RESISTOR

A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical

resistance as a circuit element.

The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

Where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.

The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the intensity of current in the
circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant (independent of the
voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings.

Electronic symbols and notation

The symbol used for a resistor in a circuit diagram varies from standard to standard and
country to country. Two typical symbols are as follows;

American-style symbols. (a) Resistor, (b) rheostat (variable resistor), and

(c) potentiometer

IEC-style resistor symbol

The notation to state a resistor's value in a circuit diagram varies, too. The European
notation avoids using a decimal separator, and replaces the decimal separator with the SI
prefix symbol for the particular value. For example, 8k2 in a circuit diagram indicates a
resistor value of 8.2 kΩ. Additional zeros imply tighter tolerance, for example 15M0. When
the value can be expressed without the need for an SI prefix, an 'R' is used instead of the
decimal separator. For example, 1R2 indicates 1.2 Ω, and 18R indicates 18 Ω. The use of a SI
prefix symbol or the letter 'R' circumvents the problem that decimal separators tend to
'disappear' when photocopying a printed circuit diagram.
Theory of operation

The hydraulic analogy compares electric current flowing through circuits to water flowing
through pipes. When a pipe (left) is filled with hair (right), it takes a larger pressure to
achieve the same flow of water. Pushing electric current through a large resistance is like
pushing water through a pipe clogged with hair: It requires a larger push (voltage drop) to
drive the same flow (electric current).

Lead arrangements

Through-hole components typically have leads leaving the body axially. Others have leads
coming off their body radials instead of parallel to the resistor axis. Other components may
be SMT (surface mount technology) while high power resistors may have one of their leads
designed into the heat sink.
The Standard EIA Color Code Table per EIA-RS-279 is as follows:

1st 2nd 3rd band 4th band Temp.

Color
band band (multiplier) (tolerance) Coefficient

Black 0 0 ×100

Brown 1 1 ×101 ±1% (F) 100 ppm

Red 2 2 ×102 ±2% (G) 50 ppm

Orange 3 3 ×103 15 ppm

Yellow 4 4 ×104 25 ppm

Green 5 5 ×105 ±0.5% (D)

Blue 6 6 ×106 ±0.25% (C)

Violet 7 7 ×107 ±0.1% (B)

Gray 8 8 ×108 ±0.05% (A)

White 9 9 ×109

Gold ×0.1 ±5% (J)

Silver ×0.01 ±10% (K)

CAPACITOR

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component

used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field
develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative
charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of
the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of
conductor; hence capacitor conductors are often called plates, referring to an early means
of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of
leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown
voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies,
in the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power
transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

Theory of operation
Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric
(orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A simple demonstration of a parallel-plate capacitor

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region.[10] The non-

conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical
insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a
semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is
assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence
from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on
their facing surfaces,[11] and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance
of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one
volt across the device.[12]
The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An
ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of
charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:[10]

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to
vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

Applications

Energy storage:

Pulsed power and weapons

Power conditioning:

TRANSISTOR

A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and
electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals for
connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's
terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled
(output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a
signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found
embedded in integrated circuits.

The transistor is the fundamental building block of modern electronic devices, and is
ubiquitous in modern electronic systems. Following its development in the early 1950s, the
transistor revolutionized the field of electronics, and paved the way for smaller and cheaper
radios, calculators, and computers, among other things.

Operation
A simple circuit diagram to show the labels of a NPN bipolar transistor.

The essential usefulness of a transistor comes from its ability to use a small signal applied
between one pair of its terminals to control a much larger signal at another pair of
terminals. This property is called gain. A transistor can control its output in proportion to the
input signal; that is, it can act as an amplifier. Alternatively, the transistor can be used to
turn current on or off in a circuit as an electrically controlled switch, where the amount of
current is determined by other circuit elements.

There are two types of transistors, which have slight differences in how they are used in a
circuit. A bipolar transistor has terminals labeled base, collector, and emitter. A small
current at the base terminal (that is, flowing between the base and the emitter) can control
or switch a much larger current between the collector and emitter terminals. For a field-
effect transistor, the terminals are labeled gate, source, and drain, and a voltage at the gate
can control a current between source and drain. The image to the right represents a typical
bipolar transistor in a circuit. Charge will flow between emitter and collector terminals
depending on the current in the base. Since internally the base and emitter connections
behave like a semiconductor diode, a voltage drop develops between base and emitter
while the base current exists. The amount of this voltage depends on the material the
transistor is made from, and is referred to as VBE.

Application

1) Transistor as a switch

2) Transistor as an amplifier:
Advantages

The key advantages that have allowed transistors to replace their vacuum tube
predecessors in most applications are

 No power consumption by a cathode heater.

