution a
problem in your locality?

Water and air pollution are mainly caused by human activities in households,
industries, farmlands, means of transportation, and so on. However, it can also be
4.7 Impacts Of Rapid Population Growth In Ethiopia
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caused by natural events such as volcanic eruption, wildfire, and the like.

When an area is overcrowded (i.e. inhabited by a rapidly growing number of

people) the natural environment is polluted by a variety of unwanted and
harmful wastes that peoples’ activities produce. In Ethiopia, pollution is a major
problem in overpopulated urban centers. In large cities like Addis Ababa, most
people live in unsafe environments that have extremely polluted air and water.
They are surrounded by the garbage and pollutants that households, industries,
automobiles, and other sources discharge.

Focus
In Ethiopia, rapid population growth leads to environmental pollution by
increasing emission of the amounts of pollutants such as:
FF Sewage, solid wastes, and pollutant gases generated by households.
FF Pollutant gases, liquids, and solid chemicals generated by expanded
industries.
FF Pollutant gases generated by the increasing number of automobiles.
FF Agricultural pollutants, such as fertilizers, pesticides, animal wastes,
etc.

Activity 4.23
Group Project
1 Form a small group with the help of your teacher.
2 Your teacher will assign one of the following topics to each group.
FF Impact of rapid population growth in Ethiopia on:
KK Housing KK Education
KK Food supply KK Health care
KK Farmland KK Drought and famine
3 Write a short paper on the issue.
4 Choose a group representative to present your paper to the class for further
discussion.

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4.8 POPULATION POLICY OF ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ adhere to the realization of population policy of Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Policy ³³ Pro-natal policy
³³ Population policy ³³ Reproductive health
³³ Anti-natal policy ³³ Family planning

Why do governments and organizations, especially in developing countries like

Ethiopia, strongly encourage population planning?

Focus
FF A population policy is a policy that is formulated and implemented
by a government in order to plan and control population growth,
based on the economic, social, cultural, political, and demographic
conditions of the country. It is needed mainly to address population-
related problems in a country.
FF The population policies of countries can be broadly categorized into
two groups as: anti-natalist and pro-natalist policies.
KK Anti-natalist population policy seeks to lower fertility rates, in
particular, and population growth rates, in general.
KK Pro-natalist population policy seeks to increase fertility rates,
in particular, and population growth rates, in general.

History of Population Policy in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, population policies were given low priority before the early 1990s.
After the Derg regime, the Transitional Government of Ethiopia (TGE) adopted
a national population policy in 1993. The policy was based on the awareness that
large population size and continued rapid population growth in Ethiopia can be
an enemy of development and can cause economic, social and environmental
problems in the country.
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Activity 4.24
In pairs, discuss the following questions.
FF Which of the two types of population policies is appropriate for addressing
population-related problems in Ethiopia and in other similarly developing
countries of the world? Explain why.
FF What kinds of countries use pro-natalist population policies? Explain why.

Note

Similar to most of the developing countries, the type of

population policy used in Ethiopia is basically anti-natalist.
Such policies promote lowered fertility rates, in particular, and
lowered population growth rates, in general.

Goals and Strategies of Ethiopia’s Population Policy

Ethiopia’s anti-natal population policy formulates several goals and strategies to
regulate population for the over all good of the country.

Ethiopia’s Population-Policy Goals

Ethiopia’s population policy has the following types of goals:
FF Broad FF General FF Specific

The broad goal of Ethiopia’s population policy is to promote social welfare

by harmonizing the rate of population growth and the country’s capacity for
socio-economic development and the rational utilization of natural resources.
The policy expresses particular concern over the age structure of Ethiopia’s
population, which is greatly dominated by young people. The policy is also
concerned with the large number of women in childbearing age, which is likely
to result in continued rapid population growth.

General objectives of Ethiopia’s population policy include:

FF Closing the gap between high population growth and low economic
productivity, through planned reduction of population growth and
increasing economic returns;
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FF Expediting socio-economic development processes through holistically
integrated development programs;
FF Reducing the rate of rural-to-urban migration;
FF Ensuring environmental protections;
FF Reducing morbidity and mortality;
FF Raising the economic and social status of women; and
FF Improving the social and economic status of vulnerable groups, such as
adolescents, children, and the elderly.

Specific objectives of Ethiopia’s population policy include:

FF Reducing the total fertility rate (TFR) of 7.7 children per woman in
1990 to 4.0 by the year 2015;
FF Increasing the prevalence of contraceptive use from 4.0 percent in 1990
to 44 percent in 2015;
FF Reducing maternal, infant, and child morbidity and mortality rates, as
well as promoting the level of general welfare of the population;
FF Significantly increasing female participation at all levels of the
educational system;
FF Removing all legal and customary practices that prevent women from
the full enjoyment of economic and social rights, including the full
enjoyment of property rights and access to gainful employment;
FF Ensuring spatially balanced population distribution patterns, with a
view to maintaining environmental security and extending the scope of
development activities;
FF Improving productivity in agricultural activities and introducing off-
farm and non-agricultural activities for the purpose of employment
diversification; and
FF Mounting effective country-wide population information and program
s that address issues pertaining to small family size and its relationship
to human welfare and environmental security.

Ethiopia’s Population-Policy Strategies

The strategies by which the goals and objectives of the population policy are to
be attained include the following.
FF Expanding contraceptive distribution;

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FF Diversifying available contraceptive methods;
FF Raising the minimum age of marriage for girls from 15 years to at least
18 years;
FF Promoting breast-feeding as a means of birth-spacing;
FF Implementing career counseling services in schools;
FF Integrating women into the modern sector of the economy;
FF Amending all laws “impeding, in any way, the access of women to all
social, economic, and cultural resources”;
FF Amending relevant articles and sections of the civil code to remove
unnecessary restrictions to “advertisement, propagation and
popularization of diverse contraceptive methods”;
FF Establishing teenage and youth reproductive health counseling centers;
FF Increasing research in reproductive health; and
FF Promoting the involvement of males in family planning.

The population policy of Ethiopia acknowledges that existing reproductive health

service delivery systems are limited in scope and that choice of family planning
methods is limited. To correct these problems, it calls for an expansion of
reproductive health service delivery, currently available only through the limited
formal health structure, to clinical and community-based outreach services. It
also recommends the involvement of non-governmental organizations (NGOs)
in providing reproductive health services, including the widest possible choice
of contraceptives.

The policy also acknowledges a need to expand capacity for performing population
research and training family planning advisors. To implement these, it calls for
family planning to be integrated into the curricula of medical schools, nursing
and health assistants’ schools, junior colleges, and technical-vocational schools.

The population policy also calls for the expansion of Information, Education, and
Communication (IEC), and community involvement in achieving the goals and
objectives of the policy.

In general, the population policy covers all major ground that needs to be covered
in providing directives on the management of population growth in the interest of
sustainable development.

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Activity 4.25
Write a short essay on the following question.

What are your responsibilities and roles in the realization of Ethiopia’s population
policy?

4.9 URBANIZATION IN ETHIOPIA

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ explain the concept of urbanization; and
ÞÞ discuss the rate of urbanization and its regional variation in Ethiopia
ÞÞ compare rate of urbanization.

4.9.1 The Concept of Urbanization

What do you know about the concept of urbanization, its causes, and
consequences?

Urbanization is the process of population shifts from rural areas to cities,

and the resulting growth of urban areas. It is the process whereby large
numbers of people leave countryside/rural places and small towns in order
to settle in cities and surrounding metropolitan/urban areas. A nation is
said to have become more urbanized as its cities grow in number, its urban
populations increase in size, and the proportion of its population living in
urban areas rises.

