DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING ECEg-3205

CHAPTER THREE
THE Z-TRANSFORM AND ANALYSIS OF
DISCRETE-TIME LTI SYSTEMS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
 The Z-Transform for discrete-time signals is the counter part of the Laplace-
Transform for Continuous-time signals and they each have a similar relation to the
corresponding Fourier Transform.
 The Z-Transform is a powerful mathematical tool for the analysis of Linear-Time
Invariant discrete-time systems in the frequency domain.
 The Z-Transform converts difference equations into algebraic equations, there by
simplifying the analysis of discrete-time systems.

3.2 DEFINITION OF THE Z-TRANSFORM

The Z-Transform of a discrete-time sequence x[n] is defined as

--------- (1)

Where z is a complex variable.

The correspondence between a sequence and its Z-Transform is indicated by the notation

The Z-Transform as we have defined in equation 1 of often referred to as the two-sided or

bilateral Z-Transform, in contrast to the one sided or unilateral Z-Transform, which is defined
as

--------------- (2)

RELATION BETWEEN Z-T AND F-T

There is a close relation between the Fourier-Transform and Z-Transform.

In polar form Z can be expressed as

------------------- (3)
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where r is the radius of the circle.

Substituting eqn. (3) in eqn. (1) we have

For r=1, the above expression reduces to Fourier Transform of x[n].

“The Z-Transform evaluated on the unit circle corresponds to the Fourier-Transform.”

Figure 2-1 the unit circle in the complex Z-plane

3.3. REGION OF CONVERGENCE (ROC)

For any given sequence, the set of values of Z for which the Z-Transform converges is called
the Region of Convergence (ROC).

The condition for convergence of the Z-Transform is

NOTE: It is possible for the Z-Transform to converge even if the Fourier Transform does not.

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Example Problem 1

Solution:-

From definition of Z-Transform (eqn.1), we have

Example Problem 2

Determine the Z-Transforms and ROCs of some common sequences

(a) 𝜹[𝒏] (b) 𝒖[𝒏] (c)−𝒖[−𝒏 − 𝟏] (d) 𝒂𝒏 𝒖[𝒏] (e)−𝒂𝒏 𝒖[−𝒏 − 𝟏]
(f) 𝜶𝒏 𝒖[𝒏] + 𝒃𝒏 𝒖[−𝒏 − 𝟏]
Solutions:-
(a) Consider the unit impulse

Then the Z-T is

ROC : Entire Z-Plane

(b)

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ROC :
(c) Consider the signal 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛]
Then

ROC :

(d) Consider the signal 𝑥[𝑛] = −𝑎𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1]

Then

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(e) Consider the signal 𝑎𝑛 𝑢[𝑛] + 𝑏𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1],then

We know
𝒛
𝒁{𝒂𝒏 𝒖[𝒏]} = ; 𝑹𝑶𝑪 ∶ |𝒛| > |𝑎|
𝒛−𝒂
𝒛
𝒁 {𝒃𝒏 𝒖[−𝒏 − 𝟏]} = − ; 𝑹𝑶𝑪 ∶ |𝒛| < |𝑏|
𝒛− 𝒃
𝒛 𝒛
𝒁{𝒂𝒏 𝒖[𝒏] + 𝒃𝒏 𝒖[−𝒏 − 𝟏]} = 𝒛−𝒂 − 𝒛−𝒃
and ROC : |𝒂| < |𝒛| < |𝑏|

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3.4. PROPERTIES OF ROC

The properties of ROC depend on the nature of the signal.

1. The ROC is a ring or disk in the Z-plane centred at the origin.

2. The ROC cannot contain any Poles.
3. The F.T of x[n] converges absolutely if and only if the ROC of the Z-T of x[n]
includes unit circle.
4. If x[n] is a finite- duration sequence and causal then the ROC is the entire Z-Plane
except at Z=0.
5. If x[n] is a finite- duration sequence and anti-causal then the ROC is the entire Z-
Plane except at Z=∞.
6. If x[n] is a finite- duration sequence and two sided then the ROC is the entire Z-Plane
except at Z=0 and except at Z=∞.
7. If x[n] is an infinite- duration sequence and two sided then the ROC will consist of a
ring in the Z-Plane, bounded on the interior and exterior by a pole.
8. The ROC must be a connected region.