 Small size and minimal weight, allowing the development of miniaturized electronic
devices.
 Low operating voltages compatible with batteries of only a few cells.
 No warm-up period for cathode heaters required after power application.
 Lower power dissipation and generally greater energy efficiency.
 Higher reliability and greater physical ruggedness.
 Extremely long life. Some transistorized devices have been in service for more than
50 years.
 Complementary devices available, facilitating the design of complementary-
symmetry circuits, something not possible with vacuum tubes.
 Insensitivity to mechanical shock and vibration, thus avoiding the problem of micro
phonics in audio applications.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very
high brightness.

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with electron
holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon)
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less
than 1 mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern.
LEDs present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy
consumption, longer lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster
switching. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and
require more precise current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources
of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive
lighting, advertising, general lighting, and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video
displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in
advanced communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control
units of many commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic
appliances. LEDs are also used in seven-segment display.

Technology

Fig.1 The inner workings of an LED

Fig.2 I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is
exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2–3 volts.

Colors and materials

Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The
following table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and
material:

Wavelength
Color Voltage drop [ΔV] Semiconductor material
[nm]

Infrared λ > 760 ΔV < 1.63 Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

 Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

610 < λ < Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Red 1.63 < ΔV < 2.03
760 Aluminum gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

590 < λ <
Orange 2.03 < ΔV < 2.10 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
610
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)

570 < λ <
Yellow 2.10 < ΔV < 2.18 Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
590
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)

nitride (GaN)
500 < λ < [59]
Green 1.9 < ΔV < 4.0 Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
570
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)

Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

450 < λ < Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Blue 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7
500 Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrate—under development

400 < λ <

Violet 2.76 < ΔV < 4.0 Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
450

Dual blue/red LEDs,

multiple
Purple 2.48 < ΔV < 3.7 blue with red phosphor,
types
or white with purple plastic

Diamond (235 nm)[60]
Boron nitride (215 nm)[61][62]
Ultraviole Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[63]
λ < 400 3.1 < ΔV < 4.4
t Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)—
down to 210 nm[64]

Pink multiple ΔV ~ 3.3[65] Blue with one or two phosphor layers:

types yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor
added afterwards,
 or white with pink pigment or dye.[66]

Broad
White ΔV = 3.5 Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
spectrum

Application

Flashing LEDs are used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external
electronics. Flashing LEDs resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated
multivibrator circuit that causes the LED to flash with a typical period of one second. In
diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one
color, but more sophisticated devices can flash between multiple colors and even fade
through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.

 Bi-color LEDs are two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of
these. One type consists of two dies connected to the same two leads ant parallel to
each other. Current flow in one direction emits one color, and current in the
opposite direction emits the other color. The other type consists of two dies with
separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or cathode, so that
they can be controlled independently.

 Tri-color LEDs are three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected
to a separate lead so they can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement
is typical with one common lead (anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each
color.

 RGB LEDs are Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a
four-wire connection with one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can
have either common positive or common negative leads. Others however, have only
two leads (positive and negative) and have a built in tiny electronic control unit.

 Alphanumeric LED displays are available in seven-segment and starburst format.

Seven-segment displays handle all numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst
displays can display all letters. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use
in the 1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal display with their lower power
needs and greater display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and
alphanumeric LED displays.

DIODE

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with an asymmetric transfer

characteristic, with low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type
today, is a crystalline piece of semiconductor material with a p-n junction connected to two
electrical terminals. A vacuum tube diode is a vacuum tube with two electrodes, a plate
(anode) and heated cathode.
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction
(called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the
reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve.
This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current
to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio signals in radio receivers—
these diodes are forms of rectifiers.

However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple on–off action.
Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-
in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said to be
forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with the
current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or
voltage reference.

Semiconductor diodes' nonlinear current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by varying

the semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the materials. These
are exploited in special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example,
diodes are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage
surges (avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to
generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to
produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes
them useful in some types of circuits.

Diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying
abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor
diodes, called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals
such as galena. Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as
germanium are sometimes used.

LIQUID CRYSTAL DISPLAY

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide range of
applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly used in various
devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments and other multi
segment LEDs. The reasons being: LCDs are economical; easily programmable; have no
limitation of displaying special & even custom characters (unlike in seven segments),
animations and so on.

A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD
each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix. This LCD has two registers, namely,
Command and Data.

The command register stores the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an
instruction given to LCD to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting
the cursor position, controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed
on the LCD. The data is the ASCII value of the character to be displayed on the LCD.
Pin Diagram

Pin Description

 Pin
 Function  Name
No
1 Ground (0V) Ground
2 Supply voltage; 5V (4.7V – 5.3V)  Vcc
3 Contrast adjustment; through a variable resistor  VEE
4 Selects command register when low; and data register when Register Select
high
5 Low to write to the register; High to read from the register Read/write
6 Sends data to data pins when a high to low pulse is given Enable
7 8-bit data pins DB0
8 DB1
9 DB2
10 DB3
11 DB4
 12 DB5
13 DB6
14 DB7
15 Backlight VCC (5V) Led+
16 Backlight Ground (0V) Led-

Required Theory

LCD displays are connected through 14 pins: 8 data pins (D0-D7), 3 control pins (RS, E,
R/W), and three power lines (Vdd, Vss, Vee). Some LCDs have LED backlight feature that
helps to read the data on the display during low illumination conditions. So they have two
additional connections (LED+ and LED-), making altogether 16 pin.