The degree of urbanization varies throughout the world but generally reflects the
wealth of individual countries. The rich, industrialized countries tend to be the
most highly urbanized, while the poor countries tend to be the least urbanized. In
the Netherlands, for example, 89 percent of the population is urban, compared to
only 16 percent in Ethiopia.

In most developing countries, including Ethiopia, most rural migrants to the cities

have bettered themselves in comparison to their former standard of living in rural
areas. However, the rapid growth of population in urban centers of such countries
has been causing serious problems such as overcrowding, substandard housing,
homelessness, inadequate municipal services, crime, poverty, and pollution.

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 Grade 12 Geography
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Today, these characteristics mark the lives of many people in most urban centers
of the developing countries. Dealing with these conditions, especially in very
large cities like Addis Ababa, presents massive difficulties for governments.

4.9.2 Trends of Urbanization in Ethiopia

What factors are responsible for the varying trends of urbanization in Ethiopia?

As been pointed out earlier, urbanization is a recent phenomenon in Ethiopia.

It was introduced mainly after the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Factors
Contributing to Urbanization in the nation include: firstly, peoples’ need for
better living conditions this has been the major cause for the origin, growth and
development of many of the urban centers; secondly, people’s desire to come
close to clustered settlements, many rural Ethiopians have been motivated to
move and settle in urban places where there are relatively higher concentration
of social services, industries, and employment opportunities.

Focus
In the history of Ethiopia, major factors contributed to the origin and
development of most urban centers
FF The interconnection of the different parts of the country by all-
weather roads, which radiate from Addis Ababa.
FF The five-year Italian occupation, which intensified the construction
of roads, and the development of small-scale industries and service-
giving institutions.

Most urban centers of Ethiopia have developed along major transport routes,
which have attracted people to these areas. Consequently, areas with greater
transport route network have larger numbers of urban settlements, and higher
population densities.

Two main areas have relatively large concentrations of urban centers and urban
population: the Shewan and the Harerghe plateaus. Together, these regions
account for more than 50 percent of the urban population of the country. The
major reasons for this situation are:
FF Concentration of industries that results in relatively higher opportunities
for employment.

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FF Concentrations of social services and facilities, such as schools, health
institutions, water supplies, electricity, transportation, etc that result in,
relatively, better living conditions.
Levels and Distribution of Urbanization in Ethiopia
In spite of the high rate of rural-urban migration in Ethiopia, the level of
urbanization has been very low in the country. Less than 3 percent of Ethiopia’s
population lived in urban areas in the 1940s. This figure increased to about 8.5
percent in 1967 and then to 9.7 percent in 1970. The three censuses of the country
indicate that the percentage of urban population was 10.6 percent in 1984, 13.7
percent in 1994, and 16.1 percent in 2007.

Although these figures show that urbanization is increasing in Ethiopia, their

absolute values also indicate that the country’s urbanization is low, and that its
urban population is one of the smallest in the world. This indicator reflects the
country’s status as a very undeveloped nation.

2007

1994

1984

1970

1967

1940

0 5 10 15 20
1940 1967 1970 1984 1994 2007
Urban Population (%) 3 8.5 9.7 10.6 13.7 16.1

Source: OPHCC (1991), CSA, (1984, 1994, 2007 Censuses)

Figure 4.12: Trends of Urbanization (Urban Population
Growth) in Ethiopia

The other aspect of urbanization in Ethiopia is great variation in the distribution

of urban populations illustrated in Figure 4.13. According to the 2007 Census, the
urban population rate ranges from 10 percent in SNNP to 100 percent in Addis
Ababa. Despite the fact that Addis Ababa City Administration is entirely urban,
its percentage share of Ethiopia’s total urban population is only 23.1 percent. The
largest share, about 28 percent, is living in Oromiya Region. In contrast, Gambela
4.9 Urbanization In Ethiopia
 Grade 12 Geography
202
region has the smallest share of the country’s urban population, although more
than one-fourth of the region’s population lives in urban areas.

27.97
30 23.09
17.81
20 12.61
7.12 5.25
10 1.56 0.89 0.66 0.84 2.00
0

% Urban from the Country’s Total Urban Population

100
100 68.2
80 54.2
60 25.4
40 19.6 13.3 12.3 12.3 14.0 13.5 16.1
10.0
20
0

% Urban from the Regional Total Population

Figure 4.13: Regional Distribution of Urban

Population in Ethiopia Source: CSA, 2007 Census

Activity 4.26
Refer to the preceding figure to answer the following questions.
1 What are the three least urbanized regions of Ethiopia?
2 Which three regions have the smallest urban populations, as compared to the
urban population of Ethiopia as a whole? What are the reasons for the regional
variation of urban population in Ethiopia?

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U nit Review
 UNIT SUMMARY
ÞÞ Malthusian population theory is very pessimistic about population growth
and its effects, while the anti-Malthusian theories are optimistic.
ÞÞ Ethiopia is the third most populous country in Africa, with a population of
73.8 million. With a growth rate of 2.23, the country’s population is among
the fastest growing in the world.
ÞÞ In Ethiopia a high percentage of the national population is the young age
group. This is the result of high birth rate.
ÞÞ In Ethiopia, the population is unevenly distributed; this is due to various
physical and human-related factors.
ÞÞ Settlements in Ethiopia are broadly categorized as rural and urban. The
primary bases for this distinction are the dominant economic activities and
population density.
ÞÞ Population change in any country is affected by three major factors. These
factors are: fertility (births), mortality (deaths), and international migration
(movement into or out of country).
ÞÞ Ethiopia is characterized by rapid population growth, resulting from a high
level of fertility. However, fertility has been declining, moderately especially
since the late 1980s.
ÞÞ Although, in general, mortality rates have been declining in Ethiopia, as in
most countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the country still has a high mortality
rate.
ÞÞ In Ethiopia, the number of international emigrants is higher than the number
of immigrants. Within the country, there have been substantial internal
movements of people. This has been due to various reasons, including
economic, social, political and natural factors.
ÞÞ In Ethiopia, rapid population growth has brought about serious negative
impacts on the country’s socio-economic development and on its
environmental protection.
ÞÞ Similar to most of the developing countries, the type of population policy
used in Ethiopia is basically anti-natalist, promoting lowered fertility rates, in
particular, and lower population growth rates, in general.
ÞÞ In Ethiopia, urbanization is a recent phenomenon introduced mainly after
the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The country is categorized as one of
the least urbanized countries of the world. In Ethiopia, the proportion of
urban population varies greatly by region.

