Chapter 4
[Physical Layer]
Data Transmission
Dr. Niroj Kumar Pani
[email protected]Department of Computer Science Engineering & Applications
Indira Gandhi Institute of Technology
Sarang, Odisha
Chapter Outline…
◼ Data Transmission Basics
◼ Transmission of Digital Signals
➢ The Issue
➢ Approximating Digital Signals
◼ Digital-to-Digital Conversion (Coding / Decoding)
➢ Overview
➢ Line Coding
➢ Block Coding
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.2
◼ Digital-to-Analog Conversion (Modulation of Digital Data)
➢ Overview
➢ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
➢ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
➢ Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
➢ Constellation Diagram
➢ Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
◼ Analog-to-Digital conversion (Demodulation)
➢ Overview
➢ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.3
◼ Analog-to-Analog Conversion (Modulation of Analog Signal)
➢ Overview
➢ Amplitude Modulation (AM)
➢ Frequency Modulation (FM)
➢ Phase Modulation (PM)
◼ Data Transmission Modes
➢ Overview
➢ Parallel Transmission
➢ Serial Transmission
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.4
Data Transmission Basics
For data transmission (data means, digital data. i.e., sequence of 0’s and 1’s) we
have got two choices. Either convert the data to a digital signal and transmit it or
convert the data to an analog signal and transmit it. The former approach is called
the “baseband transmission” and the later is called the “broadband transmission”.
1. Baseband Transmission [Shown in Fig. 4.1, Next Slide]
➢ Baseband transmission refers to, converting digital data to a digital
signal and sending that digital signal (composite analog signal with
infinite bandwidth ; it’s a low-pass signal) over a channel without
changing it to an analog signal (modulated / band-pass analog signal).
➢ Baseband transmission requires that we have a low-pass channel.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.5
[Fig. 4.1: Baseband transmission & it’s 3 phases: (1) Digital data to digital
signal conversion, (2) Transmission of digital signal over low-pass channel, and
(3) Digital signal to digital data conversion.]
Digital Data-to-
Digital Signal Digital Signal-
Conversion to-Digital Data
(Encoding or Conversion
simply coding) (Decoding)
Transmission of
digital signal
over a low-pass
channel
[NOTE]: These
days encoding
(at sender)
and decoding
(at receiver )
is done by a
single device:
the encoder-
decoder
(Endec)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.6
2. Broadband Transmission [Shown in Fig. 4.2, Next Slide]
➢ Broadband transmission refers to, converting digital data to a band-
pass (modulated) analog signal and sending that modulated analog
signal over a channel.
➢ Broadband transmission allows us to use a band-pass channel.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.7
[Fig. 4.2: Broadband Transmission & It’s 3 Phases: (1) Digital data to band-pass
analog signal conversion, (2) Transmission of band-pass analog signal over band-pass
channel, and (3) Band-pass analog signal to digital data conversion.]
Digital data to Band-pass analog
band-pass analog signal to digital
signal conversion data conversion
(Modulation) (Demodulation)
Transmission of
band-pass analog
signal over a band-
pass channel [NOTE]: These
days
modulation (at
sender) and
demodulation
(at receiver )
is done by a
single device:
the modulator-
demodulator
(Modem)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.8
◼ [NOTE]: As we can see in Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.2, the baseband and broadband
transmissions involves some phases. In this chapter, we will study in detail how
each phase is carried out.
We will study them in the following sequence:
➢ Transmission of digital signals
Two phases
➢ Digital data to digital signal conversion (also called, of base-band
digital-to-digital conversion / encoding / coding) transmission
➢ Digital data to band-pass analog signal conversion
(also called, digital-to-analog conversion /
modulation / modulation of digital data) Two phases of
broad-band
➢ Band-pass analog signal to digital data conversion transmission
(also called, analog-to-digital conversion / digitizing /
demodulation)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.9
We will NOT study the following:
➢ Digital signal to digital data conversion (decoding), because decoding
comes as an integral part of coding.
➢ Transmission of band-pass analog signal over a band-pass channel,
because this is obvious (we can directly send them. We are discussing
transmission of digital signals because, as we will study, we can’t
directly send them; they need to be approximated).
In addition to these, we will study two more things in this chapter:
➢ Low-pass analog signal to band-pass analog signal conversion (also
called analog-to-analog conversion / modulation of analog signals). This
an important conversion technique used by radio stations.
➢ Data transmission modes.
However, before we discuss these concepts one-by-one, let’s 1st see a practical use of them
(Shown in Fig.4.3, Next Slide).
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.10
[Fig. 4.3]
Band-pass
channel
(telephone line)
COMPUTER
Broadband
Port
[CPU]
Band-pass channel
0101 Low-pass channel
Low-pass channel
Modem
Port
Decoder 0101 Modulator
Low-pass
0101 channel
[Memory] MODEM (At the sender side;
It’s working as a modulator is shown)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.11
Transmission of Digital Signals
The Issue
◼ As per the Fourier analysis, every digital signal is composite analog signal with
infinite bandwidth. So theoretically, in order to send a digital signal we need
low-pass channel with infinite bandwidth. This is not possible.
◼ Then How to Send Them?: We have to approximate digital signals, so that the
effective bandwidth becomes finite.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.13
Approximating Digital Signals
◼ Fig. 4.4, Next slide shows how a digital signal can be approximated.