Control pins

The control pin RS determines if the data transfer between the LCD module and an external
microcontroller are actual character data or command/status. When the microcontroller
needs to send commands to LCD or to read the LCD status, it must be pulled low. Similarly,
this must be pulled high if character data is to be sent to and from the LCD module.

The direction of data transfer is controlled by the R/W pin. If it is pulled Low, the commands
or character data is written to the LCD module. And, when it is pulled high, the character
data or status information from the LCD registers is read. Here, we will use one way data
transfer, i.e., from microcontroller to LCD module, so the R/W pin will be grounded
permanently.

The enable pin (E) initiates the actual data transfer. When writing to the LCD display, the
data is transferred only on the high to low transition of the E pin

Power supply pins

Although most of the LCD module data sheets recommend +5V d.c. supply for operation,
some LCDs may work well for a wider range (3.0 to 5.5 V). The Vdd pin should be connected
to the positive power supply and Vss to ground. Pin 3 is Vee, which is used to adjust the
contrast of the display. In most of the cases, this pin is connected to a voltage between 0
and 2V by using a preset potentiometer.

Data pins

Pins 7 to 14 are data lines (D0-D7). Data transfer to and from the display can be achieved
either in 8-bit or 4-bit mode. The 8-bit mode uses all eight data lines to transfer a byte,
whereas, in a 4-bit mode, a byte is transferred as two 4-bit nibbles. In the later case, only
the upper 4 data lines (D4-D7) are used. This technique is beneficial as this saves 4
input/output pins of microcontroller. We will use the 4-bit mode.
LCD Initialization

 Before you may really use the LCD, you must initialization and configure it. This is
accomplished by sending a number of initialization instructions to the LCD.
 The first instruction we send must tell the LCD whether we'll be communicating with
it with an 8-bit or 4-bit data bus.
 We also select a 5x8 dot character front.
 These two options are selected by sending the command 38h to the LCD as a
command.
 For sending command to LCD you have to do the following things.
 EN = 0
 RS = 0/1(0=Command, 1=data)
 DATA = xxx (Any command in the table, or any character to be displayed)
 RW = 0(Write mode selected)
 EN = 1
 Some Delay
 EN = 0(Observe the high to low transition on EN)
 Enable pin should be made to go a transition from high to low while you are writing
the LCD. This is called as negative edge triggering.
 But when you are reading the content of any pin of the LCD i.e. R/W=1, you have to
make Enable pin to go from low to high transition. This is also referred to as positive
edge triggering.

LCD Command Codes

When RS=0, we can send several commands to LCD which will be collected by the data bits
(D0-D7). There are several commands which can let perform several different function they
all are listed as under:

CODE (HEX) COMMAND TO LCD INSTRUNCTION REGISTER

1 Clear Display Screen

2 Return Home

4 Decrement Cursor (shift Cursor to Left)

5 Shift Display Right

6 Increment Cursor (shift cursor to right)

7 Shift Display Left

8 Display Off, Cursor Off

A Display Off, Cursor On

C Display On, Cursor Off

E Display On, Cursor Blinking

F Display On, Cursor Blinking

10 Shift Cursor Position to Left

14 Shift Cursor Position to Right

18 Shift the entire Display to The Left

1C Shift the entire Display to The Right

80 Force Cursor to Beginning to 1st line

C0 Force Cursor to Beginning to 2nd line

38 2 lines and 5X7 Matrix

OSCILLATOR

An oscillator is a mechanical or electronic device that works on the principles of oscillation a

periodic fluctuation between two things based on changes in energy. Computers, clocks,
watches, radios, and metal detectors are among the many devices that use oscillators.

The frequency at which an oscillator works is usually determined by a quartz crystal. When a
direct current is applied to such a crystal, it vibrates at a frequency that depends on its
thickness, and on the manner in which it is cut from the original mineral rock. Some
oscillators employ combinations of inductors, resistors, and/or capacitors to determine the
frequency. However, the best stability (constancy of frequency) is obtained in oscillators
that use quartz crystals.
10 RPM 12V DC Motor

10RPM 12V DC geared motors for robotics applications. Very easy to use and available in
standard size. Nut and threads on shaft to easily connect and internal threaded shaft for
easily connecting it to wheel

DC Motors are widely used for motion control in manufacturing industries. Motion of DC
motor is controlled using DC Drive. DC drive changes the speed and direction of a motor.
Many of the DC drives provides programmable facilities means to program the motion of
motor. So here I am giving one such example where one can completely program the
motion of motor. Using this controller one can

 Change the direction of motor

 Change the speed of motor
 Change the running mode of motor in continuous, reversible or jogging
 Change the forward and reverse running time of motor
Features

 10RPM 12V DC motors with Gearbox

 3000RPM base motor
 6mm shaft diameter with internal hole
 125gm weight
 Same size motor available in various rpm
 0.5kgcm torque

LM 7805 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

Voltage Regulator is one of the most important and commonly used electrical component.
Voltage Regulators are responsible for maintaining a steady voltage across an Electronic
system. 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed
linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source in a circuit may have fluctuations and would
not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a
constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the fixed output voltage it is designed to provide.
7805 provides +5V regulated power supply. Capacitors of suitable values can be connected
at input and output pins depending upon the respective voltage levels.

