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UNIT II

APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS

INTRODUCTION

The op- amp has countless applications and which forms the basic building
block of linear and non-linear analog systems.

In linear circuits, the output signal varies with the input signal in a linear
manner. Some of the linear applications discussed in this chapter are: adder,
subtractor, voltage to current converter and current to voltage converter,
instrumentation amplifier, analog computation, power amplifier etc.

There is another class of circuits with highly non-linear input to output

characteristics. Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit,
log and antilog amplifier, multiplier are the various non-linear circuits discussed.
These non-linear circuits are very useful in industrial instrumentation,
communication and general signal processing.

2.1 BASIC OP-AMP APPLICATIONS

2.1.1 Scale changer/inverter/phase changer

In the basic inverting amplifier of Fig. 2.1, if the ratio R f /R, = K, where K is a
real constant, then the closed loop gain A CL = -K. The circuit thus could be used to
multiply by a constant factor if R f and R1 are selected as precision resistors. For
R f =R 1, ACL = -1 and the circuit is called an inverter, i.e., the output is 180° out of
phase with respect to input though the magnitudes are same.

Fig.2.1 scale changer for (Rf/R1=K) and phase inverter for (Rf/R1=1)

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2.1.2 Summing Amplifier

Op-amp may be used to design a circuit whose output is the sum of several
input signals. Such a circuit is called a summing amplifier or a summer. An
inverting summer or a non-inverting summer may be obtained as discussed now.
2.1.3 Inverting Summing Amplifier
A typical summing amplifier with three input voltages V 1, V2 and V3. three
input resistors R1., R2, R 3 and a feedback resistor R f is shown in Fig2.2(a) , .
The following analysis is carried out assuming that the op-amp is an ideal one,
that is, AoL = ∞ and RI =∞Since the input bias current is assumed to be Zero,
there is no voltage drop across the resistor and hence the non-inverting input
terminal is at ground potential.

Fig 2.2(a) Inverting Summing Amplifier

The voltage at node V is zero as the non-inverting input terminal is grounded.

The nodal equation by KCL at node ‘a’ is

Thus the output is an inverted, weighted sum of the inputs. In the special case,
when R1= R2 =R3= Rf we have

In which case the output V 0 is the inverted sum of the input signals.

We may also set R1 = R2 = R3 =3Rf

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Thus the output is the average of the input signals (inverted)., To find RCOMP
make all inputs V1 = V 2 = V3= 0. So the effective input resistance

RI =R1||R2||R 3 . Therefore RCOMP = RI|| Rf= R1||R2||R 3 ||Rf

2.1.4 Non-inverting Summing Amplifier

A summer that gives a non-inverted sum is the non-inverting summing
amplifier of Fig, 2.2b Let the voltage at the (-) input terminal be Va. The voltage at (+)
input terminal will also be Va. .
The nodal equation at node 'a' is given by

Fig.2.2(b) Non inverting summing amplifier

Therefore the output voltage is

2.1.5 Subtractor

A basic differential amplifier can be used as a subtractor as shown in Fig. 2.3 (a).

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If all resistors are equal in value, then the output voltage can be derived by using
superposition principle. To find the output V01 due to V1, alone, make V 2 = 0. Then
the circuit of Fig. 2.3 (a) becomes a non-inverting amplifier having input voltage
V1/2 at the non-inverting input terminal and the output becomes

Fig. 2.3(a) Op-amp as subtractor

Similarly the output Vo2 due to V 2 alone (with V1 grounded) can be written simply
for an inverting amplifier as

Vo2 = -V2
Thus the output voltage V 0 due to both the inputs can be written as
Vo = Vol + Vo2 = V1- v2

2.1.6 Adder- subtractor

It is possible to perform addition and subtraction simultaneously with a single
op-amp using the circuit shown in Fig. 2.3(b)
The output voltage V0 can be obtained by using superposition theorem. To find
output voltage V01 due to V, alone, make all other input voltages V* and V 4 equal to
zero. The simplified circuit is shown in Fig. 2.3 (c). This is the circuit of an inverting
amplifier and its output voltage is,

by Thevenin’s equivalent circuit at inverting input terminal).

Similarly, the output voltage due to V 2 alone is,
VO2=-V2 (4.11)

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Now, the output voltage vo3 due to the input voltage V3 alone applied at the (+) input
terminal can be found by setting V1, V2 and V 4 equal to zero. The circuit now
becomes a non-inverting amplifier as shown in Fig. 2.3 (d).
The voltage Va at the non-inverting terminal is

So, the output voltage Vo3 due to V 3 alone is v03=v3 (4.13)

Similarly it can be shown that the output voltage v04 due to v4 alone is
v04=v4 (4.14)

Fig 2.3 b. Adder-subtractor c. simplified circuit when v2=v3=v4=0 d. simplified circuit

when v1=v2=v4=0

Thus the output voltage v0 due to all four input voltages is given by
V0 = V01+ V02 +V03+ V04
= - V1- V2+ V3+ V4
= (V3+V4)-(V1+V2)
So the circuit is an adder- subtractor.
2.2 Instrumentation amplifier
In a number of industrial consumer applications, one is required to measure
and control physical quantities. Some typical examples are measurement and control

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of temperature, humidity, light intensity, etc. These physical quantities are usually
measured with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has to be amplified
so that it can drive the indicator or display system. This function is performed by an
Instrumentation amplifier.
The main features of an Instrumentation amplifier are:
1. High gain accuracy. 2. High CMRR.
3. High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient.
4. Low dc offset. 5. Low output impedance.

There are specially designed op amps such as uA 725 to meet the above
stated requirements of a good Instrumentation amplifier.
Consider the basic differential amplifier shown in fig 2.4 (a).it can be seen that the
output voltage v0 is given by,

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Fig.2.4.(a) Differential amplifier. (b) Instrumentation Amplifier

In the circuit of fig 2.4(a), source v1 sees an input impedance =R3+
R4=101kΩ and the impedance may load the signal source heavily. Therefore, high
resistance buffer is used preceding each input to avoid this loading effect in fig 2.4(b)
The op-amp A1 and A2 have differential input voltage as zero, as no current
flows through R and R’ the non inverting amplifier A1 acts as voltage follower. so its
output v2’=v2.Similarly op-amp A2 acts as voltage follower having output
v1’=v1.howeverif v1≠v2 current floes in R and R’ and v2’- v1’=v2-v1.
Therefore this circuit has a differential gain and CMRR more compared to the single
op-amp circuit of fig 2.4 (a). The output voltage is calculated as follows:
The Voltage at the + input terminal of op-amp A3 is

Using Supperposition Theorem, we have

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The difference gain of this instrumentation amplifier can be varied by using a variable
resistance R.
2.3 Ac voltage follower
The circuit of a practical ac voltage follower is shown in Fig. 2.5. The circuit is
used as a buffer to connect a high impedance signal source to a low impedance load
which may even be capacitive. The capacitor C1and C 2 are chosen high so that they
are short circuit at all frequencies of operation. Resistors R1 and R2 provide a path
for dc input current into the non-inverting terminal. C 2 acts as a bootstrapping
capacitor and connects the resistance R1 to the output terminal for ac operation.
Hence the input resistance that the source sees is approximately R1/(l - Ac L ) [from
Miller's theorem] where Acl is the gain of the voltage follower which is dose to unity
{0,9997). Thus very high input impedance can be obtained.