Unit Review
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 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT 4
I Answer TRUE or FALSE.
1 The main reason for the broad base of Ethiopia’s population pyramid is
high rate of mortality in the country.
2 Malthusian population theory believes that population growth has positive
consequences.
3 Since 1990, the TFR of Ethiopia’s population has been declining.
4 The high age dependency ratio in Ethiopia is the result of large numbers of
people in the old-age group.
5 In Ethiopia, altitude is the major factor that influences population
distribution.
II Choose the best possible answer from the alternatives provided.
6 Which of the following areas is in the most sparsely populated areas of
Ethiopia?
A Kembata D Hadiya
B Sidama E B and D
C Borena
7 Which one of the following indicators measures the total number of births
occurring in a given year, per 1000 population?
A Total Fertility Rate D Age Specific Fertility Rate
B Crude Birth Rate E Rate of Natural Increase
C General Fertility Rate
8 In Ethiopia, socio-economic conditions affect all of the following, except:
A Urbanization D Population density
B Migration E None of the above
C Age structure
9 The high rate of maternal mortality in Ethiopia is the result of:
A High educational status of women.
B High frequency of births per woman.
C Low access of women to reproductive health services.
D Early marriage
E All except “A”

Unit Review
 Unit 4: POPULATION OF ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN
205
10 Which one of the following is a push factor for the migration of many
people from rural areas to urban areas in Ethiopia?
A Poor employment D Improved housing
B Better job prospects E Improved living conditions
C Better services and facilities

III Match the items given under Column A with those under
Column B.
A B
11 Population growth leads to A Death below age 1
innovation B Rural-to-urban migration
12 Population growth leads to C Anti-natalist
catastrophes D Boserup
13 Ethiopia’s population policy E Death below age 5
14 Infant mortality F Malthus
15 Smallest proportion of G Urban-to-rural migration
internal migrants H Pro-natalist

IV Fill in the blank spaces.

16 The process of the shift of population from rural areas to cities, and the
resulting growth of urban areas is _____________ .
17 Any death that occurs during pregnancy, child birth, or within two months
after the birth or termination of a pregnancy is defined as ___________ .
18 According to the 2007 Census, the TFR of Ethiopia’s population is about
__________.
19 In the pastoralist areas of Ethiopia, population densities are __________.
20 The Ethiopian region that has the highest proportion of the nation’s
population is __________.

V Answer the following questions briefly in writing.

21 What are the two reasons for the high fertility rates in Ethiopia?
22 Why are the lowland areas of Ethiopia sparsely populated?
23 Why is the age dependency ratio of Ethiopia’s population very high?
24 What are the major goals of Ethiopia’s population policy?

Unit Review
U 5 nit

ECONOMIC GROWTH AND

DEVELOPMENT TREND IN ETHIOPIA
Unit Outcomes
After completing this unit, you will be able to:
ÞÞ realize economic growth, development trend, major features and present
socio-economic development and its indicators
ÞÞ analyze the challenges and prospects of socio-economic development
for Ethiopia
ÞÞ appreciate the economic relationships with its neighboring countries and
other continents
ÞÞ recognize plan for accelerated and sustainable development to end
poverty (PASDEP)

Main Contents
5.1 AN OVERVIEW OF GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT TREND IN ETHIOPIA
5.2 MAJOR FEATURES OF ETHIOPIAN ECONOMY
5.3 PRESENT FEATURES OF ETHIOPIAN SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
5.4 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
FOR ETHIOPIA
5.5 ECONOMIC RELATION
5.6 PASDEP (PLAN FOR ACCELERATED AND SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT TO
END POVERTY)
FF Unit Summary
FF Review Exercise
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 INTRODUCTION
As documents reveal, Ethiopia’s economy is dominantly based on agriculture: 85
percent of the population is engaged in this sector. However, the performance of
this sector had been weak until 1992. As the Ministry of Finance and Economic
Development study (2004) on sources of growth revealed, encouraging progress
had been made in recent years in improving some of the basic aspects of life
across many parts of the country.

However, the Ethiopian government states that, for the last six or seven years,
the country’s overall economy has been growing at the rate of 11% per year. This
growth rate is among the highest in the world.

While studying this unit, you will learn about the status of the Ethiopian economy
and its prospects. As part of your work, be sure to expand your knowledge by
investigating different sources of information, including books, newspapers,
radio and television.

In your Grade 10 geography lessons you studied various economic subjects,

including detailed analyses of Ethiopia’s economic sectors. The current unit
continues to consider this subject matter, while focusing on the major features of
the Ethiopian economy.

The unit begins by discussing the concepts of economic growth and economic
development. More than forty indicators are used to assess the economic
development of countries. Here, a few that are relevant to the Ethiopian situation
are outlined. The challenges to and prospects for Ethiopia’s socio-economic
development are also discussed. Ethiopia’s economic relations with neighboring
and other countries are also described. Finally, we present the objectives of
Ethiopia’s 2005-2010 Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End
Poverty (PASDEP).

Introduction
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5.1 AN OVERVIEW OF GROWTH AND
DEVELOPMENT TREND IN ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ discuss trends of economic growth and development in Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Economic growth ³³ Sustained development
³³ Economic development ³³ Poverty trap
³³ Linkages between sectors ³³ Duty-free
³³ Indicators of development ³³ Quota-free
³³ Accelerated development

Start-Up Activity
Answer the following questions.
What do you understand by the term economic growth? Does it mean the same thing
as economic development? Or are they different?

Economic growth and development are not the same. They have two different
meanings. Growth is the quantitative accumulation of the national capital. It is
simply a change in output regardless of cultural, political, economic and other
improvements.

Development is far more complex than growth. Development is a process

involving economic as well as social and environmental changes. It involves
higher per capita income, equitable education, and job opportunities, greater
gender equality, better health and nutrition, cleaner, more sustainable natural
environment, a more impartial judicial and legal system, broader civil and
political freedoms, and richer cultural life.

Development is also the qualitative transformation of a whole society, a shift

to new ways of thinking, and corresponding new relations and new methods of
production. Moreover, transformation only qualifies as development if it benefits
most people – improves their quality of life and gives them more control over
their destinies. This comprehensive process of change has to involve most of the
population and cannot be limited to modernization at the top or in the capital city.

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Development must be inclusive of future generations and the earth they will
inherit. According to the UN Commission on Environment and Development
(1987) “sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the
present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs”. It must engage in people, for without their participation, no strategy can
succeed for long.

The term trend refers to a general tendency, movement or direction. So, in the
economy of a country, the trend may be upward, downward or stagnating.

Activity 5.1
Form two or more groups (depending on the class size and access to the desired
information) and share tasks. Let a certain group search information/data from the
local concerned offices and another group reconcile the achievement made in the
surroundings. Finally report to the class and make discussion.

According to official sources, the economy of Ethiopia shows a forward tendency

with a growing rate of 11% per annum and is projected has been growing at a rate
of 11% and is projected to increase in the coming 5 years.

When we refer to our topic, Economic Growth and Development Trend in

Ethiopia, there has been an encouraging trend since 1996. This fact has been
released by Welfare Monitoring surveys as follows.
FF In rural areas, the literacy rate increased from 18% in 1995/96 to 31%
in 2004/05.
FF At country level, gross enrollment ratio at primary grades level has
increased from 37.4% in 1996 to 79.8 in 2004/05. Although still
relatively high, primary dropouts in rural areas declined from 18.5%
in 1996 to 13.6% in 2004 at secondary level from 29.3% to 16.5%. The
proportion of households that are very far away from schools. i.e., 10
km in the case of primary school) has fallen substantially.
FF The proportion of rural population living more than 20 km from a health
facility has fallen from 20% of household, in 1996 to 13% in 2004.

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FF A consistent decline in malnutrition over time is being shown in both
rural and urban area. The rate in urban areas fell from 58% in 1996 to
30% in 2004; and in rural areas fell from 67% to 48%.
FF About 92% of rural households are less than 5 kms away from the
closest source of drinking water while it is much better in urban area.
More than 82% could get access to drinking water in less than one-
kilometer distance.
FF About 42% of rural households are now less than five kilometers away
from the closest all-weather road. The trend over time also indicates
that availability of all-weather roads within five kilometer radius has
been increasing etc.

In general, Ethiopia has started to have an economic growth at an average 11%,

which is appreciable. PASDEP has contributed much to enhance all the achievements
made for the last five years, the new Growth and Transformation Program (2010-
15) will promote and lead to increased success within the coming five years.