Pin Diagram: 
Pin Description: 

Pin Function Name

No
1 Input voltage (5V-18V) Input

2 Ground (0V) Ground

3 Regulated output; 5V (4.8V-5.2V) Output

How to Use an IC-7805 voltage Regulator

Voltage regulator IC's are the IC’s that are used to regulate voltage. IC-7805 is a 5v Voltage
regulator that restricts the voltage output to5 v. It comes with provision to add heat
sink .The maximum value for input to the power | Voltage regulator is 35 v. it can provide a
constant steady voltage flow of 5 v for higher voltage input till the threshold limit of 35v. If
the voltage is near to 7.5 v then it does not produce any heat and hence no need for heat
sinque. If the voltage input is more, then the heat produced is more. The schematic given
below shows how to use an IC-7805. There are 3 pins in IC-7805, pin 1 takes the input
voltage and pin 3 produces the output voltage. The GND of both input and out are given to
pin 2.Save this picture for reference.

 7805 Voltage Regulator Circuit

I have attached an image of 7805 IC to describe its pin configuration setting. In addition to
that I have also attached a small fully working voltage regulator circuit diagram with this
tutorial. The two capacitors used in the voltage regulator circuit are not mandatory but they
are good to maximize voltage regulation. The capacitor values I have used in this circuit are
not written on stone, you can change them slightly. 7805 IC has a thermal shutdown feature
to protect the IC in case of overheating so it should be safe to use 7805 without a heat sink
plate for less than 200mA load. However should your load cross 200mA, you should
consider using a heat sink plate. Heat sink plate should be large enough to bring 7805 heat
to such a level that you can comfortably touch it. 7805 is a linear voltage regulator, so it is
not very efficient and it has drop out voltage problem. It wastes a lot of energy in the form
of heat. You can calculate the wasted energy with following formula. This formula will also
help you to estimate the size of heat sink plate you will require to disperse amount of heat
generated by 7805. (Input Voltage – 5) x Output Current Suppose the input 15 volt and
output current you require is .5 Amp by using above formula (15 – 5) x 0.5 = 10×0.5 = 5W
5W energy is being wasted as heat and you will need a decent sized heat sink plate to
disperse this heat to ease your 7805. On the other hand the energy you are actually using is
only (5 x 0.5Amp) =2.5W. So you are going to waste twice energy then you are actually
utilizing. On the other hand, if give your 7805 9V as input at the same amount of load, only
2W { (9-5) x 0.5 } energy will be wasted as heat. So the conclusion is, the higher the input
voltage gets, the less efficient your 7805 will be. You should try to stay slightly over 7.5V.
However don’t get bellow 7.5V as your 7805 won’t give a regulated output if the input
voltage get bellow 7.5V. If your input voltage is less than 7.5 like 6V then you should
consider using a low dropout voltage regulator such as LM2940. Pin connections of LM2940
are also same like 7805.
You don’t need extra components to create a 5 volt regulated power supply with 7805.
However it is a good idea to use one capacitor on input and one on output pins to make
output voltage smooth but then again, they are not necessary to be used. As per specs,
7805 input voltage should range between 7.5V to 35V but personally I haven’t tried more
than 15V yet. Maximum output current of 7805 is 1A with a good sized heat sink plate. If
you are planning to use more than one 7805 in parallel to get more current (above 1A), you
better try to put .5Ohm (10W) resistor on the output pin of each transistor to cover the
slight voltage difference as technically no two 7805 can provide exactly same output
voltage.

L293D

L293D is a dual H-bridge motor driver integrated circuit (IC). Motor drivers act as current
amplifiers since they take a low-current control signal and provide a higher-current signal.
This higher current signal is used to drive the motors.

L293D contains two inbuilt H-bridge driver circuits. In its common mode of operation, two
DC motors can be driven simultaneously, both in forward and reverse direction. The motor
operations of two motors can be controlled by input logic at pins 2 & 7 and 10 & 15. Input
logic 00 or 11 will stop the corresponding motor. Logic 01 and 10 will rotate it in clockwise
and anticlockwise directions, respectively.

Enable pins 1 and 9 (corresponding to the two motors) must be high for motors to start
operating. When an enable input is high, the associated driver gets enabled. As a result, the
outputs become active and work in phase with their inputs. Similarly, when the enable input
is low, that driver is disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.