Fig.2.5 AC voltage follower

2.4 V-I CONVERTER (TRANSCONDUCTANCE AMPLIFIER)

In many applications, one may have to convert a voltage signal to a proportional

output current. For this, there are two types of circuits possible.

 V-I Converter with floating load

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 V-I Converter with grounded load

Figure 2.6 (a) shows a voltage to current converter in which load Z L is floating. Since
voltage at node a is vi, therefore
Vi = i L R1
IL = Vi / R1
That is the input voltage v i Is converted into an output current of vi/R1.It may
be seen that the same current flows through the signal source and load and,
therefore, signal source should be capable of providing this load current.

A voltage-to-current converter with grounded load is shown in Fig 2.6 (b).

Let v1be the voltage at node V Writing KVL. we get

Fig.2.6 Voltage to current converter with(a) floating load (b) grounded load

Since the op-amp is used in non-inverting mode, the gain of the circuit is 1 + R/R=
2. The output voltage is

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As the input impedance of a non-inverting amplifier is very high, this circuit has the
advantage of drawing very little current from the source. A voltage to current
converter is used for low voltage dc and ac voltmeter, LED and zener diode tester.

2.5 Current to Voltage Converter (Transresistance Amplifier)

Photocell, photodiode and photovoltaic cell give an output current that is

proportional to an incident radiant energy or light. The current through these devices
can be converted to voltage by using a current to-voltage converter and thereby the
amount of light or radiant energy incident on the photo-device can be measured.
Fig 2.7. Shows an op-amp used as I to V converter. Since the (-) input
terminal is at virtual ground, no current flows through R and current i t flows through
the feedback resistor Rf.
Thus the output voltage vo= i s R f

Fig. 2.7 current to voltage converter

It may be pointed out that the lowest current that, this circuit can measure will
depend upon the bias current IB of the op-amp. This means that uA74l can be used
to detect lower currents. The resistor R f is sometimes shunted with a capacitor C f to
reduce high frequency noise and the possibility of oscillations.

2.6 OP-AMP CIRCUITS USING DIODES

The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below
V y( -0.6 V), the cut-in voltage of the diode. A circuit that acts like an ideal diode can
be designed by placing a diode in the feedback loop of an op-amp as in Fig. 2.8 (a).
Here the cut in voltage is divided by the open loop gain AOL(- 104) of the op-amp so
that is virtually eliminated.

When the input vi> Vy /AoL then v oA the output of the op- amp exceeds V T
and the diode D conducts. Thus the circuit acts like a voltage follower for input Vi>
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Vy /Aol) and the Output follows the input voltage vi during the positive half cycle as
shown in Fig. 2.8 (b). When is negative or less than V y /A OL , the diode D is off and
no current is delivered to the load RL except for small bias current of the cp-amp
and the reverse saturation current of the diode. This circuit is called the precision
diode and is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of mill volt.

Fig.2.8 (a) Precision diode (b) Input and output waveforms

Some typical applications of a precision diode discussed are:

1.Half-wave rectifier 2. Full-wave rectifier
3.Peak-value detector 4. Clipper Clamper

2.6.1 Half-wave rectifier

An inverting amplifier can be converted into an ideal half-wave rectifier by

adding two diodes D1 shown in Fig. 2.9 (a). When Vi, is positive, diode D1 conducts
causing voA to go to negative by one diode drop 0.6 V. Hence diode D 2 is reverse
biased. The output voltage v0 is zero, because, for all practical purposes, no
current flows through R t and the input current flows through D 1 .

For negative input, i.e., vi < 0, diode D 2 conducts and D1 is off. The negative
input Vi forces the op-amp output voA positive and causes D2 to conduct. The circuit
then acts like an inverter for Rf=R1 and output becomes positive.

The input, output waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.9 (b). The op- amp in the circuit
of Fig. 2.9 (a) must be a high speed op-amp since it alternates between open loop
and closed loop operations. The principal limitation of this circuit is the slew rate of
the op-amp. As the input passes through zero, the op-amp output must change from
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0.6 V to -0.6 V or vice-versa as quickly as possible in order to switch over the

conduction from one diode to the other.

Fig. 2.9(a) Ideal half wave rectifier (b) Input and Output waveforms

2.6.2 full-wave rectifier

A full wave rectifier or absolute value circuit is shown in Fig. 2.10 (a). For
positive input, i.e. vi > 0, diode D1 is on and D 2 is off. Both the op-amps A1 and A 2
act as inverter as shown in equivalent circuit in Fig. 2.10 (b). It can be seen that
v o =v i
For negative input, i.e. vi< 0. diode D 1 is off and D 2 is on. The equivalent circuit
is shown in Fig. 2.10 (c). Let the output voltage of op-amp A 1 be v. Since the
differential input to A 2 is zero, the inverting input terminal is also at voltage v.
KCL at node ‘a’ gives

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Fig. 2.10 (a) Precision Full wave rectifier (b) Equivalent circuit for Vi>0

The equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.10 (c) is a non-inverting amplifier as shown in Fig. 2.10
(d). The output v0 is

Fig.2.10(c) Equivalent circuit for vi<0 (d) equivalent circuit of (c)

2.6.3 Peak detector

Definition
Peak detector detects and holds the most positive value of attained by the input
signal prior to the time when the switch is closed.

Working of Op-amp peak detector

The op amp peak detector is as shown below

Fig.2.11 Op amp Peak Detector

The operation can be explained as follows assume the switch is open and if
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a)Vout < Vin the op amp output V’ is positive so that the diode conducts and
the capacitor charges to the input value at that instant as it forms a voltage follower
circuit.
b) When Vout > Vin, op amp output V’ is negative and the diode becomes
reverse biased.
Thus the capacitor charges to the most positive value of input.