NOTE: The ROC of an infinite duration, causal sequence is the exterior of a circle of radius
r2 while the ROC of an infinite duration anti-causal sequence is the interior of a circle of
some radius r1 .

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Table 3.1 shows the summary of the properties.

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3.5 PROPERTIES OF Z-TRANSFORM

1. LINEARITY: It is one which satisfies both additivity and homogeneity.

If
𝑧
𝑥 1 (𝑛) ↔ 𝑋1 (𝑍) ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅1
𝑧
𝑥 2 (𝑛) ↔ 𝑋2 (𝑍) ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅2
then
𝑧
𝑎1 𝑥 1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 (𝑛) ↔ 𝑎1 𝑋1 (𝑍) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑍) ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶 ⊃ 𝑅1 ∩ 𝑅2
Proof:
Let 𝑍{ 𝑥 1 (𝑛)} = 𝑋1 (𝑍) = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞ 𝑥 1 (𝑛) 𝑧
−𝑛
∞

𝑍{ 𝑥 2 (𝑛)} = 𝑋2 (𝑍) = ∑ 𝑥 2 (𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞
𝑍 {𝑎1 𝑥 1 (𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 (𝑛)} = ∑∞
𝑛=−∞[ (𝑎1 𝑥1 ( 𝑛) + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 ( 𝑛)] 𝑧
−𝑛
∞ ∞
−𝑛
= 𝑎1 ∑ 𝑥 1 (𝑛)𝑧 + 𝑎2 ∑ 𝑥 2 (𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
= 𝑎1 𝑋1 (𝑍) + 𝑎2 𝑋2 (𝑍)

EXAMPLE: Find the Z-Transform of sum of two exponential sequences and sketch the
ROC. (use above property)

Solution: - we know

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2. TIME SHIFTING
𝑧
If 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋 ( 𝑧) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅
𝑧
then 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘] ↔ 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋(𝑧) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅 ∩ {0 < |𝑧| < ∞}

Proof: 𝑍 {𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]} = ∑∞

𝑛=−∞ 𝑥[𝑛 − 𝑘]𝑧
−𝑛

𝑙𝑒𝑡 𝑛 − 𝑘 = 𝑚, 𝑛 = 𝑚 + 𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚 = −∞ 𝑡𝑜 ∞
∞

= ∑ 𝑥[𝑚]𝑧 −𝑚 𝑧 −𝑘 = 𝑧 −𝑘 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑚=−∞
ROC is same as X(z) except for z = 0 if k ˃ 0, z =∞ if k ˂ 0.

Example: Determine the Z-Transform of the given sequence and sketch ROC.
𝑥[𝑛] = 𝛿[𝑛 − 3] (use above property)
Sol:- 𝑍 {𝛿[𝑛 − 3]} = 𝑧 −3 . 1 = 𝑧 −3

3. SCALING IN Z-DOMAIN /MULTIPLICATION BY EXPONENTIAL

𝑧
If 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋 (𝑧) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅
𝑧 𝑍
then 𝑎𝑛 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋(𝑎−1 𝑍) 𝑜𝑟 𝑋 (𝑎) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = |𝑎|𝑅
Proof:

Example: Determine the Z-Transform and ROC of the given sequence

1 𝑛
𝑥[𝑛] = (2 ) 𝑢[𝑛]. (use above property)
1 𝑧
Sol:- we know 𝑍 {𝑢[𝑛]} = 𝑜𝑟
1−𝑧 −1 𝑧 −1
1 𝑛 1 𝑧 1
then 𝑍 {( ) 𝑢[𝑛]} = 1 𝑜𝑟 1 ROC: |𝑧| >
2 1− 𝑧−1 𝑧− 2
2 2