Activity 5.2
Perform the following tasks:
1 Using an atlas, locate the continents that are considered developed and those
considered to be developing.
2 List at least five countries from each of the above two groups.

 Exercise 5.1
Short answer questions.
1 Give examples that express economic growth.
2 Describe aspects that explain or show economic development for one
country that has experienced it, and then for another country that has not.

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5.2 MAJOR FEATURES OF ETHIOPIAN
ECONOMY
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ characterize the major features of the Ethiopian economy; and
ÞÞ describe links between different economic sectors of Ethiopia.

Key Terms
³³ Cash crops ³³ GNP
³³ Industrial crops ³³ Backward-linkage
³³ GDP ³³ Foreward-linkage

How can you characterize the main features of Ethiopian economy?

The nature, performance, and growth of each sector were discussed in detail.
Here in this unit, only their basic features are given as we examine the main
characteristics of Ethiopia’s economy. Try to integrate the information between
the two units.

This section highlights the major sectors of the Ethiopian economy:

FF agricultural
FF industrial
FF distributed (service)

The agricultural sector, which is the dominant sector in many aspects, has
performed unsatisfactorily for the last forty or fifty years due to multifaceted
determining factors. Although various developmental strategies have been
adopted since the early 1960s, their performance has been low. Even in the fiscal
years of and 2002/03, 2003/04, 2004/05, 2005/06, 2006/07, 2007/08, the GDP
share of agriculture was 44.9%, 47%, 47.4%, 47.2%, 46.3%, 44.6%, respectively.
This apparent decline was due to problems of weather changes, is the main factor
on which Ethiopian agriculture depends. However, reforms instituted after 2002
have promoted the sector significantly.

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Table 5.1: Sector share in GDP

Share in GDP (%)

Fiscal year Sector
2005/06 2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10

Agriculture and allied activities 47.0 46.0 44.6 43 42

Industry 13.0 13.0 13.0 13 13
Service/distributive sector 40 41.0 43.4 45 46
GDP 100 100 100 101 101

Source: Ethiopia APRM Report

Agriculture’s main products are food crops, cash crops, industrial crops, fruits
and vegetables, flowers, and animal products.

Agriculture had been the leading sector followed by the service sector until
2007/08. But, after 2008/09, the service sector emerged as the dominate/leading
sector mainly due to the natural factors and economic factors. One of the lower
capital and space required at the initial period.

Table 5.2: Service sub-sector growth performance

Growth Performance
Sub-sectors
2006/07 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10
Trade, hotels and restaurants 27.5 23.3 23.9 24.1

Transport and communication 9.3 11.5 8.9 13.8

Banking and insurance 15.1 28.1 16.5 13.7

Public administration and finance 11.8 12.5 18.4 3.4

Education 21.2 14.8 13.0 17.0

Health 15.8 15.5 19.3 8.3

Source: MOFED

Among the various service sub-sectors, trade, hotels and restaurants had
remarkable overall growth spanning the years shown in Table 5.2. Banking and
insurance follows showing an average growth rate performance of 18.5 percent
from 2006/07 through 2009/10. Education ranks third with an average growth
rate of 16.5 percent.

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The industrial sector ranked third in its contribution to Ethiopia’s GDP. Its growth
was small (13.0%) in comparison to that of the agriculture and service sectors.
This could be attributed to the short history of industrialization in the country. Its
growth has been modest, not exceeding 7 percent for the last four decades, except
during the years 1997/98 to 2009/10.

The industrial sector consists mainly of large and medium-size industries, small-
scale and handicraft manufacturing, and the construction sub-sector.
Table 5.3: Growth performance of the industrial sub-sectors
Growth performance (%)
2001/02

2007/08

2008/09

2009/10
Sector/Sub-sector
Industry (total) 8.3 10.1 9.7 10.6
Mining and Quarrying 10.5 21.4 12.8 44.2
Large-scale and medium-scale
0.2 12.6 10.3 11.4
industries
Small-scale and handicraft 3.2 5.6 6.4 66
industries
Electricity and water 9.7 4.8 5.0 5.1
Construction 16.2 11.3 11.7 10.9
Source: MOFED (2010)

The industrial sector employs about 10 percent of the country’s active labor force.
The main products include textiles, food stuffs, beverages, cement, leather and
leather products, metallic and non-metallic products, wood, and paper and pulp.

Among the industrial sub-sectors, mining and quarrying has shown a tremendous
growth performance accounting 44.2 percent of the industrial sector’s growth
performance. It is followed by large and medium-size manufacturing’s and
construction.

Regarding the links between the various economic sectors, the forward
and backward linkages between agriculture and industry have not been very
strong. However, recent development programs launched in 2002 and later
have practiced the country’s industrialization process should rely. This is why
5.2 Major Features Of Ethiopian Economy
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the current government adopted the developmental strategy called Agricultural
Development-Led Industrialization (ADLI).

ADLI’s top-level goals are to ensure:

FF economic growth through a rural-center development strategy
FF improved living standards for rural and urban dwellers
FF effective education services
FF expansion of preventive and primary health care facilities

Table 5.4 shows the growth performance of all of Ethiopia’s economic sectors
from 2000/01 through 2009/10. The service sector had the greatest growth,
followed by agriculture.

Table 5.4: Growth performance, by sector (%)

Fiscal years
2000/01 2007/08 2008/09 2009/10
Sector

Agriculture and allied activities 1.9 7.5 6.4 7.9

Industry 8.3 10.1 9.7 10.6

Service sector 3.3 16.0 14.0 13.0

Total GDP 1.3 11.4 10.1 10.4

Source: MOFED

Activity 5.3
In your geography workgroup, perform the following activities:
1 Assess the performances and roles of each economic activity performed in
your area.
2 Define and describe your locality’s economic sectors.
3 Classify each economic activity as belonging to one of the major sectors.
4 Discuss whether and how the sectors are linked. If you decide that any are
unlinked, attempt to discover the reasons.
5 You can present your ideas or opinions through your elected representative.

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 Exercise 5.2
1 List the economic sectors of Ethiopia by rank depending on their
contribution to the country’s GDP.
2 List the industrial sub-section by rank, depending on their growth
performance from 1999-2005.
3 Suggest why industrialization has a relatively lower status in its contribution
to Ethiopias’s GDP.
4 Suggest the possible ways to promote industrialization in Ethiopia.

5.3 PRESENT FEATURES OF ETHIOPIAN

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
After completing this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ reflect links between different economic sectors of Ethiopia;
ÞÞ generalize the present features of Ethiopian socio-economic development;
and
ÞÞ analyze indicators of development in the Ethiopian context.

Key Terms
³³ Expected life expectancy ³³ Range areas/lands
³³ Sustainable development ³³ Spacing of births
³³ PRP
What does the present socio-economic feature of Ethiopia look like?

There are various indicators of development employed to compare the level of

development countries or regions. The following are widely/frequently used in
the Ethiopian context.
FF GDP or GNP (Gross Domestic Product/Gross National Product) per
capita.
FF Illiteracy rate
FF Infant mortality rate
FF Expected life expectancy
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FF Population growth rate
FF Percentage of population who have access to clean water
FF Level of infrastructural development, etc.