◼ It is clear form the figure that, if we need better approximation (to make the
shape of the analog signal more like that of a digital signal), we need more
harmonics, i.e., we need a channel with more bandwidth.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.14
[Fig. 4.4 (a): A digital signal with bit rate N bps]
[Fig. 4.4 (b): Approximating the digital signal using just one
harmonic: 𝑓= N/2 (1 cycle represents 2 bits). This is the case
if we have a low-pass channel with a very narrow bandwidth.
The required bandwidth in this case is N/2 - 0 = N/2Hz].
[Fig. 4.4 (c): ADDING MORE HARMONICS: Approximation of
the digital signal using two harmonics: 𝑓= N/2 and 3N/2. We
are getting a better shape. T he required bandwidth in this
case is 3N/2 - 0 = 3N/2Hz]
[Fig. 4.4 (d): ADDING STILL MORE HARMONICS:
Approximation of the digital signal using three harmonics:
𝑓= N/2, 3N/2 and 5N/2. We are getting much better shape.
T he required bandwidth in this case is 5N/2 - 0 = 5N/2Hz]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.15
◼ If we have a low-pass channel with a very wide bandwidth, such as a coaxial or
fiber optic cable, a digital signal could be approximated with very good
accuracy (as shown in Fig. 4.5)
[Fig. 4.5: Approximation of a
digital signal on a very wide
bandwidth channel (Number of
harmonics is much more)]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.16
Digital-to-Digital Conversion
Overview
◼ Digital-to-digital conversion (digital data to digital signal conversion) is also
called encoding (or simply coding).
◼ It involves three techniques:
➢ Line coding
➢ Block coding
➢ Scrambling [Not in Course]
Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling may or may not be
needed.
◼ Decoding (digital signal to digital data conversion) is an integral part of the
above coding techniques.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.18
Line Coding
Line Coding Schemes - Overview
◼ The line coding schemes are divided into five broad categories. Each category
has several schemes as shown in Fig. 4.6.
[Fig. 4.6]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.19
Common Characteristics
Before discussing different line coding schemes in detail, let us first see their
common characteristics:
◼ Bandwidth:
➢ As we have discussed in Chapter 3, the bandwidth of a digital signal is
determined as: B = N/(2r). Here, B is the bandwidth in Hz, N is the bit rate
in bps, and r is the ratio bits per baud.
➢ A line coding scheme that takes less bandwidth is considered better
than the one that needs more.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.20
◼ Self-Synchronization:
➢ To correctly interpret the signals received from the sender, the
receiver's bit intervals (clock rate) must correspond exactly to the
sender's bit intervals (clock rate). If it is not, the receiver might
misinterpret the signals. For example, Fig. 4.7 shows the synchronization
problem.
[Fig. 4.7: Effect of
Lack of
Synchronization]
➢ A good line coding scheme should have no synchronization problem.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.21
◼ DC Component:
➢ When the voltage level in a digital signal is constant for a while, the
resulting composite analog signal (recall that, a digital signal is nothing
but a composite analog signal) creates very low frequencies (results of
Fourier analysis). These frequencies around zero are called DC (direct-
current) components.
➢ DC components present problems for a system that cannot pass low
frequencies. For example, a telephone line cannot pass frequencies
below 200 Hz.
➢ A good line coding scheme should always avoid DC component.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.22
Unipolar Scheme
◼ In a unipolar scheme, all the signal levels are on one side of the time axis,
either above or below.
◼ Unipolar NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero) Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: It uses two voltage levels: zero and positive. The voltage
remains constant during the bit interval.
▪ Bit 0: Represented by zero voltage.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by positive voltage.
➢ It is called NRZ because the signal doesn’t return to zero at the middle
of the bit.
[Fig. 4.8:
Unipolar NRZ
Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.23
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N/2 Hz.
▪ May have synchronization problem, if there is a long sequence of
0s or 1s. (if the sender’s and receiver’s clock are not perfectly
synchronized). [Disadv.]
▪ May suffer form DC component problem, if there is a long
sequence of 0s or 1s. [Disadv.]
▪ Compared with its polar counterpart (discussed next), this
scheme is very costly, because the normalized power (the power
needed to send 1 bit per unit line resistance) is double that for
polar NRZ. [Disadv.]
Explanation: The normalized power of a line coding scheme is
determined as: ½ (bit 0’s voltage level)2 + ½ (bit 1’s voltage level)2
So, for unipolar NRZ it becomes: ½ (0)2 + ½ (V)2 = V2/2.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.24
However, the polar NRZ schemes (discussed next), uses both
positive and negative voltage levels (-V/2 and +V/2) to
represent the bits, i.e., if bit 0 is represented by -V/2 then bit 1 is
represented by +V/2 and vice versa.
So, for the polar NRZ schemes the normalized power becomes:
½ (-V/2)2 + ½ (+V/2)2 = V2/4
[NOTE]: It can be observed that, in both unipolar NRZ and polar NRZ the
voltage range is same. In unipolar NRZ v∈{0,V}. So, the range is V. In polar
NRZ schemes v∈{-V/2, +V/2}. Hence, the range is also V.