2.6.4 clipper
A precision diode may also be used to clip-off a certain portion of the input signal to
obtain a desired output waveform.

1.Positive clipper
Figure 2.12 (a) shows a positive clipper. The clipping level is determined by the
reference voltage and could be obtained from the positive supply voltage V+. The
input and output waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.12 (b). It can be seen that the
portion of the output voltage for v0 > V ref are clipped off.
For input voltage vi< V ref diode D conducts. The op-amp works as a voltage
follower and output v0 follows input till v i ≤ V ref . When vi is greater than the output of
the op-amp is large enough of drive D into cut-off. The op-amp operates in the open-
loop and output voltage vo = Vref. However, if is made negative, then the entire
output waveform above will get clipped off as shown in fig. 2.12 (c).

Fig.2.12(a) positive clipper circuit

Fig.2.12 Input and output waveforms for (b) positive Vref (c) negative Vref

The positive clipper of Fig. 2.12. (a) can be easily converted into a negative
clipper by simply reversing diode D and changing the polarity of the reference
voltage as shown in Fig. 2.13 (a).

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2. Negative clipper
The negative clipper clips off the negative parts of the input signal below the
reference voltage. The circuit diagram of a negative clipper and the expected
waveforms for negative and positive are shown in Fig. 2.13 (b and c)

Fig.2.13 (a) Negative clipper circuit

Fig.2.13 (b,c) input and output waveforms for negative and positive V ref

2.6.5 Clamper
The clamper is also known as dc inserter or restorer. The circuit is used to add a
desired dc level to the output voltage. In other words, the output is clamped to a
desired dc level. If the clamped dc level is positive, it is called positive clamper.
Similarly if the clamped dc level is negative, the clamper is called negative clamper.

Fig. 2.14 (a) Peak clamper circuit (b) Waveforms for +Vref (c) waveforms for -Vref
Figure 2.14 (a) shows a clamper with a variable positive dc voltage applied at the
(+) input terminal. This circuit clamps the peaks of the input waveform and therefore
is also called a peak clamper. The output voltage in the circuit is the net result of ac
and dc input voltages applied to the (-) and (+) input terminals respectively. Let us
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first see the effect of applied at the (+) input terminal. For positive the voltage v' is
also positive, so that the diode D is forward biased. The circuit operates as a voltage
follower and therefore output voltage vo= +Vref.

Now consider the ac input signal vi = V m sin wt applied at the (-) input
terminal. During the negative half cycle of vi, diode D conducts. The capacitor C1
charges through diode D to the negative peak voltage V m . However, during the
positive half cycle of vi, diode D is reverse biased. The capacitor retains its previous
voltage V m . Since this voltage Vm is in series with the ac input signal, the output
voltage now will be + V m . The total output voltage is, therefore Vref+vi+Vm.

The input and output waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.14 (b). It is possible to
obtain negative peak clamping by reversing the diode D and using a negative
reference voltage The expected waveforms are shown in Fig. 2.14 (c). The resistor
R is used for protecting the op-amp against excessive discharge currents from
capacitor C, especially when the dc supply voltages are switched off.

2.7 LOG AND ANTILOG AMPLIFIER

There are several applications of log and antilog amplifiers. Antilog
computation may require functions such as In x, log x or sinhx. These can be
performed continuously with log amps. One would like to have direct dB display on
digital voltmeter and spectrum analyser. Log- amp can easily perform this function.
Log-amp can also be used to compress the dynamic range of a signal.

2.7.1Log amplifier
The fundamental log-amp circuit is shown in Fig. 2.15 (a) where a grounded
base transistor is placed in the feedback path. Since the collector is held at virtual
ground and the base is also grounded, the transistor’s voltage-current relationship
becomes that of a diode and is given by,

Fig.2.15 (a) Log-amp circuit

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The output voltage is thus proportional to the logarithm of input voltage. Although
the circuit gives natural log (In), one can find log10 by proper scaling
log10X = 0.4343 In X (4.38)
The circuit, however, has one problem. The emitter saturation current Is,
varies from transistor to transistor and with temperature. Thus a stable reference
voltage Vref cannot be obtained. This is eliminated by the circuit given in Fig. 2.15 (b).
The input is applied to one log-amp, while a reference voltage is applied to another
log- amp. The two transistors are integrated close together in the same silicon wafer.
This provides a close match of saturation currents and ensures good thermal
tracking.

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Fig.2.15 (b) Log-amp with saturation current and temperature compensation

Thus reference level is now set with a single external voltage source. Its
dependence on device and temperature has been removed. The voltage V 0 is still
dependent upon temperature and is directly proportional to T. This is compensated
by the last op-amp stage A 4 which provides a non-inverting gain of (1 + R2/ RTC).
Now, the output voltage is

Where RTC is a temperature-sensitive resistance with a positive coefficient of

temperature so that the slope of the equation becomes constant as the temperature
changes .

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Fig. 2.15(c) Log-amp using two op-amps only

The circuit in Fig. 2.15 (b) requires four op-amps, and becomes expensive if FET
op-amps are used for precision. The same output (with an inversion) can be
obtained by the circuit of Fig. 2.15 (c) using two op-amps only.
2.7.2 ANTI LOG AMPLIFIER

The circuit is shown in Fig. 2.15. The input V I for the antilog-amp is fed into the
temperature compensating voltage divider R 2 and RTC and then to the base of Q2-
The output V Q of the antilog-amp is fed back to the inverting input of A1 through the
resistor R 1. The base to emitter voltage of transistors and Q 2 can be written as

Fig 2.16 Antilog Amplifier

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Hence an increase of input by one volt causes the output to decrease by a decade.
The 755 log/antilog amplifier IC chip is available as a functional module which may
require some external components also to be connected to it.
2.8 Differentiator
One of the simplest op-amp circuits that contains capacitor in the
differentiating amplifier. As the name implies, the circuit performs the mathematical
operation of differentiation (i.e) the output waveform is the derivative of the input
waveform. The differentiator may be constructed from a basic inverting amplifier if an
input resistor R1 is replaced by a capacitor C1 .

Since the differentiator performs the reverse of the integrator function. Thus
the output V0 is equal to RF C1 times the negative rate of change of the input
voltage Vin with time. The –sign indicates a 180˚ phase shift of the output waveform
V0 with respect to the input signal. The below circuit will not do this because it has
some practical problems. The gain of the circuit (RF /XC1 ) R with R in frequency at
a rate of 20dB/decade. This makes the circuit unstable. Also input impedance XC1 S
with R in frequency which makes the circuit very susceptible to high frequency noise.