4. TIME REVERSAL
𝑧
If 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋 (𝑍) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅
𝑧 1
then 𝑥[−𝑛] ↔ 𝑋 (𝑍 −1 ) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅
Proof:
∞

𝑍 {𝑥[−𝑛]} = ∑ 𝑥[−𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
𝑙𝑒𝑡 − 𝑛 = 𝑚, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
∞

= ∑ 𝑥[𝑚](𝑧 −1 )−𝑚 = 𝑋 (𝑧 −1 )
𝑚=−∞
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Example: Determine the Z-Transform and ROC of the given sequence

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑢[−𝑛] (use above property)
Sol:- we know
1 𝑧
𝑍 {𝑢[𝑛]} = 1−𝑧 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑧−1
1 1
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑍{𝑢[−𝑛]} = 𝑜𝑟 ROC: |𝑧| < 1.
1−(𝑧−1 ) −1 𝑧 −1

5. DIFFERENTIATION IN Z-DOMAIN
𝑧
If 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑧 𝑑
then 𝑛𝑥[𝑛] ↔ −𝑧 𝑋(𝑧)
𝑑𝑧
Proof: let
∞

𝑋(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛
𝑛=−∞
Differentiate with respect to Z on both sides, then
∞
𝑑 𝑑
𝑋 (𝑍) = [ ∑ 𝑥[𝑛]𝑧 −𝑛 ]
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑛=−∞
Interchange the order of summation and integration, then
∞
𝑑 𝑑
𝑋 (𝑍) = ∑ 𝑥[𝑛] 𝑧 −𝑛
𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑧
𝑛=−∞

∞
𝑑
−𝑧 𝑋(𝑍) = ∑ 𝑛𝑥 (𝑛)𝑧 −𝑛
𝑑𝑧
𝑛=−∞

NOTE: No change in the ROC

Example: Determine the Z-Transform and ROC of the given sequence

𝑥 (𝑛) = 𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢(𝑛) (use above property)
Sol:- let

then

Example: Determine the Z-Transform and ROC of the given sequence

𝑥[𝑛] = −𝑛𝑎𝑛 𝑢[−𝑛 − 1] (use above property)

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Sol:- Do same as the previous problem and the answer is

Example: Determine the Z-Transform and ROC of the given sequence

𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (𝜔𝑜 𝑛)𝑢[𝑛] (try this problem and the answer is given below)

6. ACCUMULATION:
𝑧
If 𝑥[𝑛] ↔ 𝑋 (𝑍) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅
Then
𝑛
𝑧 1
∑ 𝑥[𝑘] ↔ 𝑋 (𝑧) 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅 ∩ { |𝑧| < 1}
1 − 𝑧 −1
𝑘=−∞
Note that ∑𝑛𝑘 =−∞ 𝑥 [𝑘] is the discrete-time counterpart to integration in the time domain
and is called the accumulation.

7. CONVOLUTION
It is the most important Z-Transform property.
It states that the convolution in time-domain is mapped into multiplication in the frequency
domain.
If
𝑧
𝑥 1 [𝑛] ↔ 𝑋1 (𝑍) ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅1
𝑧
𝑥 2 [𝑛] ↔ 𝑋2 (𝑍) ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶 = 𝑅2
𝑧
𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑥1 [𝑛] ∗ 𝑥 2 [𝑛] ↔ 𝑋1 (𝑍). 𝑋2 (𝑍) ; 𝑅𝑂𝐶 ⊃ 𝑅1 ∩ 𝑅2
Proof:
∞ ∞

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑍{𝑥 1 [𝑛]} = 𝑋1 (𝑍) = ∑ 𝑥 1 [𝑛]𝑧−𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑍{𝑥 2 [𝑛]} = 𝑋2 (𝑍) = ∑ 𝑥 2 [𝑛]𝑧−𝑛
𝑛=−∞ 𝑛=−∞
∞