Based on the above indicators, Ethiopia’s present socio-economic features are

treated as follows.
1 GDP per capita: It is believed that Ethiopia’s GDP per capita is one of
the lowest in the world. PASDEP’s target has achieved a growth rate of
Ethiopia’s GDP per capita status will join the middle in group countries
with in the coming five years (2010-2015). The current status of Ethiopia’s
GDP per capita is estimated to be US $344 per annum (source: wikipedia,
the free encyclopedia).
2 Literacy rate: Like many of the less developed countries, the illiteracy
rate in Ethiopia has been high. The literacy campaign that had under taken
before 1991 contributed much to the ongoing task to eradicate illiteracy.
Since 1996, the illiteracy rate has decreased by 50%. Welfare Monitoring
Surveys Undertaken so far exhibits a sharp rise in gross school enrollment
that considerably confirm the decline of illiteracy rate in the country.
The current literacy rate of Ethiopia is said to be 42.7% in the year 2009
(Source: wikipedia, the free encyclopedia).
3 Infant Mortality Rate: Like in many developing countries, IMR in
Ethiopia has been high. The UNDP 1997 census reveal that Ethiopia’s
infant mortality rate was 111/000 which even above the average of sub-
sharan countries (97/1000). The recent development strategies adopted to
achieve growth and sustained development, has target to lower down the
IMR to 47/1000 with in the coming five years.
4 Expected life expectancy: the life expectancy of any country is the
reflection of varied social, economic, psychological and other factors.
In most developing countries life expectancy does not exceed 55 years.
Likewise, in Ethiopia, it was 43 about ten years ago due to the prevalence
of HIV impacts. The recent strategies adopted both in the primary health
care services and supply of HIV/AIDS medicines extensively, the expected
life expectancy in Ethiopia has reached to 55.8 years in 2009/10.
5 Population growth rate: Rapid population growth with an average rate per
annum has been one of the many threats to Ethiopia’s development pace.
Estimates or surveys reveal that 38,000 people are added to the population
each week incurring high costs of providing additional services. Addressing

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this issue GTP the continuation of PASDEP has designed to slow the rapid
population growth by applying spacing of births through health service
institutions and extension package services
6 Percentage of population with access to clean water: for many decades
lack of access to clean water has been our peoples serious problem. Most
illness caused both in urban and rural areas are related to unsafe water.
7 Based on the surveys made by a welfare monitoring organization, a greater
proportion of rural population had been very far away from sources of
drinkable water. Mothers and daughters were travelling long distances to
fetch for water. By this; 32% of rural people get their water from unclean
rivers and lakes and about 42% from unprotected well or spring. Only 14%
used a protected water/well and 10% had access to a public tap water. In
the last ten years, the establishment and rehabilitation of water supplies in
rural and urban areas have been changing the picture.
8 Level of infrastructural development: This indicator of development
includes a vaguely of elements that promote the living standard of people.
In our context; we here by examine the road networks, electric power
supply, rehabilitation/ resettlement of pastoralists, access to health services
and strengthen the urban-rural link.
In the last ten years under PRP (Poverty Reduction Programme), SDPRP
(Sustainable Development for Poverty Reduction Programme) and PASDEP
(Plan of Action for Sustained Development to End Poverty), significant measures
have been made to change the picture and attain the millennium development
goals. This is expressible by the:
FF Expansion of the road network with a target of constructing almost
20,000 kms of new road by 2010 (90% them in rural areas)
FF Expansion of construction works for 514 towns and rehabhitation
works for 228 towns to improve the living condition for the urban poor.
FF Access to health services improving. The proportion of population
living more than 20 km from a health facility has fallen from 20% of
households in 1996 to 13% in 2000. Over half the rural population is
now less than 10 km from either a health post or clinic.
FF Electricity use is concentrated almost entirely in urban area. According
to surveys, 989 percent of rural households and 24 percent of urban
households do not use electricity. This situation has changed by
reducing the problem by 17% in the year 2004/05. The target is to lower
the problem by 50% in the year 2009/10.
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FF A special effort is under way to change the lives of the pastoralists
who depend on grazing herds of cattle, camels and goats. These people
are concentrated mostly in the dry lowland areas of Afar and Somali
regions. In education, a network of informal community-based schools
and teaching arrangements are being made. Special programs with
improved veterinary services, marketing and early warning systems are
under process. Water points adjacent to range areas for dry season
utilization and small scale irrigation projects are underway.

Activity 5.4
Organize a data or information collecting group. Let the group list the various
infrastructural projects accomplished in your area. Attempt to describe how much
these projects will help to change the living condition of the people. The group has to
report to the class. The class has to discuss and comment on the report.

 Exercise 5.3
1 What is the basic difference between GDP and GNP?
2 Explain the relationship between life expectancy on one hand and different
socio-economic factors on the other hand.
3 Identify the current strategic measures underway to improve the pastoralists.

5.4 CHALLENGES AND PROSPECTS OF

SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT FOR
ETHIOPIA
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ state the challenges to and prospects for Ethiopia’s socio-economic
development.

Key Terms
³³ Poverty ³³ Poverty-line
³³ Poverty-trap ³³ Land-fragmentation

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The preceding section defined and distinguished between economic growth and
development. Can you think of some of the economic developments achieved in
your area?

The ultimate goal of all economic planning and execution is growth followed
by development. Achieving economic development has been a serious issue in
many countries, especially in the developing countries. Different programs and
strategies have been adopted and pursued, but often their goals have not been
achieved or else have not been sustained. This has been the case in our country
since the early 1960s.

5.4.1 Challenges to Ethiopia’s Socio-

Economic Development
What are Ethiopia’s challenges to achieve development?

For about half a century, successive Ethiopian governments have launched

economic development programs to reduce, if not to end, poverty. However,
income poverty is widespread. Some 31 million people live below the poverty
line, and between 6 and 13 million people are at risk of starvation every year.
Also many people lack consumption access – which means that they are unable
to purchase basic necessities, often for extended periods of time.

Despite improvements in the past few years, sustainable long-term growth

remains a challenge. For example, the full potential of the most basic sector -
agriculture - has not yet been realized. Our overall growth performance has not
yielded the hoped-for reduction in poverty.

The different factors hindering Ethiopia’s progress (challenges) are interconnected

and in combination constitute a “poverty trap” that prevents the country from
breaking out of poverty. These factors are:
FF Rapid population growth and the concomitant addition of 2 million
persons per year is a major barrier to poverty reduction. For instance,
this growth puts tremendous strains on Ethiopia’s resource base and the
government’s ability to deliver services.
FF Land-fragmentation: more than 50% of Ethiopia’s small land holders
have less than 2 hectares, which deters the use of modern agricultural
input and large-scale farming techniques.
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FF Environmental degradation has caused frequent droughts.
FF Very low productivity
FF Low income
FF Low levels of investment
FF Dependence on unreliable rainfall
FF Structural bottlenecks
FF Lack of good governance and commitment to accomplishing tasks
FF Low infrastructure coverage: although there have been significant
improvements during the past 10 years, the level of infrastructure
coverage remains remarkably low when compared to elsewhere in the
world, as shown in the Table 5.5.

Table 5.5: Distribution of main indicators of infrastructure availability

Access to Road Electrical Telephone

improved density, 1999 power, 2001 lines, 2002
water (% of (km/1000 (kw per- (per 1,000
population) people) capita) persons)
Ethiopia 24% 0.48 8 5
Average for
Developing 79% 0.14 272 100
countries
Sub-Sahara
58% 0.07 105 15
Africa
Low-income
76% 0.18 NA 28
countries

5.4.2 Prospects for Ethiopia’s Socio-

Economic Development
What prospects for socio-economic development do you see for Ethiopia?