Fig 2.17 Differentiator

From the above fig, fa = frequency at which the gain is 0dB and is given by,
fa= 1/2ΠRf C1
Both stability and high frequency noise problems can be corrected by the addition of
2 components. R1 and CF . This circuit is a practical differentiator.

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From Frequency f to feedback the gain Rs at 20dB/decade after feedback the

gain S at 20dB/decade. This 40dB/ decade change in gain is caused by the R1 C1
and RF CF combinations.

The gain limiting frequency fb is given by, Fb= 1/2Π RF CF

Where R1 C1 = RF CF
R1 C1 and RF CF => helps to reduce the effect of high frequency input, amplifier
noise and offsets. All R1 C1 and RF CF make the circuit more stable by preventing
the R in gain with frequency. Generally, the value of Feedback and in turn R1 C1
and RF CF values should be selected such that fa<fb<fc

Fa= 1/2ΠRf C1
Fb= 1/2Π RF CF= 1/2Π R1 C1
Fc is the unity gain bandwidth product.

The input signal will be differentiated properly, if the time period T of the input signal
is larger than or equal to RF C1 (i.e) T > RF C1.

Practical Differentiator
A workable differentiator can be designed by implementing the following steps.

1. Select fa equal to the highest frequency of the input signal to be differentiated

then assuming a value of C1 < 1μf. Calculate the value of RF .

2. Choose fb = 20fa and calculate the values of R1 and CF so that

R1 C1 = RF CF

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2.18 Practical Differentiator

Uses:
It is used in wave shaping circuits to detect high frequency components in an input
signal and also as a rate of change and detector in FM modulators.

2.9 Integrator:
A circuit in which the output voltage waveform is the integral of the input
voltage waveform is the integrator or Integration Amplifier. Such a circuit is obtained
by using a basic inverting amplifier configuration if the feedback resistor RF is
replaced by a capacitor CF .

The expression for the output voltage V0 can be obtained by KVL eqn at node V2.

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From output side we can write,

eqn (5) indicates that the output is directly proportional to the negative integral of the
input volts, and inversely proportional to the time constant R1 CF .

Ex: If the input is sine wave -> output is cosine wave.

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If the input is square wave -> output is triangular wave.

The following shows the input and output waveform for the integrator.

These waveform with assumption of R1 Cf = 1, Vout =0V (i.e) C =0.

When Vin = 0 the integrator works as an open loop amplifier because the capacitor
CF acts an open circuit to the input offset voltage Vio.Or The Input offset voltage Vio
and the part of the input are charging capacitor CF produce the error voltage at the
output of the integrator.

Practical Integrator:

Practical Integrator to reduce the error voltage at the output, a resistor RF is

connected across the feedback capacitor CF . Thus RF limits the low frequency gain
and hence minimizes the variations in the output voltages.The frequency response of
the basic integrator, shown from this fb is the frequency at which the gain is dB and
is given by,
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Fb= 1/2Π RF C1

Both the stability and low frequency roll-off problems can be corrected by the
addition of a resistor RF in the practical integrator.
Stability -> refers to a constant gain as frequency of an input signal is varied over a
certain range.

Low frequency -> refers to the rate of decrease in gain roll off at lower
frequencies. From the of practical Integrators, f is some relative operating frequency
and for frequencies f to fa to gain RF / R1 is constant. After fa the gain decreases at
a rate of 20dB/decade or between fa and fb the circuit act as an integrator.
The gain limiting frequency fa is given by f b= 1/2Π RF Cf
Generally the value of fa and in turn R1 CF and RF CF values should be selected
such that fa<fb. In fact, the input signal will be integrated properly if the time period T
of the signal is larger than or equal to RF CF, (i.e) T >> RF CF
Where RF CF =1 / 2π fa
Applications :
The integrator circuit is most widely used in the following applications:
1.in analog computers 2.In ADC 3.In solving differential equations
4.In various Signal wave shaping circuits.5. In ramp generator

2.10 COMPARATOR
A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input
of an op-amp with a known reference voltage at the other input. It is basically an
open-loop op-amp with output ± Vsat=(VCC) as shown in the ideal transfer
characteristics of Fig. 2.19 (a). However, a commercial op-amp has the transfer
characteristics of Fig. 2.19 (b). It may be seen that the change in the output state
takes place with an increment in input of only 2 mV. This is the uncertainty region
where output cannot be directly defined. There are basically two types of
comparators:
Non-inverting comparator
Inverting comparator.

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Fig 2.19 The transfer characteristic (a) Ideal comparator (b) Practical comparator

2.10.1 Non-inverting comparator

The circuit of Fig. 2.20 (a) is called a non-inverting comparator. A fixed
reference voltage Vref is applied to (-) input and a time varying signal vi is applied to
(+) input. The output voltage is at -Vsat for vi < Vref. And v0 goes to + Vsat for vi, >
Vref . The output waveform for a sinusoidal input signal applied to the (+) input is
shown in Fig. 2.20 (b and c) for positive and negative Vref respectively.

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Fig. 2.20 (a) Non-inverting comparator. Input and output waveforms for (b) positive
(c) negative (d) Practical noninverting comparator

In a practical circuit Vref is obtained by using a 10 kΏ potentiometer which forms

a voltage divider with the supply voltages V+ and V- with the wiper connected to (-)
input terminal as shown in Fig. 2.20 (d). Thus Vref of desired amplitude and polarity
can be obtained by simply adjusting the 10 k Ώ potentiometer.
2.10.2 Inverting comparator

Fig 2.21(a) Inverting comparator input and output waveforms(b) Vref > 0 (c) Vref
< 0 (d) Comparator with Zener diode at the output

Figure 2.21 (a) shows a practical inverting comparator in which the reference
voltage is applied to the (+) input and V1, is applied to (-) input. For a sinusoidal
input signal, the output waveform is shown in Fig. 2.21 (b) and (c) for Vref positive
and negative respectively.
Output voltage levels independent of power supply voltages can also be
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obtained by using a resistor R and two back to back zener diodes at the output of
op-amp as shown in Fig. 2.21 (d). The value of resistance R is chosen so the zener
diodes operate at the recommended current. It can be seen that the limiting voltages
of vQ are (VZ1 + VD) and - (VZ2 + VD) where VD (~ 0.7 V) is the diode forward voltage.

2.10.3 Applications of Comparator

Some important applications of comparator are:
(a) Zero crossing detectors (b) Window detector
(c) Time marker generator (d) Phase meter.