Features of L293D

 The L293D is an integrated circuit motor driver that can be used for simultaneous, bi-
directional control of two small motors.
  Small means small. The L293D is limited to 600mA, but in reality can only handle
much small currents unless you have done some serious heat sinking to keep the
ease temperature down.
 Unsure about whether the L293 will work with your motor?
 Hook up the circuit and run your motor while keeping your finger on the chip. If it
gets too got to touch, you can’t use it with your motor. (Note to students: the L293D
should be ok for your small motor but is not Ok for your gear motor).
 The L293D comes in a standard 16-pin, dual in line integrated circuit package. There
is an L293D and an L293D part number. Pick the “D” version because it has built in fly
back diodes to minimize inductive voltage spikes.
 The pin out for the L293 in the 16 pin package is shown below in top view.

Pin Diagram: 
Pin Description:

 Pin No  Function  Name

1 Enable pin for Motor 1; active high Enable 1,2
2 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 1
3 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 1
4 Ground (0V) Ground
5 Ground (0V) Ground
6 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 2
7 Input 2 for Motor 1 Input 2
8 Supply voltage for Motors; 9-12V (up to 36V)  Vcc 2
9 Enable pin for Motor 2; active high Enable 3,4
10 Input 1 for Motor 1 Input 3
11 Output 1 for Motor 1 Output 3
12 Ground (0V) Ground
13 Ground (0V) Ground
14 Output 2 for Motor 1 Output 4
15 Input2 for Motor 1 Input 4
16 Supply voltage; 5V (up to

LM324
LM324 is a 14pin IC consisting of four independent operational amplifiers (op-amps)
compensated in a single package. Op-amps are high gain electronic voltage amplifier with
differential input and, usually, a single-ended output. The output voltage is many times
higher than the voltage difference between input terminals of an op-amp.

These op-amps are operated by a single power supply LM324 and need for a dual supply is
eliminated. They can be used as amplifiers, comparators, oscillators, rectifiers etc. The
conventional op-amp applications can be more easily implemented with LM324.

Pin Diagram: 
Pin Description:

 Pin No  Function  Name

1 Output of 1st comparator Output 1
2 Inverting input of 1st comparator Input 1-
3 Non-inverting input of 1st comparator Input 1+
4 Supply voltage; 5V (up to 32V) Vcc
5 Non-inverting input of 2nd comparator Input 2+
6 Inverting input of 2nd comparator Input 2-
7 Output of 2nd comparator Output 2
8 Output of 3rd comparator Output 3
9 Inverting input of 3rd comparator Input 3-
10 Non-inverting input of 3rd comparator Input 3+
11 Ground (0V) Ground
12 Non-inverting input of 4th comparator Input 4+
13 Inverting input of 4th comparator Input 4-
14 Output of 4th comparator Output 4

Microcontroller P89V51RD2

1. General description

 The P89V51RD2 is an 80C51 microcontroller with 64 KB Flash and 1024 bytes of

data RAM.
 A key feature of the P89V51RD2 is its X2 mode option. The design engineer can
choose to run the application with the conventional 80C51 clock rate (12 clocks per
 machine cycle) or select the X2 mode (6 clocks per machine cycle) to achieve twice
the throughput at the same clock frequency. Another way to benefit from this
feature
 is to keep the same performance by reducing the clock frequency by half, thus
dramatically reducing the EMI.
 The Flash program memory supports both parallel programming and in serial
In-System Programming (ISP). Parallel programming mode offers gang-programming
at high speed, reducing programming costs and time to market. ISP allows a device
to be reprogrammed in the end product under software control. The capability to
field/update the application firmware makes a wide range of applications possible.
 The P89V51RD2 is also In-Application Programmable (IAP), allowing the Flash
program memory to be reconfigured even while the application is running.

2. Features

 80C51 Central Processing Unit

 5 V Operating voltage from 0 to 40 MHz
 64 kB of on-chip Flash program memory with ISP (In-System Programming) and
IAP (In-Application Programming)
 Supports 12-clock (default) or 6-clock mode selection via software or ISP
 SPI (Serial Peripheral Interface) and enhanced UART
 PCA (Programmable Counter Array) with PWM and Capture/Compare functions
 Four 8-bit I/O ports with three high-current Port 1 pins (16 mA each)
 Three 16-bit timers/counters
 Programmable Watchdog timer (WDT)
 Eight interrupt sources with four priority levels
 Second DPTR register
 Low EMI mode (ALE inhibit)

3. Block diagram of P89V51RD2 microcontroller

4.pin diagram of P89V51RD2 microcontroller
Symbol Type Description

P0.0 to P0.7 I/O Port 0: Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bi-directional I/O port. Port
0 pins that have ‘1’s written to them float, and in this state can
be used as high-impedance inputs.Port 0 is also the multiplexed
low-order address and
data bus during accesses to external code and data memory. In
this application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when
transitioning to ‘1’s. Port 0 also receives the code bytes dur ing
the external host mode programming, and outputs the code
bytes during the external host mode verification. External pull-
ups are required during program verification or as a
generalpurpose I/O port.