Thus, even if we operate in the same voltage range just by operating
at both positive and negative voltage levels the overall power consumption
could me minimized.
➢ Use: Because of the disadvantages, this scheme is normally not used in
data communications today.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.25
Polar Schemes
◼ In a polar scheme, the signal levels are on both side of the time axis.
◼ Polar NRZ-L (Non-Return-to-Zero-Level) Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: It uses two voltage levels: negative and positive. The
voltage remains constant during the bit interval.
▪ Bit 0: Represented by positive voltage.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by negative voltage.
[Fig. 4.9: Polar NRZ-L Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.26
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N/2 Hz.
▪ May have synchronization problem, if there is a long sequence of
0s or 1s. (if the sender’s and receiver’s clock are not perfectly
synchronized). [Disadv.]
▪ May suffer form DC component problem, if there is a long
sequence of 0s or 1s. [Disadv.]
➢ Use: Used for short distance communication between a terminal and a
modem or a terminal and a computer.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.27
◼ Polar NRZ-I (Non-Return-to-Zero-Invert) Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: It uses two voltage levels: negative and positive. The
voltage remains constant during the bit interval. The value of a bit is
NOT determined by the voltage level, but by an inversion or no inversion
in the voltage level at the beginning of each bit interval.
The starting point is a positive voltage. Then,
▪ Bit 0: Represented by no inversion in the voltage level.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by an inversion in the voltage level.
[Fig. 4.10: Polar NRZ-I Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.28
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N/2 Hz, where N is the bit rate in bps.
▪ May have synchronization problem, if there is a long sequence of
0s. (if the sender’s and receiver’s clock are not perfectly
synchronized). [Disadv.]
▪ May suffer form DC component problem, if there is a long
sequence of 0s. [Disadv.]
➢ Use: Same as NRZ-L.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.29
◼ Polar RZ (Return-to-Zero) Scheme:
➢ Why RZ (Limitations of NRZ schemes)?: NRZ encoding schemes suffer
from lack of synchronization problem. RZ offers one of the solutions.
➢ The Scheme: It uses three voltage levels: negative, zero and positive.
The voltage always returns to 0 at the middle of each bit interval.
▪ Bit 0: Represented by negative-to-zero voltage transition.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by positive-to-zero voltage transition.
[Fig. 4.11: Polar RZ Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.30
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1/2. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N Hz, where N is the bit rate in bps. So, the bandwidth
is two times as that of the NZR schemes.[Disadv.]
▪ No synchronization problem. [Adv.]
▪ No DC component problem. [Adv.]
➢ Use: Since this scheme is very complex it is not used today (It is replaced
by the better-performing Manchester and Differential Manchester schemes).
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.31
◼ Polar Manchester Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: It uses two voltage levels: negative and positive. The
voltage always transit from one level to other at the middle of each bit
interval.
▪ Bit 0: Represented by positive-to-negative voltage transition.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by negative-to-positive voltage transition.
[Fig. 4.12: Polar Manchester Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.32
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1/2. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N Hz, where N is the bit rate in bps. So, the bandwidth
is two times as that of the NZR schemes.[Disadv.]
▪ No synchronization problem (the transition at the middle of the
bit is used for synchronization). [Adv.]
▪ No DC component problem. [Adv.]
➢ Use: Used in 802.3 baseband coaxial cable and CSMA/CD twisted pair.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.33
◼ Polar Differential Manchester Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: Like Manchester, it uses two voltage levels: negative and
positive. The voltage always transit from one level to other at the middle
of each bit interval. In addition to this, there is an inversion in the
voltage level at the beginning of the 0 bit.
The starting point is a positive voltage. Then,
▪ Bit 0: Represented by an initial inversion followed by another
inversion in the voltage level.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by an inversion in the voltage level (but no
initial inversion).
[Fig. 4.13: Polar Differential
Manchester Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.34
➢ Characteristics: Same as Manchester.
➢ Use: Used in 802.5 (token ring) with twisted pair.
◼ [NOTE]: Manchester and Differential Manchester schemes are called bi-phase schemes,
because they require at least one transition per bit time and may have as many as two
transitions (for the case of 0 in differential Manchester).
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.35
Bipolar Schemes
◼ Bipolar technique (also called multilevel binary) uses 3 voltage levels: positive,
negative, and zero. The voltage level for one data element is at zero, while the
voltage level for the other element alternates between positive and negative.
◼ Bipolar AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion) Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: The word mark comes from telegraphy and means 1. So
AMI means alternate 1 inversion.
▪ Bit 0: Represented by zero voltage.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
[Fig. 4.14: Bipolar AMI Scheme]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.36
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N/2 Hz, where N is the bit rate in bps. So, the
bandwidth is half as that of the Manchester and Differential
Manchester schemes. [Adv.]
▪ May have synchronization problem, if there is a long sequence of
0s. [Disadv.].
▪ May suffer form DC component problem, if there is a long
sequence of 0s. [Disadv.]
➢ Use: Commonly used for long-distance communication.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.37
◼ Bipolar Pseudoternary Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: Just the opposite of AMI.
▪ Bit 0: Represented by alternating positive and negative voltages.
▪ Bit 1: Represented by zero voltage.