Zero crossing detectors: The basic comparators can be used as a zero crossing
detector provided that Vref is set to zero. An inverting zero- crossing detector is
shown in Fig. 2.22 (a) and the output waveform for a sinusoidal input signal is shown
in Fig. 2.22 (b). The circuit is also called a sine to square wave generator.

Fig 2.22(a) Zero crossing detector (b) Input and output Waveforms

TIME MARKER GENERATOR

The circuit is shown in fig 2.23. The output of the zero crossing detector is
differentiated by an RC circuit(RC<<T), so that the voltage v’ is series of positive and
negative pulses as shown in fig.2.23. The negative portion is clipped off after passing
through the diode D and the waveform vL is as shown in fig 2.23. So with the help of
this circuit the sinusoid has been converted into a train of pulses of spacing t and
may be used for triggering the monoshots, SCR ,sweep voltage of CRT etc.

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FIG 2.23.Time marker generator and Waveform

2.11 REGENERATIVE COMPARATOR (SCHMITT TRIGGER)

If positive feedback is added to the comparator circuit, gain can be increased

greatly. Consequently, the transfer curve of comparator becomes more close to ideal
curve. Theoretically, if the loop gain –βAO l adjusted to unity, then the gain with
feedback, A Vf become infinite. This results in an abrupt (zero rise time) transition
between the extreme values of output voltage. In practical circuits, however, it may
not be possible to maintain loop-gain exactly equal to unity for a long time because
of supply voltage and temperature variations. So a value greater than unity is
chosen. This also gives an output waveform virtually discontinuous at the
comparison voltage. This circuit, however, now exhibits a phenomenon called
hysteresis or backlash.
Figure 2.24 (a) shows such a regenerative comparator. The circuit is also known
as Schmitt Trigger. The input voltage is applied to the (-) input terminal and
feedback voltage to the (+) input terminal. The input voltage triggers the output vo,
every time it exceeds certain voltage levels. These voltage levels are called upper
threshold voltage (VUT) and lower threshold voltage (VLT). The hysteresis width is
the difference between these two threshold voltages i.e. VUT — VLT. These threshold
voltages are calculated as follows.

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Fig 2.24 (a) an inverting Schmitt trigger (b) Hysteresis (c)Shift in the output waveform for VUT = -VLT

Suppose the output v0 = + Vsat. The voltage at (+) input terminal will be

This voltage is called upper threshold voltage VUT. As long as Vi is less than VUT the
output Vo remains constant at +Vsat. When it is greater than output regenerative
switches to and remains at this level as long as Vi > VUT

This voltage is referred to as lower threshold voltage VLT.

Note that VLT < VUT and the difference between these two voltages is the
hysteresis width VH and can be written as

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2.11 Active filters

A frequency selective electric circuit that passes electric signals of specified
band of Frequencies and attenuates the signals of frequencies outside the band is
called an electric filter.
Classification of filters:
The most commonly used filters are:
Low Pass Filter (LPF)
High Pass Filter (HPF)
Band Pass Filter (BPF)
Band Reject Filter (also called Band Stop Filter) (BSF)

The frequency response of these filters is shown in Fig. 2.25 where dashed
curve indicates the ideal response and solid curve shows the practical filter
response. It is not possible to achieve ideal characteristics. However, with special
design techniques it is possible to closely approximate the ideal response.

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Fig 2.25(a) Frequency response of Filter (a) LPF (b) HPF (c) BPF (d) BRF
2.11.1 First Order Low Pass Filter

Active filters may be of different orders and types. A first order filter consists of
a single RC network connected to the (+) input terminal of a non-inverting op-amp
amplifier and is shown in Fig.2.26 (a). Resistors Ri and R f determine the gain of the
filter in the pass band.

Fig 2.26 (a) First order low pass filter (b) Frequency Response

The voltage v 1 across the capacitor C in the s-domain is

where V(s) is the Laplace transform of v in time domain.

The closed loop gain A 0 of the op-amp is,

So, the overall transfer function from Eq. (7.4) and (7.5) is

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This is the standard form of the transfer function of a first order low-pass system.
To determine the frequency response, put s = jw in Eq. (7.8). Therefore, we get

The frequency response of the first order low pass filter is shown in Fig. 2.26
(b). It has the maximum gain, A 0 at f = 0 Hz. At f h the gain falls to 0.707 time (i.e. -3
dB down) the maximum gain (AJ). The frequency range from 0 to f is called the
pass band.

For f> f h the gain decreases at a constant rate of -20 dB/decade. That is, when
the frequency is increased ten times (one decade), the voltage gain is divided by
ten or in terms of dBs, the gain decreases by 20 dB (= 20 log 10). Hence, gain rolls
off at the rate of 20 dB/decade or 6 dB/octave after frequency, f h . The frequency
range f >fh is called the stop band.

2.11.2 Second Order Active Filter

An improved filter response can be obtained by using a second order active

filter. A second order filter consists of two RC pairs and has a roll-off rate of - 40
dB/decade. A general second order filter (Sallen- Key filter) is shown in Fig. 2.27.

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Fig 2.27 Sallen- Key Filter(General Second order Filter)

The op-amp is connected as non-inverting amplifier and hence,

and vB is the voltage at node B.

Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL) at node A gives

Where vA is the voltage at node A.

KCL at node B is,

Substituting Eq. (7.16) in Eq. (7.15) and after simplification, we get the
voltage gain as

To make a low pass filter, choose, Y 1 = Y 2 = 1IR and Y 3 = Y 4 = sC as

shown in fig. 2.28 For simplicity, equal components have been used.

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Fig 2.28 Second order low pass Filter Fig 2.29 Second order low pass
active filter response for different damping
From equ. (717), we get the transfer function H(s) of a low pass filer as,

This is to note that from Eq. (7.18), H(0) = A 0 for s = 0 and H(∞) = 0 for s =
∞ and obviously the configuration is for low pass active filter. It may be noted
that for minimum dc offset RiRf(Rf + RI) = R + R = 2R should be satisfied.
The transfer function of low pass second order system (electrical,
mechanical, hydraulic or chemical) can be written as,

Where A0=the gain

wh= upper cut off frequency in radians/second
α=damping coefficient
Comparing equ (7.18) and equ(7.19), we get,
wh = 1/RC
α = (3- A0)
That is the value of damping coefficient α for low pass active filter can be determined
by the value of A0 chosen.
Putting s=jw in equ(7.19), we get
H(jw)= A0 / [(jw/ wh)2+j α w/ wh+1]
The normalized expression for low pass filter is H(jw)= A0 /sn2+αsn+1