I/O with Port 1: Port 1 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal
P1.0 to P1.7 internal pull- pull-ups. The Port 1 pins are pulled high by the internal pull-ups
up when ‘1’s are written to them and can be used as inputs in this
state. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally pulled LOW will
source current (IIL) because o f the internal pull-ups. P1.5, P1.6,
P1.7 have high current drive of 16 mA. Port 1 also receives the
low-order address bytes during the external host mode
programming and verification.
 T2: External count input to Timer/Counter 2 or Clock-out
P1.0 I/O from Timer/Counter 2

T2EX: Timer/Counter 2 capture/reload trigger and

P1.1 direction control
I

ECI: External clock input. This signal is the external

P1.2 clock input for the PCA.
I

CEX0: Capture/compare external I/O for PCA Module 0.

P1.3 I/O Each capture/compare module connects to a Port 1 pin
for external I/O. When not used by the PCA, this pin can
handle standard I/O.

P1.4 I/O SS: Slave port select input for SPI

CEX1: Capture/compare external I/O for PCA Module 1

P1.5 I/O MOSI: Master Output Slave Input for SPI

CEX2: Capture/compare external I/O for PCA Module 2

P1.6 I/O MISO: Master Input Slave Output for SPI

CEX3: Capture/compare external I/O for PCA Module 3

P1.7
I/O SCK: Master Output Slave Input for SPI
CEX4: Capture/compare external I/O for PCA Module 4

P2.0 toP2.7 I/O with Port 2: Port 2 is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with
internal internal pull-ups. Port 2 pins are pulled HIGH by the
pull-up internal pull-ups when ‘1’s are written to them and can
be used as inputs in this state. As inputs, Port 2 pins that
are externally pulled LOW will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups. Port 2 sends the
high-order address byte during fetches from external
program memory and during accesses to external Data
Memory that use 16-bit address . In this
 application, it uses strong internal pull-ups when
transitioning to ‘1’s. Port 2 also receives some control signals
and a partial of high-order address bits during
the external host mode programming and verification.

P3.0 toP3.7 I/O Port 3: Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with
with internal internal pull-ups. Port 3 pins are pulled HIGH by the
pull-up internal pull-ups when ‘1’s are written to them and can
be used as inputs in this state. As inputs, Port 3 pins that
are externally pulled LOW will source current (IIL)
because of the internal pull-ups. Port 3 also receives
some control signals and a partial of high-order address
bits during the external host mode programming and
verification.

P3.0 I RXD: serial input port

P3.1 O TXD: serial output port

P3.2 I INT0: external interrupt 0 input

P3.3 I INT1: external interrupt 1 input

P3.4 I T0: external count input to Timer/Counter 0

P3.5 I T1: external count input to Timer/Counter 1

P3.6 O WR: external data memory write strobe

P3.7 O RD: external data memory read strobe

PSEN’ I/O Program Store Enable: PSEN’ is the read strobe for
external program memory. When the device is executing
from internal program memory, PSEN’ is inactive
(HIGH). When the device is executing code from
external program memory, PSEN’ is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN’ activations are
skipped during each access to external data memory. A
forced HIGH-to-LOW input transition on the PSEN pin
while the RST input is continually held HIGH for more
than 10 machine cycles will cause the device to enter
external host mode programming.

RST I Reset: While the oscillator is running, a HIGH logic state

on this pin for two machine cycles will reset the device. If
 the PSEN’ pin is driven by a HIGH-to-LOW input
transition while the RST input pin is held HIGH, the
device will enter the external host mode, otherwise the
device will enter the normal operation mode.

I
EA’ External Access Enable: EA’ must be connected to VSS
in order to enable the device to fetch code from the
external program memory. EA’ must be strapped to VDD
for internal program execution. However, Security lock
level 4 will disable EA’, and program execution is only
possible from internal program memory. The EA’ pin can
tolerate a high voltage of 12 V.

ALE/ Address Latch Enable: ALE is the output signal for

PROG’ I/O latching the low byte of the address during an access to
external memory. This pin is also the programming
pulse input (PROG’) for flash programming. Normally the
ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 16 the crystal
Frequency and can be used for external timing and
clocking. One ALE pulse is skipped during each access
to external data memory. However, if AO is set to ‘1’,
ALE is disabled.

NC I/O No Connect

XTAL1 Crystal 1: Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and

I input to the internal clock generator circuits.

XTAL2 O Crystal 2: Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

VDD I Power supply

I
VSS Ground
SOLAR PANEL

A solar panel (also solar module, photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged,
connected assembly of photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a
larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential
applications. Each panel is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions, and
typically ranges from 100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a panel determines the area of a
panel given the same rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt panel will have twice the area
of a 16% efficient 230 watt panel. Because a single solar panel can produce only a limited
amount of power, most installations contain multiple panels. A photovoltaic system typically
includes an array of solar panels, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and or solar tracker
and interconnection wiring.
Theory and construction

Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the
photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-
film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a
module can either be the top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from
mechanical damage and moisture. Most solar panels are rigid, but semi-flexible ones are
available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar panels were first used in space in 1958.