[Fig. 4.15: Bipolar Pseudoternary Scheme]
➢ Characteristics & Use: Same as AMI.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.38
Multilevel Schemes
◼ So far, we have been representing 1 or less bits per signal element. The
multilevel scheme encodes more than 1bit per signal element (in order to
increase the bit rate while keeping the bandwidth minimum).
◼ Multilevel schemes are represented by the abbreviation: mBnL
‘B’ stands for the term binary. So, ‘mB’ means ‘m’ binary bits.
‘n’ is the number of bauds (signal elements).
mBnL ‘L’ is the number of signal levels.
So, mBnL means, m binary bits are represented by n signal elements belonging
to L signal levels.
◼ In this scheme 2m bit patterns can be encoded to Ln signal patterns, in which 2m
≤ Ln. (because max. possible bit patterns are 2m, and max. possible signal
patterns are Ln)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.39
◼ 2B1Q (Two-Binary One-Quaternary) Multilevel Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: As the name suggests
▪ Two binary bits are represented by one signal element, and the
number of signal levels are 4.
[Fig. 4.16: 2B1Q Multilevel Scheme]
Important
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.40
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 2. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N/4 Hz, where N is the bit rate in bps. So, this scheme
gives the minimum bandwidth. [Adv.]
▪ Max. possible bit patterns is 22 = 4. Max. possible signal patterns
is 41 = 4. So, this scheme has no redundant signal patterns (they
are used for synchronization and error detection). Hence,
chances of synchronization problem, for long same double bits.
[Disadv.]
▪ May Suffer form DC component problem for some bit sequences
(e.g., “00 00 00 00 ...” or “01 01 01 01 ...”) [Disadv.]
➢ Use: Used in DSL (Digital Subscriber Line) technology to provide a high-
speed connection to the Internet by using subscriber telephone lines.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.41
◼ 8B6T (Eight-Binary Six-Ternary) Multilevel Scheme:
➢ The Scheme: As the name suggests
▪ Eight binary bits are represented by six signal element, and the
number of signal levels are 3.
[Fig. 4.17: 8B6T Multilevel Scheme]
(The mapping table is given in Appendix D, Forouzan, 4th Edition, Page 1055)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.42
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 8/6. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = 6N/16 Hz.
▪ Max. possible bit patterns is 28= 256. Max. possible signal
patterns is 36 = 478. So, this scheme has 478 - 256 =222 redundant
signal elements that provide synchronization and error detection.
Hence no synchronization problem. [Adv.]
▪ No DC component problem. [Adv.]
How is the DC component adjusted?: Each signal pattern has a
weight of 0 or +1. There is no pattern with the weight -1. To make
the whole stream DC-balanced, the sender keeps track of the
weight. If two groups of weight +1 are encountered one after
another, the first one is sent as is, while the next one is totally
inverted to give a weight of -1 (As shown in Fig.4.17, previous slide,
the last signal pattern is inverted).
➢ Use: Used in Ethernet LAN with 100BASE-4T cable.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.43
Multitransition: MLT-3 (Multiline Transition, Three Level)
◼ The Scheme: It uses three voltage levels (+V, 0, and -V) to represent the bit
values. The starting point is a 0V. A bit is encoded as per the rule shown in the
transition state diagram in Fig. 4.18 (a). An example of MLT-3 scheme is shown in
Fig. 4.18 (b).
[Fig. 4.18 (b)]
[Fig. 4.18 (a)]
[NOTE]: While encoding the bit ‘1’ if there is no previous non-zero level then the bit ‘1’ is
encoded as +V.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.44
➢ Characteristics:
▪ The ratio bits per baud r = 1. So, the average bandwidth is:
B = N/(2r) = N/2Hz. However, in practice it is N/3 Hz, because of
the case factor C (This is the reason why one should use this
scheme instead of NRZ-I despite its complexity)
▪ May have synchronization problem, if there is a long sequence of
0s.[Disadv.]
▪ May suffer form DC component problem, if there is a long
sequence of 0s. [Disadv.]
➢ Use: Used in Ethernet LAN with 100BASE-4T cable.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.45
[Fig. 4.19: Summary of Line Coding Schemes]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.46
Block Coding
◼ Why Block Coding?: To improve the performance of line coding.
➢ Most of the line coding schemes lacks synchronization and error
detection mechanism. We need redundancy for synchronization and
error detection. Block coding can give us this redundancy and hence
improves the performance of line coding.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.47
◼ Overall Working: Block coding involves 3 steps: division, substitution, and
combination (Shown in Fig. 4.20).
[Fig. 4.20]
Block coding replaces
each ‘m’ bit group with
an ‘n’ bit group. So, it is
normally referred to as
mB/nB coding.
◼ Use: Block coding is used prior to line coding, i.e., a sequence of bits is 1st
block coded, then line coded to produce digital signal.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.48
4B/5B (Four Binary / Five Binary)
◼ Use: 4B/5B coding scheme was designed to be used with NRZ-I (Shown in
Fig.4.21). Recall that NRZ-I has a good signal bandwidth (B = N/2 Hz), but it has a
synchronization problem for a long sequence of 0s. 4B/5B solves this issue.
[Fig. 4.21: Use of 4B/5B block coding]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.49
◼ The Scheme:
➢ 4-bit input is substituted by 5-bit output.