Where The normalized frequency sn=j w/ wh

The expression of magnitude in dB of the transfer function is,

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20 log| H(jw) |=20 log| A0 / [(jw/ wh)2+j α w/ wh+1]

= 20 log A0 /[(1-w2/ wh2)2+(α w/ wh)2]1/2

The frequency response for different values of α is shown in fig 2.29.it may be
seen that for a heavily damped filter (α>1.7), the response is stable. However the roll
–off begins very early to the pass band.as α is reduced, the response exhibits
overshoot and ripple begins to appear at the early stage of pass band. If α is reduced
too much, the filter may become oscillatory. The flattest pass band occurs for
damping coefficient of 1.414.this is called a Butterworth filter.
From Eq. (7.24), with α = 1.414, we get

Hence for n-th order generalized low-pass Butterworth filter, the normalized
transfer function for maximally flat filter can be written as

2.11.3 High pass active filter

High pass active filter is the complement of the low pass filter and can be
obtained simply by interchanging R and C in the low pass configuration and is shown
in fig 2.30. Putting Y1=Y2=Sc and Y3=Y4=G=1/R in the general equ (7.17),
the transfer function becomes,
H(s)=A0 s2/ s2+(3- A0)wls +wl2 ……….(7.27)

Where wl=1/RC

H(S)= A0 / 1+(3- A0)wl/S +(wl/S)2 ………(7.28)

From equ (7.28), for w=0, we get H=0 and for w=∞,we get H=A 0. So the circuit

indeed acts like high pass filter.

The lower cutoff frequency fl=f3Db=1/2ΠRC

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Putting s=jw in equ(7.28) and 3- A0=α=1.414, the voltage gain magnitude

equation of the second order Butterworth high pass filter can be obtained as

| H(jw) |=|V0/VI|= A0 /[1+ (fl/f)4]1/2

Hence | H(jw)/ A0 |=1/[1+ (fl/f)4]1/2

As in the case of low pass filter,the generalized expression for nth order

maximally flat Butterworth(α=1.414) filter can be written as

| H(jw)/ A0 |=1/[1+ (fl/f)2n]1/2

Fig 2.30(a)First order high pass filter (b) Second order high pass filter

Frequency response curve of high pass filter

2.11.3 BAND PASS FILTER

There are two types of band pass filters which are classified as per the figure on
merit or quality factor Q.
(i) narrow band pass filter (Q>10)

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(ii) wide band pass filter (Q<10)

The following relationships are important:
Q=f0/BW= f0/(fh-fl) F0=(fhfl)1/2
Where fh is the upper cutoff frequency
fl is the lower cutoff frequency f0 is the central frequency
(1)Narrow band pass filter
The important parameters in a band pass filter are upper and lower cutoff
frequencies, and bandwidth ,the central frequency gain A0 and selectivity Q.Consider
the circuit of fig 2.31a.the circuit has two feedback paths and the op-amp is used in
inverting mode of operation.

Fig 2.31 (a) Band pass configuration (b) Second order Band pass filter

The node equation at node A is

ViY1+VOY3=VA(Y1+Y2+Y3)
Assuming VB=0 the node voltage equation at node B is

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For this circuit to be band pass filter, put y1 = G1, Y 2 = sC2, y3 = sC3, y4 = G4 and y5
= G5 as in Fig. 2.31 (b).

Then the transfer function becomes,

The transfer function of Eq. (7.35) is equivalent to the gain expression of a

parallel RLC circuit of Fig. 2.32(a) driven by a current source G’vi, and with band
pass characteristics as shown in Fig. 2.32(b).
The gain expression is,

Comparing the gain expression of Eq. (7.35) and Eq. (7.36), we get,

Fig 2.32 (a) A parallel RLC circuit (b) Band-pass characteristics

At resonance, the circuit of Fig. 2.32 (a) has unity power factor, i.e. imaginary part is
zero which gives the resonant frequency w0 as,

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The Q factor at resonance is,

Q0 = w0L/R = w0RC= w0C/G

= w0 C2C3/( C2+C3)G5 ………..(7.43)

The bandwidth BW is given by,

BW = fh-fl = f0/Q0 = w0/2πQ0 = w0/2πR w0C

=1/2πRC= G/2πC= G5(C2+C3)/ 2Πc2c3………..(7.44)

And the centre frequency f0=(fh fl)1/2
now for c2=c3=c
the gain at resonant frequency from equ 7.42 is ,
vo/vi| w=w0= R5/2R1 = -A0 …………..(7.45)
w0=[G5(G1+G4)]1/2/C …………..(7.46)
BW= G5/Πc …………..(7.47)
(2)Wide band-pass filter

Fig 2.33 First order Band Pass Filter

A wide band-pass filter can be formed by cascading a HPF and LPF section. If the
HPF and LPF are of the first order, then the band-pass filter (BPF) will have a roll-off
rate of - 20 dB/decade
For the high pass section of Fig. 2.33 the magnitude of gain is
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Similarly, for the low-pass section of Fig. 2.33, the magnitude of gain is

The voltage gain magnitude of the wide band pass filter is the product of that of
LPF and HPF. One can calculate the frequency response from the equation.

where the total pass band gain A 0 = A0l A o2

In a similar fashion, to obtain BPF of - 40 dB/decade fall-off rate, second order HPF
and LPF sections are to be cascaded.

2.11.5 Band Reject Filter

A band reject filter (also called a band stop or band elimination) can be either
(i) Narrow band reject or (ii) Wide band reject filter. The narrow band reject filter is
commonly called a notch filter and is useful for the rejection of a single frequency,
such as 50 Hz power line frequency hum. There are several ways to make notch
filters. One simple technique is to subtract the band pass filter output from its input.
This principle is illustrated in Fig. 2.34 (a).

For implementing Fig. 2.34 (a), we must use a summer instead of a subtractor.
Also, the band pass filter has a gain of A0, so that output at the centre frequency will
be - A 0 x v i. To completely subtract this output, the input of the summer must be

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precisely A 0 v i . Thus, a gain of A 0 must be added between the input signal and the
summer as shown in Fig. 2.34(b).

Fig 2.34(a) Notch filter Block Diagram (b) Practical Notch filter Block Diagram
The output, of the circuit in the s domain is

This is the transfer function for a second order notch filter and the circuit
schematic is shown in Fig. 2.35. It is evident from Eq. (7.56), that for w« w0 and for
w» w0 the pass band gain is |A0| and at frequency w = w0 the gain is zero.