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in
parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting wires that take the current
off the panels may contain silver, copper or other non-magnetic conductive transition
metals. The cells must be connected electrically to one another and to the rest of the
system. Externally, popular terrestrial usage photovoltaic panels use MC3 (older) or MC4
connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.

Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial panel shading, to
maximize the output of panel sections still illuminated. The p-n junctions of mono-
crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse voltage characteristics to prevent
damaging panel section reverse current. Reverse currents could lead to overheating of
shaded cells. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and installers try to
provide good ventilation behind solar panels.[1]

Some recent solar panel designs include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or
mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the use of cells with a high cost per unit
area (such as gallium arsenide) in a cost-effective way.

The solar cell works in three steps:

1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting
materials, such as silicon.
2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an
electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel
the potential and this electricity is captured. Due to the special composition of solar
cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction.
3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current
(DC) electricity.

Efficiency

The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance efficiency,
thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency.
The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual efficiencies.

A solar cell usually has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and
shadow angles.

Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are
measured instead: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency, integrated quantum
efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum
efficiency under "external quantum efficiency". Recombination losses make up a portion of
the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly
categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum efficiency, V OC
ratio.

The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product
of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key parameter in evaluating the
performance of solar cells. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor > 0.70. Grade B
cells have a fill factor usually between 0.4 to 0.7. Cells with a high fill factor have a low
equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the current
produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses.
Single p-n junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting
power efficiency of 33.7%, noted as the Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961. In the extreme,
with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated
sunlight.

Cadmium telluride solar cell:

A cadmium telluride solar cell uses a cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film, a semiconductor
layer to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. Solarbuzz has reported that the lowest
quoted thin-film module price stands at US$0.84 per watt-peak, with the lowest crystalline
silicon (c-Si) module at $1.06 per watt-peak.

The cadmium present in the cells would be toxic if released. However, release is impossible
during normal operation of the cells and is unlikely during fires in residential roofs. [34] A
square meter of CdTe contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single C cell
Nickel-cadmium battery, in a more stable and less soluble form.

How Do Solar Panels Work?

Basically, they convert energy from the sun into electricity.  On any bright, cloud-free day,
the sun projects some 1,000 watts of energy on a square meter basis onto the earth’s
surface.  Although converting sunlight into electricity sounds like a simple concept, solar
panels work in a specific and rather complex way.

The solar cells that are installed in devices ranging from calculators to street lamps and even
your garden lights are called photovoltaic (PV) cells. They are composed of semiconductors
like silicon.  Silicon plates are composed of millions of atoms.  However, they cannot
generate electricity on their own, because they do not carry positive or negative charges. 
To initiate the process of electricity, both positive and negative solar plates must be created.
The chemical combination of silicon and phosphorus results in a negative charge.

Similarly, with the chemical addition of boron to a silicon plate, the plate will carry a positive
charge.  When light hits a PV cell, the semiconductor absorbs a certain amount of that light.
When negative solar plates are appropriately angled to the sun, the sun bombards the
silicon and phosphorus atoms on the solar panel with photons. When this happens, certain
electrons are set loose, permitting them to flow.
The negative solar plate is “sandwiched” with the positive plate, and the plates are attached
to wires that then lead out and connect to a battery System or appliance.  

The electrons released by the negative plate are attracted to the outer band of the positive
plate. The electrons that are not used are essentially brought back to the silicon/boron
negative plate, and the process of generating electricity restarts.
When this activity is conducted on a large scale, with plates positioned to attract maximum
sunlight throughout the day, there can be sufficient electricity to run many types of
electronic devices.  Typically, smaller scale projects will store that eletricity in a battery bank
until needed.  This is true for solar garden lights and even the large panels mounted on
residential rooftops.

Photovoltaic

In 1839, French scientist Edmund Becquerel discovered that certain materials would give off
a spark of electricity when struck with sunlight. This photoelectric effect was used in
primitive solar cells made of selenium in the late 1800s. In the 1950s, scientists at Bell Labs
revisited the technology and, using silicon, produced solar cells that could convert four
percent of the energy in sunlight directly to electricity. Within a few years, these
photovoltaic (PV) cells were powering spaceships and satellites.

The most important components of a PV cell are two layers of semiconductor material
generally composed of silicon crystals. On its own, crystallized silicon is not a very good
conductor of electricity, but when impurities are intentionally added—a process called
doping—the stage is set for creating an electric current. The bottom layer of the PV cell is
usually doped with boron, which bonds with the silicon to facilitate a positive charge (P).
The top layer is doped with phosphorus, which bonds with the silicon to facilitate a negative
charge (N).

The surface between the resulting "p-type" and "n-type" semiconductors is called the P-N
junction (see the diagram below). Electron movement at this surface produces an electric
field that only allows electrons to flow from the p-type layer to the n-type layer.