➢ The 5-bit output has no more than one leading zero (left bit) and no more
than two trailing zeros (right bits). So, when different groups are
combined to make a new sequence, there are never more than three
consecutive 0s. (Note that NRZ-I has synchronization problem with a
long sequences of 0s.) [Fig. 4.22, Next slide shows the 4B/5B mapping codes].
➢ A group of 4 bits can have 16 different combinations, while a group of 5
bits can have 32 different combinations. So, there are 32-16=16 groups
that are not used for 4B/5B encoding. Some of these are used for control
purposes (error detection); the others are not used at all.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.50
[Fig. 4.22: 4B/5B mapping codes]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.51
8B/10B (Eight Binary / Ten Binary)
◼ Use: Same as 4B/5B coding scheme. However, it provides greater error
detection capability than 4B/5B.
◼ The Scheme:
➢ 8-bit input is substituted by 10-bit output.
➢ It is actually a combination of 5B/6B and 3B/4B encoding [See Fig. 4.23].
The most 5 significant bits of a 10-bit block is fed into the 5B/6B encoder;
the least 3 significant bits is fed into a 3B/4B encoder.
➢ It has 210 - 28 =768 redundant groups that can be used for disparity
checking (synchronization) and error detection.
[Fig. 4.23]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.52
Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Overview
◼ Digital-to-analog conversion (digital data to band-pass analog signal
conversion) is also called modulation of digital data (or simply modulation).
◼ It involves the process of changing one of the characteristics (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) of an analog signal (called the career signal) based on the
information in digital data.
[NOTE - Career Signal]:
In analog transmission, the sending device produces a high-frequency signal that acts as a base
for the information signal (digital signal / data). This base signal is called the carrier signal or
carrier frequency. The receiving device is tuned to the frequency of the carrier signal. Digital
information then changes the carrier signal by modifying one or more of its characteristics
(amplitude, frequency, or phase). This kind of modification is called modulation (shift keying).
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.54
◼ Accordingly there are three base techniques for digital-to-analog conversion:
➢ Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
➢ Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
➢ Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
In addition, there is a fourth (and better) mechanism that combines changing
both the amplitude and phase, called Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM).
It is the most efficient of these techniques and is used in all modern modems
[Fig. 4.24: Digital-to-Analog Conversion Techniques]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.55
Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
◼ Mechanism: In ASK, the amplitude of the carrier signal is varied to create
signal elements; both frequency and phase remain constant.
◼ Variations:
➢ Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) or, On-Off Keying (OOK)
➢ Multilevel Amplitude Shift Keying (MASK)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.56
Binary Amplitude Shift Keying (BASK) / On-Off Keying (OOK)
◼ It is the simplest ASK technique.
◼ The Scheme: BASK uses two amplitude levels. The peak amplitude of the
modulated signal remains constant during each bit interval.
➢ Bit 0: Represented by the career signal with zero amplitude.
➢ Bit 1: Represented by the career signal with its original amplitude.
[Fig. 4.25: Binary Amplitude Shift Keying]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.57
◼ Important Characteristics:
➢ The ratio “bits per baud” r = 1. (i.e., S = N)
➢ Bandwidth of BASK: The required bandwidth ‘B’ for an analog
transmission of digital data (i.e., any modulation technique) is
proportional to the signal rate / baud rate ‘S’.
The relation is given by the equation: B = (1+d) S
(This is for ASK and PSK. However, for FSK, the difference
between the carrier signals needs to be added).
Since for BASK, S = N, we can write: B = (1+d) N
Here, d is a factor which depends on the modulation and filtering
process. Its is between 0 and 1. This means that the required bandwidth
has a minimum value of S and a maximum value of 2S.
The most important point here is, the middle of the bandwidth is where
the carrier frequency 𝑓c is located.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.58
◼ Example: We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to
300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our
data by using BASK with d = 1?
Solution: The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz. This means that our
carrier frequency can be at 𝑓c = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula B = (1+d) N to calculate the bit rate as follows:
B = (1+d) N ⇒ 100 kHz = 2N ⇒ N = 50 kbps
◼ Implementation:
[Fig. 4.26: BASK Implementation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.59
Multilevel Amplitude Shift Keying (MASK)
◼ The Scheme: MASK uses more than two amplitude levels.
➢ We can use 4 amplitude levels to modulate 2 bits per level (r = 2).
➢ We can use 8 amplitude levels to modulate 3 bits per level (r = 3).
➢ We can use 16 amplitude levels to modulate 4 bits per level (r = 4).
➢ And so on…
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.60
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
◼ Mechanism: In FSK, the frequency of the carrier signal is varied to create
signal elements; both peak amplitude and phase remain constant.
◼ Variations:
➢ Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
➢ Multilevel Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.61
Binary Frequency Shift Keying (BFSK)
◼ It is the simplest FSK technique.
◼ The Scheme: BFSK uses two frequencies. The frequency of the modulated
signal remains constant during each bit interval.
➢ Bit 0: Represented by the career signal with its original frequency 𝑓1.
➢ Bit 1: Represented by the career signal with a different frequency 𝑓2.
Such that 𝑓2 - 𝑓1 = 2Δ𝑓 (i.e., 𝑓1 and 𝑓2 are separated by a small frequency
given by 2Δ𝑓 ), and 2Δ𝑓 ≥ S where S is the signal rate.