Fig 2.35 Notch Filter schematic

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TWO MARK QUESTIONS WITH ANSWER

1. What do you mean by linear circuits?

The circuits in which the output varies with input in linear manner are called linear
circuits.
2. What do you mean by non-linear circuits?
The circuits in which the output does not vary linearly with input are called non-linear
circuits.
3. Mention some of the linear applications of op - amps. (DEC 09)
Adder, subtractor, voltage -to- current converter, current -to- voltage converters,
Instrumentation amplifier, analog computation, power amplifier, etc are some of the
linear op- amp circuits.
4. Mention some of the non - linear applications of op-amps:-
Rectifier, peak detector, clipper, clamper, sample and hold circuit, log amplifier, anti -
log amplifier, multiplier are some of the non - linear op-amp circuits.
5. What are the areas of application of non-linear op- amp circuits?
1. Industrial instrumentation 2. Communication 3. Signal processing.
6. What is voltage follower?(MAY 2010) Apr/may 2014,
A circuit in which output follows the input is called voltage follower.

7. What is an inverting amplifier?

Inverting amplifier is one which amplifier the given signal with negative gain since the
input is applied at the terminal. There is phase shift of 180o between input and
output signal.
8. What is a non- inverting amplifier?
If the input signal is applied to the non-inverting terminal and the output is feedback,
the circuit amplifier without inverting the input signal(Vi).Such a circuit is called non-
inverting amplifier.
9.Give an application of Inverting amplifier? (May/June 2013)
Integrator, differentiator, Sign changer, adder etc

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10. Draw a non inverting amplifier with voltage gain of 3.( nov/dec2013)

3=1+RF/R1 RF/R1=2 RF=2R1 If R1=10K means

RF=20kΩ.

11.Design a subtractor using opamp.(DEC 2012)

12. Give an application for each of the following circuits:( nov/dec2013)

Voltage follower: Impedance matching circuit
Peak detector: AM modulation, test and measurement
Schmitt trigger: comparartor
Clamper:power supply

13. Draw the circuit diagram of peak detector. (Apr/may 2014)

14. What is the need for an instrumentation amplifier?

In a number of industrial and consumer applications, the measurement of physical
quantities is usually done with the help of transducers. The output of transducer has
to be amplified So that it can drive the indicator or display system. This function is
performed by an instrumentation amplifier.

15. List the features of instrumentation amplifier: (MAY 2011)

1. High gain accuracy. 2. High CMRR.

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3. Low output impedance 4. Low dc offset.

5. High gain stability with low temperature co-efficient

16. What is the major function of instrumentation amplifier?

To amplify the low level output signal of a transducer so that it can drive the indicator
or display is the major function of an instrumentation amplifier.

17. Why active guard drive is necessary for a instrumentation amplifier?

(May/June 2012)
Practically the common ground is shared by various circuits, due to ground loop
interference the additional voltage drop get inserted which may cause error in low
level measurements due to distributed cable capacitances there is degradation of
CMRR the active guard drive eliminates all this problems.

18. Why integrators are preferred over differentiator in analog computers?

NOV/DEC2011
Since the gain of the differentiator increases linearly with frequency and it tends to
amplify low frequency noise, which may result in spurious oscillations, integrators are
preferred over differentiators in analog computer.

19. What are the steps to be followed while designing a good differentiator?
Design steps:
o Choose fa equal to highest frequency of input signal
o Assume practical value of C1<1mF., then calculate RF
o Choose fb=10fa.
o Calculate values of R1and CF using R1C1=RFCF.
o Practically, Rcomp is approximately R1.
20. Why practical integrators are called Lossy integrators? (Or) What is Lossy
integrator?
The gain of an integrator at a low frequency (dc) can be limited to avoid saturation
problem if the feedback capacitor is shunted by resistance RF. The parallel
combination of RF & CF behaves like practical capacitor, which dissipates power
unlike an ideal capacitor. So, this circuit is called Lossy integrator.

21. What are the drawbacks of an ideal integrator? (or) What are errors in ideal
integrator?
 At low frequencies the gain becomes infinite.

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 Input offset voltage gets amplified and appears as error voltage, which
causes saturation.
 It is difficult to pull integrator out of saturation hence true integration
may not be possible.
 Limited Bandwidth.
22. What are the drawbacks of ideal differentiator?
o At high frequencies, a differentiator may become unstable and enters
into oscillation.
o The input impedance (1/ωc1) decreases with increase in frequency,
thereby making the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.

23.Draw the circuit diagram of differentiator and give its output equation.(May
2010)

24. Draw and write equation of an integrator using an op-amp. (Nov-2010)

25. What are the applications of V-I converter?

1.Low voltage dc and ac voltmeter 2.LED 3.Zener diode tester .

26. Give the schematic of op-amp based current to voltage converter.(May2010)

27. Write down the applications of precision diode. DEC 2012

1.Half - wave rectifier 2.Full - Wave rectifier 3.Peak - value detector
4.Clipper 5.Clamper
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28. What do you mean by a precision diode?

The major limitation of ordinary diode is that it cannot rectify voltages below the cut -
in voltage of the diode. A circuit designed by placing a diode in the feedback loop of
an op - amp is called the precision diode and it is capable of rectifying input signals
of the order of millivolt.

29. Define Logarithmic and antilogarithmic amplifier. (MAY 2010)

The logarithmic amplifier is a current to voltage converter with the transfer
characteristics v0=vi In(If/Ii)
Antilog amplifier is a decoding circuit which converts the logarithmically encoded
signal back to the original signal levels as given by vl=vR10-kvi

30. Differentiate Schmitt trigger and comparator. (MAY 2010)

Comparator:
1. It compares the input signal with references voltage then yields the output voltage
2. It need not consist of feedback
3. Comparator output need not to be square wave .
Schmitt trigger
1. It operates between two reference points namely UTP&LTP.
2. It employs positive feedback
3. Its output is square wave.

31. List the applications of Log amplifiers:

1. Analog computation may require functions such as lnx, log x, sin hx etc. These
functions can be performed by log amplifiers.
2. Log amplifier can perform direct dB display on digital voltmeter and spectrum
analyzer.
3. Log amplifier can be used to compress the dynamic range of a signal .
32. What are the limitations of the basic differentiator circuit?
1. At high frequency, a differentiator may become unstable and break into
oscillations
2, The input impedance decreases with increase in frequency , thereby making the
Circuit sensitive to high frequency noise.
33. Write down the condition for good differentiation.
1.For good differentiation, the time period of the input signal must be greater than or
equal to Rf C1
2.T > R f C1 Where, Rf is the feedback resistance
3.Cf is the input capacitance

34. What is a comparator?(DEC 2011, May/June 2012)

A comparator is a circuit which compares a signal voltage applied at one input of an
op- amp with a known reference voltage at the other input. It is an open loop op -
amp with output +Vsat
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35. What are the applications of comparator?