When sunlight enters the cell, its energy knocks electrons loose in both layers. Because of
the opposite charges of the layers, the electrons want to flow from the n-type layer to the p-
type layer, but the electric field at the P-N junction prevents this from happening. The
presence of an external circuit, however, provides the necessary path for electrons in the n-
type layer to travel to the p-type layer. Extremely thin wires running along the top of the n-
type layer provide this external circuit, and the electrons flowing through this circuit provide
the cell's owner with supply of electricity.
  

Most PV systems consist of individual square cells averaging about four inches on a side.
Alone, each cell generates very little power (less than two watts), so they are often grouped
together as modules. Modules can then be grouped into larger panels encased in glass or
plastic to provide protection from the weather, and these panels, in turn, are either used as
separate units or grouped into even larger arrays.

The three basic types of solar cells made from silicon are single-crystal, polycrystalline, and
amorphous.

• Single-crystal cells are made in long cylinders and sliced into round or hexagonal wafers.
While this process is energy-intensive and wasteful of materials, it produces the highest-
efficiency cells—as high as 25 percent in some laboratory tests. Because these high-
efficiency cells are more expensive, they are sometimes used in combination with
concentrators such as mirrors or lenses. Concentrating systems can boost efficiency to
almost 30 percent. Single-crystal accounts for 29 percent of the global market forPV. 

• Polycrystalline cells are made of molten silicon cast into ingots or drawn into sheets, then
sliced into squares. While production costs are lower, the efficiency of the cells is lower too
—around 15 percent. Because the cells are square, they can be packed more closely
together. Polycrystalline cells make up 62 percent of the global PV market

• Amorphous silicon (a-Si) is a radically different approach. Silicon is essentially sprayed

onto a glass or metal surface in thin films, making the whole module in one step. This
approach is by far the least expensive, but it results in very low efficiencies—only about five
percent.
A number of exotic materials other than silicon are under development, such as gallium
arsenide (Ga-As), copper-indium-dieseline (CuInSe2), and cadmium-telluride (CdTe). These
materials offer higher efficiencies and other interesting properties, including the ability to
manufacture amorphous cells that are sensitive to different parts of the light spectrum. By
stacking cells into multiple layers, they can capture more of the available light. Although a-Si
accounts for only five percent of the global market, it appears to be the most promising for
future cost reductions and growthpotential.

In the 1970s, a serious effort began to produce PV panels that could provide cheaper solar
power. Experimenting with new materials and production techniques, solar manufacturers
cut costs for solar cells rapidly, as the following graph shows. 

One approach to lowering the cost of solar electric power is to increase the efficiency of
cells, producing more power per dollar. The opposite approach is to decrease production
costs, using fewer dollars to produce the same amount of power. A third approach is
lowering the costs of the rest of the system. For example, building-integrated PV (BIPV)
integrates solar panels into a building's structure and earns the developer a credit for
reduced construction costs.

Photovoltaic costs (Source: NREL)

Innovative processes and designs are continually reaching the market and helping drive
down costs, including string ribbon cell production, photovoltaic roof tiles, and windows
with a translucent film of a-Si. Economies of scale from a booming global PV market are also
helping to reduce costs.

Historically, most PV panels have been used for off-grid purposes, powering homes in
remote locations, cellular phone transmitters, road signs, water pumps, and millions of solar
watches and calculators. Developing nations see PV as a way to avoid building long and
expensive power lines to remote areas. And every year, experimental solar-powered cars
race across Australia and North America in heated competitions.

More recently, thanks to lower costs, strong incentives, and net metering policies, the PV
industry has placed more focus on home, business, and utility-scale systems that are
attached to the power grid. In some locations, it is less expensive for utilities to install solar
panels than to upgrade the transmission and distribution system to meet new electricity
demand. In 2005, for the first time ever, the installation of PV systems connected to the
electric grid outpaced off-grid PV systems in the United States. As the PV market continues
to expand, the trend toward grid-connected applications will continue.

This distributed-generation approach provides a new model for the utilities of the future.
Small generators, spread throughout a city and controlled by computers, could replace the
large coal and nuclear plants that dominate the landscape now.

Advantage

 Once solar panels are installed, they produce energy without generating waste or
pollution. They operate with little maintenance or intervention.

 Solar electric generation is economically competitive where grid connection or fuel

transport is difficult, costly or impossible. For example: satellites, island
communities, remote locations and ocean vessels.
 Once the initial capital cost of building a solar power plant has been met, operating
costs are low when compared to existing power technologies.
 They are applicable for low-power uses such as solar powered garden lights and
battery chargers.
 A solar panel saves approximately 0.7 pounds of coal per kWh, or 2 pounds of
carbon dioxide per KWh.

Disadvantage

 Solar energy systems do not work at night.

 Solar cells are currently costly and require a large initial capital investment.

 For larger applications, many photovoltaic cells are needed, corresponding to high
investment costs and large land requirements.
 The cost effectiveness of a solar energy system is dependent upon the location and
climate.