[Fig. 4.27: Binary Frequency Shift Keying]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.62
◼ Important Characteristics:
➢ The ratio “bits per baud” r = 1. (i.e., S = N)
➢ Bandwidth of BFSK:
For FSK, the relation is given by the equation: B = (1+d) S + 2Δ𝑓
Since for BFSK, S = N, we can write: B = (1+d) N + 2Δ𝑓
◼ Example: We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from 200 to
300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the bit rate if we modulated
our data by using BFSK with d = 1?
Solution: The midpoint of the band is at 250 kHz.
We choose 2Δ𝑓 to be 50 kHz; Now, we can use the formula B = (1+d) N + 2Δ𝑓 to
calculate the bit rate as follows:
B = (1+d) N + 2Δ𝑓 ⇒ 100 kHz = 2N + 50kHz ⇒ N = 25 kbps
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.63
◼ Implementation:
[Fig. 4.28: BFSK Implementation]
Multilevel Frequency Shift Keying (MFSK)
◼ The Scheme: MFSK uses more than two frequencies.
➢ We can use 4 frequencies to modulate 2 bits per frequency (r = 2).
➢ We can use 8 frequencies to modulate 3 bits per frequency (r = 3).
➢ And so on…
Note that all the frequencies need to be 2Δ𝑓 apart.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.64
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
◼ Mechanism: In PSK, the phase of the carrier signal is varied to create signal
elements; both peak amplitude and frequency remain constant.
◼ Variations:
➢ Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
➢ Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.65
Binary Phase Shift Keying (BPSK)
◼ It is the simplest PSK technique.
◼ The Scheme: BPSK uses two phases. The phase of the modulated signal
remains constant during each bit interval.
➢ Bit 0: Represented by the career signal with phase shift 180°.
➢ Bit 1: Represented by the career signal with phase shift 0°.
[Fig. 4.29: Binary Phase Shift Keying]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.66
◼ Important Characteristics:
➢ The ratio “bits per baud” r = 1. (i.e., S = N)
➢ Bandwidth of BFSK: Same as BASK.
◼ Implementation:
[Fig. 4.30: BPSK Implementation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.67
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK)
◼ The Scheme: QPSK uses 4 phases to modulate 2 bits per phase (r = 2).
➢ It uses two separate BPSK modulations; one is in-phase (0°), the other
out-of-phase (90°), called Quadrature. The incoming bits are first
passed through a serial-to-parallel conversion that sends one bit to one
modulator and the next bit to the other modulator.
➢ The two composite signals created by each modulator are sine waves
with the same frequency, but different phases. When they are added,
the result is another sine wave, with one of four possible phases: -135°
(i.e., 225°), 135°, - 45° (i.e., 315°), 45° that represents 00, 01, 10 and 11
respectively.
[See Fig. 4.31, Next Slide]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.68
[Fig. 4.31: QPSK and its implementation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.69
Constellation Diagram
[NOTE]: In order to understand the QAM technique, we have to 1st understand the concept of
constellation diagram.
◼ A constellation diagram can help us define at the same time the amplitude and
phase of a signal element.
◼ The diagram is useful when we are dealing with multilevel ASK, PSK, or QAM.
[Fig. 4.32: Concept of a
constellation diagram]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.70
◼ Description of the Diagram: The diagram has four axes
➢ Positive X-axis: Corresponds to the carrier with phase 0° (in-phase)
➢ Positive Y-axis: Corresponds to the carrier with phase 90° (out-phase
carrier / quadrature).
➢ Negative X-axis: Corresponds to the carrier with phase 180° .
➢ Negative Y-axis: Corresponds to the carrier with phase 270° .
A signal element is represented as a dot / point in the diagram. For each point
on the diagram, four pieces of information can be deduced.
1. The projection of the point on the X-axis defines the peak amplitude of
the in-phase (0°) component, called I-Component.
2. The projection of the point on the Y-axis defines the peak amplitude of
the out-phase / quadrature (90°) component, called Q-Component.
3. The distance of the point from the origin defines the peak amplitude of
the signal element (combination of the X and Ycomponents).
4. The angle this line makes with the X-axis defines the phase of the signal
element.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.71
◼ Example: The following figure shows the constellation diagrams for OOK,
BPSK, and QPSK.
[Fig. 4.33: Constellation diagrams for OOK, BPSK, and QPSK]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.72
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM)
◼ So far, we have been altering only one of the three characteristics of a sine
wave at a time; but what if we alter two?
◼ Mechanism: In QAM we alter two characteristics at the same time: amplitude
and phase. So, it is a combination of ASK and PSK.
➢ The idea is, in QAM we use two carriers, one in-phase (0°) and the other
quadrature (90°), with different amplitude levels for each carrier.
The possible variations of QAM are numerous. Fig. 4.34 shows some of these
schemes.
[Fig. 4.34: Constellation diagrams of some QAMs]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.73
Analog-to-Digital Conversion
Overview
◼ Analog-to-digital conversion (band-pass analog signal to digital data
conversion) is also called demodulation / digitization.