There has been encouraging progress in recent years in improving some basic
aspects of life in Ethiopia. Since 1996, the literacy rate has increased by 50%, the
rate of malnutrition has fallen by 20%, the share of the population with access to
clean water has risen to 38% and there has been a steady decline in the reported
incidence of illness. Nonetheless, human development indicators in Ethiopia still
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remain at low levels compared with global indicators. For example, Ethiopia’s
maternal mortality, is 673 per 100,000, in 2005/06, which is the highest in the
world.

The way to overcome these challenges is to sustain the economic growth achieved
in the last few years. Maintaining the priority of such growth is essential to finally
having a lasting impact on poverty. This growth process is also essential for
financing the necessary social investment for human development.

Estimates show that a growth rate of about 8% per annum would have to be
sustained to reach the Millennium Development Goal (MDG). This rate would
require a great deal of revenue. Existing revenues are insufficient for financing
the proposed MDG growth in essential health, education, infrastructure and other
services. Therefore, the government requires a massive increase in tax revenue
(particularly from the unproductive consumption sector) to achieve the required
economic growth of about 6 to 8% per year that is required for meeting the goals
of the Growth and Transformation Programme (GTP) period (2010-2015).

Furthermore, Ethiopia’s strategy must be based on its most abundant resources:

labor and the country’s favorable climate (for instance for flowers and other
crops).

In sum, progress is needed on every possible front including:

FF proper utilization of agricultural potential;
FF much more rapid development of the modern sector;
FF exploitation of niche markets and opportunities wherever they present
themselves;
FF expansion of exports: in particular, diversifying exportable items to
widen the economic base, reduce susceptibility to shocks and, in the
long term, to reduce the prevailing dependency on foreign aid;
FF promotion of better links between markets and producers to enable
business to take place and to allow people easier access to essential
services;
FF promotion of capacity building regarding the work force’s education
and skills.

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FF slowing the existing rapid population growth; and
FF proper utilization of the potential of Ethiopia’s women, who constitute
about 48.9 percent of the population.

Activity 5.5
Make a thorough assessment of the challenges to economic growth and development
in your area. What are the major challenges? For example, is it unemployment? Low
productivity? Drought? What else? Then, predict the possible prospects for overcoming
the challenges. If there are self-help institutions or associations in your area, discuss
how they could be used. Also, invite guest speakers to conduct discussions with your
class.

 Exercise 5.4
1 State the domino-effects of rapid population growth.
2 What are the advantages of diversifying exportable items?
3 Explain briefly what capacity building mean to education.
4 How much growth rate is the estimate fore-warded to reach the Millennium
Development Goals?

5.5 ECONOMIC RELATION

At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ appreciate Ethiopia’s economic relations with other countries.

Key Terms
³³ Exports ³³ Duty-free
³³ Imports ³³ Quota-free

Why do countries establish economic relationships? Does any country in the

world independently meet all the needs and wants of its nation?

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Many geographical and political factors drive countries to establish economic
relationships with other countries, including:
FF geographic factors, such as physiographic variation, that result in
product variation.
FF political factors such as political affiliations due to temporary or
permanent common interests.
FF economic factors such as comparative advantages.
Ethiopia’s economic relationships are greatly affected by factors such as those.
As a result, the nation has economic relationships with:
FF neighboring countries,
FF other countries.

5.5.1 Ethiopia’s Economic Relationships

with Neighboring Countries
Ethiopia has these relationships with its neighbors:
FF Ethiopia has a long-standing economic relationship with the Republic
of Djibouti.
FF The Sudan has started a good economic relationship with Ethiopia by
providing petroleum. It is hoped that this relationship will strengthen in
the future.
FF Due to the political instability prevailing in Somalia, economic
relationships are minor.

5.5.2 Ethiopia’s Economic Relationships

with Countries Other than its
Neighbors
The same factors that govern Ethiopia’s economic relationships with neighboring
countries affect its relationships with other countries. In addition, the nature
of Ethiopia’s export and import items as well as its trade policy and strategy
influence the economic relationships that the nation establishes with distant
countries. Another factor is Ethiopia’s advantageous geographical proximity to
countries of the Middle East, the Gulf, and Europe.
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 Grade 12 Geography
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Exports
For decades, Ethiopia has had substantial economic relationships with Western
Europe, the Far East and North America. Due to the economic reforms of 1993
and later periods, Ethiopian trade with these regions has grown, and its export
destinations have widened to include other regions such as Central America .
This expansion has led to greater earnings in foreign capital.

For instance, the relatively new business of exporting cut flowers has created a
major export commodity and has opened new markets for Ethiopia and brought
in significant foreign earnings.

Regarding Ethiopia’s export distribution in world regions, Europe was the leading
export destination in the year 2006/07, taking 40.8% of the total value, and was
followed by Asia, Africa and North and Central America, accounting for 33.5%,
15.5% and 5.8%, respectively.

In terms of individual trade-partner countries, the export major destinations for

2005 were:
FF Germany 13.3%
FF China 9.1%
FF Japan 7.3%
FF Saudi Arabia 6%
FF Djibouti 5.9%
FF Italy 5%
FF USA 4.7%

Germany was the single most important destination for Ethiopian exports between
2004 and 2006.

Imports
According to the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Ethiopia’s most important sources
of imports in 2004/05 were the Middle East and Asia which, in combination,
accounted for 57.5%. Next was Europe, at 23.1%. The third and fourth places
were taken by North America and Africa.

5.5 Economic Relation

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As for the individual trading partners,
FF Saudi Arabia’s share was 9.5% in 2003 and 15.7% in 2005.
FF China’s share was around 9.6% in 2003 and 12.7% in 2007.

In general, Saudi Arabia and China are the two most important sources of imports
for Ethiopia in recent years. The increase shown above in China’s share resulted
when China became a major source of lower-cost consumer goods and other
basic manufactured items.

Duty-Free and Quota-Free Market-Access

Opportunities
In the context of the World Trade Organization (WTO), Ethiopia, which is one
of the developing countries, is expected to benefit from duty-free and quota-free
market-access opportunities. For example, the People’s Republic of China has
granted almost all Ethiopian export products duty-free access to its markets.

Such opportunities will broaden Ethiopia’s economic relationships and connect

our nation with additional countries. This process will be facilitated by Ethiopia’s
advantageous geographical proximities to the Middle East, Gulf countries and
European countries.

Activity 5.6
Considering the geographical advantages Ethiopia has over its neighboring countries,
identify the most promising exportable items to the Middle East and Gulf countries.

 Exercise 5.5
1 Which neighboring country of Ethiopia is a good trade partner? (In the
sphere of recovering its exports).
2 Which European country takes the largest share of Ethiopians export?
3 States the most probable prospective trade regions or areas to Ethiopia’s
agricultural exports.

5.5 Economic Relation

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5.6 PASDEP (PLAN FOR ACCELERATED AND
SUSTAINED DEVELOPMENT TO END
POVERTY)
At the end of this section, you will be able to:
ÞÞ be interested in PASDEP.

Key Terms
³³ Growth and Transformation programme
³³ Massive push to accelerated growth
Does Ethiopia have a long history of adopting National Development plan?
What are the core objectives of National Development plans?
Since the early 1960s, various development plans have been designed in Ethiopia
to alleviate poverty. However, due to factors such as wrong structural adjustments
and frequent weather shocks, the country has not been able to come out of its
“poverty trap”.

The National Development Plans that were developed under the Monarchy and
under the Military Regime were unable to improve the lives of most Ethiopian
people, particularly the peasantry.