𝐿𝑒𝑡 𝑥[𝑛] = 𝑥1 [𝑛] ∗ 𝑥 2 [𝑛] = ∑ 𝑥 1 [𝑘]𝑥2 [𝑛 − 𝑘]

𝑘 =−∞
∞ ∞

𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 𝑍{𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑ [ ∑ 𝑥 1 [𝑘]𝑥2 [𝑛 − 𝑘]] 𝑧 −𝑛

𝑛=−∞ 𝑘 =−∞

Interchange the order of summations and applying the shifting property,

∞ ∞

𝑤𝑒 ℎ𝑎𝑣𝑒 , 𝑍 {𝑥[𝑛]} = ∑ 𝑥 1 [𝑘] [ ∑ 𝑥 2 [𝑛 − 𝑘] 𝑧 −𝑛 ]

𝑘 =−∞ 𝑛=−∞

= ∑ 𝑥 1 [𝑘]𝑧 −𝑘 . 𝑋2 (𝑍) = 𝑋1 (𝑍)𝑋2 (𝑍)

𝑘=−∞

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3.6. INVERSE Z-TRANSFORM

The inverse Z-T is the following complex contour integral:
1
𝑥 [𝑛] = ∮ 𝑋(𝑧)𝑧 𝑛−1 𝑑𝑧
2𝜋𝑗 𝐶
Where C represents a closed contour within the ROC of the Z-T.
This integral expression can be derived using the Cauchy integral theorem, which is complex.
Therefore we prefer some techniques/methods based on evaluation.
They are
1. Inspection Method
2. Power Series Expansion
3. Partial Fraction Expansion

1. Inspection Method
The inspection method consists simply of becoming familiar with or recognizing “by
inspection”, certain Z-T pairs. For this, we have to know Z-T of some common sequences
and their ROCs.

Table 2-2: some common z-transform pairs.

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The inversion of X(z), we attempt to express X(z) as a sum

X(z) =X1 (z) +X2 (z). . . +Xn (z)
where X1 (z ), . . . , Xn ( z) are functions with known inverse transforms x1 [n], . . . , xn [n].
From the linearity property, it follows that
x[n] = x1 [n] + x2 [n] + ……+ xn [n]

Example Problems
Find the Inverse Z-Transform of the following functions

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒏
1. 𝑿(𝒁) = 𝟏 , |𝒛| > 𝟐 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 , 𝒙[𝒏] = (− 𝟐) 𝒖(𝒏)
𝟏+ 𝒛 −𝟏
𝟐

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒏
2. 𝑿(𝒁) = 𝟏 , |𝒛| < 𝟐 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒙[𝒏] = − (− 𝟐) 𝒖(−𝒏 − 𝟏)
𝟏+ 𝒛 −𝟏
𝟐

3. 𝑿(𝒁) = 𝒛𝟑 , 𝑬𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒓𝒆 𝒛 − 𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒏𝒆 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕 𝒂𝒕 𝒛 = 𝟎 𝒔𝒐𝒍, 𝒙[𝒏] = 𝜹(𝒏 + 𝟑)

𝟐 𝒛 −𝟏
4. 𝑿(𝒁) = 𝟐 , |𝒛| > 2 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒙[𝒏] = 𝒏(𝟐)𝒏 𝒖(𝒏)
(𝟏−𝟐𝒛−𝟏 )

𝟐𝒛
5. 𝑿(𝒁) = (𝒛−𝟐)𝟐 , |𝒛| < 2 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 , 𝒙 [𝒏] = − 𝒏(𝟐)𝒏 𝒖(−𝒏 − 𝟏)

2. Power Series Expansion

If the Z-T is given as a power series in the form

We can determine any particular value of the sequence by finding the coefficient of the
appropriate power of 𝑧 −1 .
This approach is also very useful for finite length sequences where X(Z) may have no
simpler form than a polynomial in 𝑧 −1 .