◼ There are two common demodulation techniques:
➢ Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
➢ Delta Modulation [Not in Course]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.75
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
◼ Pulse code modulation comprises of three steps [See Fig. 4.35]:
1. The analog signal is sampled.
2. The sampled signal is quantized.
3. The quantized values are encoded as streams of bits.
[Fig. 4.35: Components of PCM encoder (The device that performs pulse code
modulation is called PCM encoder)]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.76
STEP 1: Sampling
◼ Sampling is also called, Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM).
◼ In sampling, we take the snapshots of the amplitude of the analog signal (the
analog signal is sampled ) every Ts seconds. The period Ts is called the “sample
interval” and is usually very small (in milliseconds range).
[Fig. 4.36: The Sampling Process]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.77
◼ Types: The sampling that is shown in Fig. 4.36, previous slide is called ideal
sampling. There are also two other types of sampling: natural and flat-top [See
Fig. 4.37, Next slide].
➢ Ideal Sampling: In this, the pulses/amplitudes of the analog signal is
sampled at instant, every Ts seconds. The result is a single sample.
➢ Natural Sampling: In this, a high-speed switch is turned on for only a
small period of time when the sampling occurs. The result is a sequence
of samples that retains the shape of the analog signal.
➢ Flat-top Sampling: Also called sample and hold. It creates flat-top
samples by using a circuit. It’s the most common sampling method.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.78
[Fig. 4.37: The three different sampling methods for PCM]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.79
◼ Sampling Rate / Sampling Frequency (𝑓s) : How fast should we sample? (Or,
How minimum should be Ts ; Sampling rate is inversely proportional to
sampling period). This question is answered by Nyquist.
Nyquist Theorem (This is NOT the Nyquist data rate limit theorem):
According to Nyquist, the sampling rate (𝑓s) must be at least 2 times the
highest frequency contained in the signal.
[NOTE]: According to this theorem, the sampling rate depends ONLY upon the height
frequency, NOT the lowest frequency, no matter whether the minimum frequency is 0
(low-pass signal) or non-zero (band-pass signal).
[Fig. 4.38: Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and band-pass signals]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.80
[Fig. 4.39: Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.81
STEP 2: Quantization
◼ The result of sampling is a series of amplitude values between the maximum
and minimum amplitudes of the signal. These set of values can be non-integral.
The issue is, non-integral values cannot be used in the encoding process.
◼ In quantization we convert the non-integral amplitude values to integral values.
◼ Quantization involves the following steps:
1. The sampled amplitude range of the original analog signal is divided
into L zones, each of height Δ .
Here, Vmax and Vmin are respectively the maximum and
minimum amplitudes values obtained from sampling.
2. The midpoint of each zone is assigned a quantized value from 0 to L - 1.
3. The value of the sample amplitude is approximated to quantized value.
As an example, assume that we have a sampled signal, and the sample
amplitudes are between -20 and +20 V. We decide to have 8 levels (L = 8). This
means, Δ = 5V. Fig. 4.40, Next Slide, shows this example.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.82
[Fig. 4.40: Quantization & Encoding of a Sampled Signal
(We have shown only 9 samples using ideal sampling for simplicity)]
TheThe
actual sampled
actual amplitude
sampled value
amplitude value
The output after Quantization
The output after Encoding
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.83
STEP 3: Encoding
◼ The last step of PCM is encoding.
◼ In this step the quantized codes are represented by bit values [See Fig. 4.40,
previous slide].
Note that, the number of bits (nb) for each sample is determined from the
number of quantization levels. If the number of quantization levels is L, the
number of bits is nb = log2 L. In our example L = 8, therefore nb = 3.
◼ The bit rate can be calculated as follows:
Bit rate = sampling rate × number of bits per sample = 𝑓s × nb
Example: We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate, assuming 8
bits per sample?
Solution: The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0 to 4000 Hz.
So, sampling rate = 2 times the max. frequency = 2 × 4000 = 8000 samples/second
This implies, Bit rate = 8000 × 8 = 64,000 bps = 64 kbps
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.84
Analog-to-Analog Conversion
Overview
◼ Analog-to-analog conversion (low-pass analog signal to band-pass analog
signal conversion) is also called modulation of analog signals.
◼ Why This Type of Conversion is Needed?: This type of conversion is needed if
the medium is band-pass in nature or if only a band-pass channel is available to
us. An example is radio. The analog signal produced by each radio station is a
low-pass signal, all in the same range. To be able to listen to different stations,
the low-pass signals need to be shifted, each to a different range.
◼ Conversion techniques:
➢ Amplitude Modulation (AM)
➢ Frequency Modulation (FM)
➢ Phase Modulation (PM)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.86
Amplitude Modulation (AM)
◼ The Scheme: In AM modulation, the amplitude of the carrier signal is
modulated to follow the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The
frequency and phase of the carrier remain the same.
[Fig. 4.41: Amplitude Modulation and It’s implementation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.87
◼ Required Bandwidth: The total bandwidth required for AM is given by the
equation: BAM = 2×B, where B is the bandwidth of the modulating signal. The
frequency of the carrier signal (𝑓c) is located at the center of this range.
Bandwidth Allocation for AM Radio
◼ The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) is usually 5 kHz.
Therefore, an AM radio station needs a bandwidth of 10 kHz. AM stations are
allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 530 and 1700 kHz (1.7 MHz).