The EPRDF government initiated a five-year development program during its

first year’s rule (1992-1993). Later, it defined successive additional five-year
development plans to achieve sustainable growth. These are
FF Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction Programme (SDPRP)
– 2000-2004.
FF Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Developments to End Poverty –
2005-2010 (PASDEP)
FF Growth and Transformation Programme – 2010-2015 (GTP).
We shall now consider PASDEP, examining it as a good example of Ethiopia’s
current approach to economic and social development.

What is PASDEP?
PASDEP is a document that describes the Plan for Accelerated and Sustained
Development to End Poverty. It was Ethiopia’s guiding strategic framework for
5.6 Pasdep (plan For Accelerated And Sustained Development To End Poverty)
 Unit 5: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT TREND IN ETHIOPIA
227
the five-year period of 2005 – 2010. It represents the second phase of SDPRP,
which covered 2001 – 2004, and it is the link to GTP, which was designed for
2010 – 2015.

PASDEP carries forward important SDPRP strategies related to:

FF human development
FF rural development
FF food security
FF capacity building
GTP also addresses these and other socio-economic issues.

Unfortunately, during its 5-year period, PASDEP was affected by a number of

external and internal shocks including:
FF less support than expected offered by donors
FF poor rainfall
FF the global financial crises that began in 2008/2009 and swept the whole
world
The PASDEP process benefited from two round consultations with civil society,
non-government actors, and partners. The strategy was also supported by a
number of background papers and studies prepared by government ministries and
independent Ethiopian experts. The strategy’s bases included the MDGs Needs
Assessment for Ethiopia.

The PASDEP Strategy

During the PASDEP period, Ethiopia continued to follow the important
initiatives adopted under SDPRP (expanding education and strengthening health
services, capacity building, decentralization, and the food security program).
It also continued to pursue the strategy of ADLI (Agricultural Development-
Led Industrialization) but made important enhancements to intensify and
commercialize the small-land-holding agricultural sub-sector.

The PASDEP program was based on these nine activities:

1 A massive push to accelerate growth. This strategy had two main thrusts:
i Commercialization of agriculture, and
ii Promoting much moral rapid non-farm private sector.
2 A more differentiated approach to agriculture, focusing on Ethiopia’s very
different agro-ecological area.

5.6 Pasdep (plan For Accelerated And Sustained Development To End Poverty)
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3 A renewed look at several-urban linkages and the urban agenda.
4 Addressing the population challenge by implementing the existing national
population strategy and making services available for spacing births.
5 Unleashing the potential of Ethiopia’s women. The goals were:
i increasing the number of girls who complete their schooling
ii improving women’s health
iii liberating girls’ and women’s time from the unproductive hours spent
fetching water supplies.
iv improving several telephone services
6 Strengthening the infrastructure’s backbone – the road network, water
supply, electric power supply, etc.
7 Managing risk and volatility. The goals were:
i reducing repeated households cycles in and out of poverty that result
from crop failure and major illness.
ii reducing the impact of shocks on public finances and government
programs
8 Intensive efforts to reach the MDGs. This goal included a major effort
between the government of Ethiopia and its foreign-aid partners.
9 Creating jobs. In Ethiopia, especially in urban areas, unemployment is a
serious challenge. The goals were:
i managing the dynamics of population growth
ii expanding labor-intensive production activities

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 Unit 5: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT TREND IN ETHIOPIA
229

U

nit Review
UNIT SUMMARY
ÞÞ The two economic concepts – growth and development are not the same
in scope and essence.
ÞÞ Economic development is more complex. In addition to the present socio-
economic situations, it considers the benefit of the future generation.
ÞÞ The major economic features of Ethiopia are characterized by the
agriculture, industry and service sectors. The agricultural sector leads the
other sectors in its contribution to GDP, export earnings, labour employment,
etc.
ÞÞ Although the agricultural sector has relatively better forward linkage with
the industrial sector by supplying raw materials, the forward linkage is small.
ÞÞ The present features of Ethiopia’s socio-economic development has been
showing an encouraging progress since 1992. Growth in the various sectors
is being achieved. The service sector is exhibiting a dynamic change when
compared to the other two sectors.
ÞÞ Although these changes are achieved, attaining sustainable growth and
an end to poverty is a challenge. Various and consecutive but inter–
related development policies and strategies are in process to meet the
challenges. For example,
ÞÞ Sustainable Development and Poverty Reduction program (2000 – 2004)
ÞÞ Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development to End Poverty (2005
–2010)
ÞÞ Growth and Transformation Program (2010 – 2015)
ÞÞ Ethiopia’s economic relationships with neighboring and other countries
developed over time. Because the existing political situations in most of the
neighboring countries, its trade relationships with other counties is strong.
ÞÞ The targets set by PASDEP appear to be sound. Remarkable achievements
are being seen in the expansion of roads, schools, energy supply plants,
export earnings, etc.

Unit Review
 Grade 12 Geography
230
 REVIEW EXERCISE FOR UNIT 5
I Indicate whether each statement is True or False.
1 Compared to economic development, economic growth is a wider and more
multifaceted concept.
2 Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present
generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to
meet their own needs.
3 Among Ethiopia’s economic sectors, the service/distributive sector has
shown the highest growth performance.
4 The top-level goal of ADLI is to ensure economic growth through an urban-
centered development strategy.
5 The full potential of Ethiopia’s resources related to agriculture have not yet
been utilized.

II Match the Items under Column A with those of B.

A B
6 Poverty trap A The inter-related socio-economic
7 Labor and diversified factors that hinder Ethiopia’s progress.
agro-climatic zones B A development strategy that covered the
8 SDPRP period 2002-2004.

9 WTO C The recent development strategy and

policy that was adopted for 2010-2015
10 GTP
D An international economic organization
that promotes trade between the
developed and developing countries
through loose tariff protection.
E Features to be utilized for the socio-
economic development of Ethiopia.

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 Unit 5: ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT TREND IN ETHIOPIA
231
III Choose the best answer among the suggested alternatives.
11 Which sub-sector of the service/distributive sector showed the best growth
performance during the fiscal year 2005/2006?
A Hotels and restaurants
B Banking and insurance
C Education
D Transport and communication
12 The development program and strategy that was launched in 2002 to
improve the economy of Ethiopia sought to overcome
A Rapid population growth
B Unexpected weather changes
C Low levels of infrastructure
D Diversified climatic zones
13 All are the challenges to Ethiopia’s socio-economic development except
A Rapid population growth
B Unexpected weather changes
C Low level of infrastructure
D Diversified climatic zones
14 Which one of the following might facilitate Ethiopia’s socio-economic
development?
A expansion of exports by diversifying exportable items
B slowing down the existing rapid population growth
C utilizing the potential of Ethiopia’s women
D all of the above
15 Which country has been the single most important destination for Ethiopia’s
exports?
A England
B Japan
C Germany
D USA

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16 The two most important sources of Ethiopian imports in recent years have
been
A England and Germany
B Saudi Arabia and China
C Djibouti and Egypt
D China and Japan
17 The external factor (s) that negatively affected PASDEP was/were
A the poor rainfall experienced in 2005/06
B the global financial crises of 2008/09
C less support than expected offered by foreign donors
D B and C

IV Give short answers.

18 List the major export and imports of Ethiopia in order of importance.
19 Attempt to explain the major problems that have hindered agricultural
development in Ethiopia.
20 Compare and contrast the developmental strategies adopted in Ethiopia
before and after 1991.