Example Problem
1
Find the inverse Z-T 𝑋 (𝑧) = 𝑧 2 (1 − 2 𝑧 −1 )(1 + 𝑧 −1 )(1 − 𝑧 −1 ) .
Sol:- However by multiplying the factors, we can express

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Power Series Expansion by Long Division:

 In this method we simply divide numerator by denominator.
 If the sequence is causal, we obtain a series in powers of 𝑧 −1 .
 If the sequence is anti-causal, we obtain a series in powers of z.

Example Problem
𝟏
Find the inverse Z-T if 𝑿(𝒁) = , |𝒛| > |𝑎|
𝟏−𝒂𝒛 −𝟏
Sol:-
Since the ROC is the exterior of a circle, the sequence is causal.

3. Partial Fractions Expansion

(a) Distinct Poles : If all the poles P1 , P2 ,------------,PN are all distinct, then we get

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Example Problem
Find the inverse Z-T by partial fraction method if

; |𝒛| > 1

To find the constants, we have formulae,

Then we get A1 =2; and A2 = -1,

Therefore,

𝒛 𝒛
And 𝑿(𝒛) = 𝟐 (𝒛−𝟏) − ( 𝒛−𝟎.𝟓 )
𝒃𝒚 𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏, 𝒙(𝒏) = 𝟐(𝟏)𝒏 𝒖(𝒏) − (𝟎. 𝟓)𝒏 𝒖(𝒏)

(b) Multiple Order Poles: If X(z) has a pole of multiplicity 𝑙 , i.e it contains in its
denominator by the factor (𝑧 − 𝑃𝑘 )𝑙 then the expansion is no longer true. In this case a
different expansion is needed.

Example Problem
Find the inverse Z-T for the given function

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Sol:-

3.7 Linear Time-Invariant (LTI) Discrete -Time Systems

Introduction
Consider and LTI system

The output is given by

But in Z-T , by using the convolution property the above equation may also be
expressed as

--------------------- (1)
Where H(Z), the Z-T of h(n), is the system function of the LTI system.
The system function is very useful in the description and analysis of LTI systems.

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System Function H(z)

The system function H(z) is the Z-T of the unit sample response;

-------------- (2)
From equation 1, the system function is given by

-------------------- (3)
The relation in eqn. (1) is particularly useful in obtaining H(Z) when the system is
described by a LCC Difference Equation of the form

----------- (4)
We can determine system function H(z), from above equation by computing Z-T of
both sides and applying time-shifting property.
Then

----------------- (5)

or equivalently

------------------------- (6)

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Therefore, an LTI system described by a constant coefficient difference equation has a

rational system function.
The above equation is the general form of the system function described by a LCCDE.
From this general form we obtain two important special forms.

1. If 𝒂𝒌 = 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝟏 ≤ 𝒌 ≤ 𝑵, then eqn.(6) reduces to

𝑀 𝑀
−𝑘
1
𝐻(𝑧) = ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 = 𝑀 ∑ 𝑏𝑘 𝑧 𝑀−𝑘 − − − − − − − − − −7
𝑧
𝑘=0 𝑘=0
In this case H(z) contains M zero’s whose values are determined by the system
parameters {bk }, and an Mth order pole at the origin z=0.
Since the system contains trivial poles (at Z=0) and M non-trivial zero’s, it is called an
all-zero system.
Clearly, such a system has a finite-duration impulse response (FIR), and is called an
FIR system (or) a moving average (MA) system.

2. If 𝑏𝑘 = 0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 1 ≤ 𝑘 ≤ 𝑀, then eqn.(6) reduces to

---------------------- (8)

In this case H(Z) consists of N poles, whose values are determined by the system parameters
{ak },and N th order zero at the origin z=0.
Consequently the system function in eqn.(8) contains only non-trivial poles and the
corresponding system is called an all-pole system. Due to the presence of poles, the impulse
response of such a system is infinite in duration, and hence it is an IIR system.

Example Problem

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Causality and Stability

Example Problem

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