However, to avoid interference, each station's bandwidth is separated from
that of others on either side of it by at least 10 kHz (one AM bandwidth). Each
station sends their own signal to the air. A receiver receives all these signals,
but filters (by tuning) only the one which is desired.
[Fig. 4.42: AM band allocation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.88
Frequency Modulation (FM)
◼ The Scheme: In FM modulation, the frequency of the carrier signal is modulated
to follow the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The amplitude and
phase of the carrier remain the same.
[Fig. 4.43: Frequency Modulation and It’s implementation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.89
◼ Required Bandwidth: The total bandwidth required for FM is given by the
equation: BFM = 2 (1+β)B, where B is the bandwidth of the modulating signal and
β is a factor that depends on modulation technique (common value is 4 for FM).
The frequency of the carrier signal (𝑓c) is located at the center of this range.
Bandwidth Allocation for FM Radio
◼ The bandwidth of an audio signal (speech and music) broadcast in stereo mode
is almost 15 kHz. Therefore, an FM radio station needs a bandwidth of 150 kHz.
The government allows 200 kHz (0.2MHz) for each station. FM stations are
allowed carrier frequencies anywhere between 88 and 108 MHz. However, to
avoid interference, each station's bandwidth is separated from that of others
on either side of it by 200 kHz (one FM bandwidth). Each station sends their own
signal to the air. A receiver receives all these signals, but filters (by tuning)
only the one which is desired.
[Fig. 4.44: FM
band allocation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.90
Phase Modulation (PM)
◼ The Scheme: In PM modulation, the phase of the carrier signal is modulated to
follow the changing amplitudes of the modulating signal. The amplitude and
frequency of the carrier remain the same.
[Fig. 4.45: Phase Modulation and It’s implementation]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.91
◼ Required Bandwidth: The total bandwidth required for PM is given by the
equation: BPM = 2 (1+β)B. Although the formula seems to be same as that of FM,
the value of β is lower in the case of PM (around 1 for narrowband and 3 for
wideband). The frequency of the carrier signal (𝑓c) is located at the center of
this range.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.92
Data Transmission Modes
Overview
◼ The transmission of binary data across a link can be accomplished in either
parallel or serial mode.
➢ Parallel: Multiple bits are sent with each clock tick.
➢ Serial: One bit is sent with each clock tick.
While there is only one way to send parallel data, there are three subclasses of
serial transmission: asynchronous and synchronous.
[Fig. 4.46: Data
transmission modes]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.94
Parallel Transmission
◼ Mechanism:
➢ Group of n-bits is sent at a time instead of 1 at a time.
➢ Uses n-wires to send n-bits at a time.
➢ Each bit has its own wire and all n-bits of one group transmitted with
each clock pulse from one device to another.
[Fig. 4.47:
Parallel
transmission
of 8-bits]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.95
◼ Advantage: High Speed - All else being equal, parallel transmission increases
the transfer speed by a factor of n over serial transmission.
◼ Disadvantage: High Cost - It requires n communication lines.
◼ Use: Because of the cost factor, parallel transmission is limited to short
distances (it is commonly used within a device)
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.96
Serial Transmission
◼ Mechanism:
➢ One bit follows another.
➢ Uses one communication channel.
[Fig. 4.48: Serial
transmission of
8-bits]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.97
◼ Advantage: Low Cost - Serial transmission reduces cost by factor of n as a
single wire is used between any 2 devices.
◼ Disadvantage: Low Speed - Serial transmission reduces speed by factor of n
compared to parallel transmission.
◼ Use: Serial transmission is used between two devices (parallel transmission is
used within a device).
[NOTE]: Since communication within devices is parallel and communication between devices
is serial, conversion devices are required at the interface between the sender and the line
(parallel-to-serial) and between the line and the receiver (serial-to-parallel).
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.98
Asynchronous Transmission
◼ Mechanism:
➢ Asynchronous transmission sends one start bit (0) at the beginning and
one or more stop bits (1s) at the end of each byte.
➢ There may be a gap between each byte.
[NOTE]: Asynchronous here means "asynchronous at the byte level", but the bits are still
synchronized; their durations are the same.
[Fig. 4.49:
Asynchronous
transmission]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.99
◼ Advantage: Cheap, Effective
◼ Disadvantage: Gap between each byte slows the transmission that can operate
without addition of control information.
◼ Use: For low-speed communication for example, the connection of a keyboard
to a computer.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.100
Synchronous Transmission
◼ Mechanism:
➢ In synchronous transmission, bytes are sent one after another without
start or stop bits or gaps (i.e., data are sent as an unbroken strings of
0’s and 1’s.).
➢ It is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits. Accuracy of the
received information completely depends on the receiver.
[Fig. 4.50: Synchronous transmission]
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.101
◼ Advantage: Speed - without no extra bits and gap, it is faster than
Asynchronous.
◼ Disadvantage: The receiver has to be completely synchronized with the sender
during the whole period of data transmission.
◼ Use: Because of the speed factor, synchronous transmission is mostly used for
high-speed applications such as the transmission of data from one computer to
another.
Dr. N. K. Pani, Dept. of CSEA, IGIT Sarang | 4.102
End of Chapter 4