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Glossary
Absolute location - the location of places with reference to longitudes and
latitudes
Accelerated development - Development trend achievable within a short
period of time.
Action research - A type of research that deals with the existing problem to be
solved.
Afro-alpine - A natural vegetation that grows at altitudes above 3300 meters.
Age dependency ratio - the ratio between working age and non-working age
populations.
Age structure - the pattern that results from the distribution of population into
different age categories.
Altitude - Height above sea level.
Anthropogenic boundary - It is not a naturally made boundary by rivers,
mountains, etc. It is human-made, based on cultural features.
Azimuthal - map projection that maintains accuracy of direction.
Backward linkage - It refers to the linkage the industrial sectors extend to the
agricultural sector.
Bibliography - A list of alphabetized names of authors whose works are used as
secondary sources or references during the research work.
Cash crop - a crop produced mainly for sale
Census - a periodic counting of a population, in which certain facts about age,
sex, occupation, and the like are recorded.
Chorochromatic maps - Qualitative maps in which different shades of colours
and symbolic letters are used to show distributions.
Choroplethic maps - Quantitative maps that use different densities of shades in
a single colour. They are suitable for representing data that are in the form
of indices such as population density rather than in the form of absolute
numbers.
Choroschematic maps - Qualitative maps in which different pictures are used
to show distributions.
Compact - nearly circular.
Data - Geographical information that is collected by field work or from
secondary sources.
Data analysis - It is a comment on what the data shows, looking to identify
the most important features and key patterns, and recognizing their
significance.

Glossary
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Deforestation - the process of indiscriminate destruction of the natural vegetation
cover of an area without adequate replacement.
Demography - the scientific study of how births, deaths, and migration affect
the composition, size, and distribution of populations.
Dependent variable - a variable determined by the main variable.
Duty-free - Free from taxation.
Economic development - a complex process of development involving the
social, cultural, economic and political aspects of citizens.
Economic growth - the quantitative accumulation of national products/wealth.
Elongated - tappering either east-west or north-south direction.
Endemic- native/not found elsewhere.
Endogenic force - Internal force (Example: volcanism and tectonic).
Epeirogenic movement - A tectonic movement that results in either the uplifting
or sinking of surfaces.
Epoch - Next-smaller division of geological time after Period.
Equal area projection - A projection that maintains relative size accurately.
Era - second largest division of geological time characterized by differences in
life forms (Example: Paleozoic era - an era of amphibians, Mesozoic era
- an era of reptiles).
Forward linkage - the linkage extended from the source sector to the receiving
sector (Example: Agriculture to industry).
Geological location - A variant of relative location that considers global or semi-
global areal extents (Example: the location of Ethiopia with reference to
the middle East, etc).
Geology - A branch of natural science that studies the composition and
structure of rock.
GIS (Geographic Information System) - A computer - based system that records,
stores and analyses information about features of the earth’s surface.
Humus - Dark-colored, decayed organic matter that supplies nutrients to soils
and then to plants.
Hypothesis - A statement about what we expect to find before we make the
actual investigation. It can be tested or proved to see whether it is correct
or not.
Independent variable - A determining variable.
Indicators of developments - Factors/elements that show the achievement of
development (Example: GNP per-capital, life expectancy, etc)

Glossary
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Industrial crops - crops that serve as raw materials for manufacture (Example:
cotton, tea, tobacco, etc.)
Infant mortality rate - the number of deaths among infants under one year of
age per 1,000 live births in a given year.
Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone - It is a low-pressure zone created within the
tropic due to the occurrence of the overhead sun and convergence of
northeasterlies and Equatorial Westerlies.
Interview - Asking people questions in order to get the required information for
the research work. It is usually conducted on a one-to-one basis.
Landscape - landform.
Latitude - Angular distance of places north and south of the equator.
Leaching - Removal of minerals that have been dissolved in water.
Life expectancy - the life span expected when one is born or at birth.
Mapprojection - is a technique or device that cartographers use to transfer
information from a globe onto a flat surface.
Meridians - are lines drawn from north to south and from east to west of the zero
degree longitude.
Model - Artificially designed simulation to represent an organization or function
of the real world.
Mortality rate - the relative frequency of deaths among members of a population
segment.
Orogenic movement - A tectonic movement that is horizontal and results in the
formation of folding.
Orthomorphic-projections - are equal area map projections that maintain
accurate relative sizes.
Over-cultivation - continuous ploughing a given farm land without fallowing or
rotating crops.
Over-grazing - keeping too many cattle over a given grazing land.
Parallels - are lines drawn from east to west. They are lines of latitudes.
Parent Material - a material from which others are derived or obtained.
Period - third longest division of geological time, subdivided by epochs
Policy - A guide line document of rules and principles to achieve a defined
goal.
Pollution - damage to the environment caused by waste levels that overload
natural recycling systems or by synthetic materials that cannot be broken
down by natural processes.

Glossary
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Population density - the average number of people per square kilometer area.
Population distribution - the proportions of people in the world, countries,
provinces, regions, cities, etc
Population policy - a policy designed to control and plan population growth
based on the socio-economic and political conditions of a country.
Population pyramid - a graphic representation of the age and sex structure of
a given population.
Positive checks - the catastrophes (such as poverty, famine, war, diseases, etc)
proposed by Malthus as consequences and controls of fast population
growth.
Poverty line - demarcated income level to show the degree of poverty
(Example: US $ 2 per day is said to be a poverty line).
Poverty trap - A trap/circumstance that countries cannot break of out from an
industrialization level. Simply, it is the inter-related social and economic
factors that hinder progress.
Preventive checks - moral restraint such as late marriage, avoiding sexual
conduct before marriage, etc proposed by Malthus as controls of fast
population growth.
Primary data - New data obtained by undertaking field work. It involves/
observation, measurement, questionnaires and interviews.
Qualitative - Related to non-measurable variables.
Quantiative - Related to a measurable variable.
Questionnaire - A sheet of questions for subjects (people) of the research work/
survey to answer.
Range lands - pasture lands usually in areas of low annual rainfall.
Regression - Backward movement of sea/water bodies towards their original
locations.
Relative location - The location of a place with reference to the surrounding
landmasses or water bodies
Research - a scientific method of investigating answers for the problem
identified.
Research method - A skill employed to collect, organize and analyze data/
information.
Sample size - the proportion or percentage chosen for data collection.
Sampling - Studying a number of people or places or other things for data
collection that is smaller than the total number, but which hopefully will
give a good indication of the total picture.

Glossary
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Sex ratio - the number of males per 100 females.
Sex structure - the pattern that results from the distribution of population
according to sex.
Sketch maps - are simple free-hand drawings showing features with relative
positions.
Spacing of birth - a family planning aspect having births separated by extended
period of years.
Spatial distribution - Distribution over the surface of the earth.
Sustained development - A continuous/unwavering development trend that
meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Thematic map - A distribution map that shows a single geographical element.
Theory - A verified hypothesis.
Topographic map - large-scale and detailed maps showing both human-made
and natural features.
Total fertility rate - the average number of births a woman will have in her
lifetime.
Transgression - The inland march/movement of the sea (Example: The
transgression of the sea into the Horn during the Triassic and Jurassic
Periods)
Truncated - shortened and divided.
Urbanization - the process whereby large number of people leave the
countryside and small towns in order to settle in cities and surrounding
metropolitan areas.
Vicinal location - Unlike geological location, it is a type of relative location that
considers very nearby areas (i.e., neighboring countries).
Zenithal - perpendicular to the area or position under consideration.

Glossary