1. Zero crossing detectors 2. Window detector
3. Time marker generator 4. Phase detector.

36. Mention some characteristics (features) of a comparator.

Speed of operation Accuracy Compatibility of output.

37. What is Schmitt Trigger? (Or) What is regenerative comparator?(DEC

09,MAY 10)
Schmitt Trigger is an inverting comparator with positive feedback. It converts
sinusoidal input into square wave or pulse output. The o/p of Schmitt trigger swings
between Upper Threshold voltage (VUT) and Lower Threshold voltage (VLT), the
reference voltages of i/p waveform. It is also called as squaring circuit.
38. What is Hysteresis?
The transfer characteristics of Schmitt Trigger shows that once the output
changes its state, it remains there indefinitely until the input voltage crosses the any
of the threshold voltage levels. This is called Hysteresis of Schmitt Trigger. The
Hysteresis is also called dead band or dead zone.

39. What is an electric filter? (Or) What is a filter?

An electric filter is often a frequency selective circuit that passes a specified
band of frequencies (Pass Band) and blocks or attenuates signal of frequencies
outside this band (Stop Band).

40. What are the advantages of active filters? (Or) Why active filters are
preferred? DEC 2012
(i). Gain & Frequency adjustment flexibility: Since op-amp provides some gain,
input signal is not attenuated. Active filters are easier to time or adjust.
(ii). No Loading Problem: Because of high i/p impedance & low o/p impedance of
Op-amp, active filters doesn’t cause loading of source or load.

41. What are the demerits of passive filters?

Passive filters works well for high frequencies. But at audio frequencies, the
inductors become problematic, as they become large, heavy and expensive. For low
frequency applications, more number of turns of wire must be used which in turn

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adds to the series resistance degrading inductor's performance ie, low Q, resulting in
high power dissipation.
Cost: Active filters are more economical, because of cheaper op-amps and absence
of inductors.
42. List commonly used filters
Low pass filter (LPF) High pass filter (HPF) Band pass filter (BPF)
Band Reject filter (or) Band stop filter (BSF)

43. Why Butterworth filter is called flat-flat filter?

The main characteristics of Butterworth filter is that, it has flat pass band as well as
stop band. So, it is called flat-flat filter.

44. Compare the performance of inverting and non inverting op-amp

configurations. (Nov-2010)

45. How does the precision rectifier differ from conventional rectifier?(Apr-
2011)
The major limitation of ordinary diode based conventional rectifier is that it cannot
rectify voltages below 0.6V, the cut-in voltage of the diode. But precision diode
based rectifier circuit is capable of rectifying input signals of the order of mill volt.

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PART B QUESTIONS
1.(i) Design a first order Low-pass filter for cut-off frequency of 2 KHz and pass- band gain
of 2. (8)
(ii) Explain a positive clipper circuit using an Op-amp and a diode with neat diagrams. (8)(
May –2010)

2. (i)Design a circuit to implement V0 = 0.545V3 + 0.273V4 −1.25V1 − 2V2 . (8)

(ii) Draw and explain a simple Op-amp differentiator. Mention its limitations. Explain with
a neat diagram how it can be overcome in a practical differentiator. Design an Op-amp
differentiator that will differentiate an input signal with maximum frequency f max =100 Hz .
(8) (May – 2010)

3. With relevant circuits, explain the following applications of OPAMP

(i) Voltage to current converters (ii) Multiplier [16] ( Dec – 2010)

4. (i) Explain the steps involved in the design of a band pass filter using OPAMP.
(ii) Write a note on Schmitt trigger. [16] ( Dec – 2010)

5. With neat circuit diagrams and mathematical expressions, explain the operation of
the following op-amp applications:
i. scale changer
ii. Voltage follower iii. Non inverting adder. iv. Integrator.( May - 2011)

6. With the help of circuits and necessary equations, explain how log and antilog
computations are performed using IC 741. ( May - 2011)

7. (i)Explain the working of op-amp based instrumentation amplifier.(8)

(ii) Draw an adder- subtract or type of circuit with op-amp to obtain the relation V0=V1+V2-
(V3+V4) (4)
(iii) Calculate the output of the following circuit(4) (Dec – 2011)

8.(i) Explain the working of op-amp based Schmitt trigger circuit(8)

(ii)Design an op-amp based second order active LPF with cutoff frequency 2 kHz.(8)
(Dec – 2011)

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9.(i) Sketch the basic circuit using op-amp to perform the mathematical operation of
differentiation and explain. What are the limitations of an ordinary OP-AMP differentiator?
Draw and explain the circuit of a practical differentiators that will eliminate these limitations.
(ii) Draw and explain the circuit of a voltage to current converter if the load is
(1) Floating (2) Grounded.( May - 2012) (May 2015)

10.(i) Explain the working of OP-AMP based Schmitt trigger circuit. (8)
(ii) Design an OP-AMP based second order active low pass filter with cut off
frequency 2 kHz. (8) ( May - 2012)

11. With neat diagram explain the operation of a op-amp differentiator and derive an
expression for the output of a practical differentiator.( Dec - 2012)

12. (i)What do you understand by an integrator?

(ii) Draw and explain in ideal active op-amp integrator circuit.
(iii)Draw the i/o waveforms for integrator
1) Step input signal 2) Square wave input signal 3) Sine wave input signal
(iv)Derive the expression for change in output voltage
(v) List the applications of practical integrator.
(vi) Design a practical integrator circuit with a dc gain of 10 to integrate a square
wave of 10khz.( May – 2013) (May 2015)

13. (i)What do you understand by an instrumentation amplifier?

(ii) State the requirements of a good instrumentation amplifier.
(iii) Draw the circuit diagram and explain the working of instrumentation
amplifier.
(iv) Mention the specific advantages of three op-amp instrumentation amplifier circuit. ( May
– 2013)

14. Explain the working of

1) Precision full wave rectifier (8) 2) Integrator (8)( Dec - 2013)

15. Explain the working of

1) Instrumentation amplifier 2) Schmitt trigger ( Dec - 2013)

16. With neat diagram explain logarithmic amplifier and antilogarithmic amplifier.
(May - 2014)
17. With neat diagram explain the application of op-amp as precision rectifier, clipper and
clamper (May - 2014)

191ROS402T LINEAR INTEGRATED CIRCUITS UNIT II