Unit 10 Narrative Texts.

Structure and Characteristics

1. Introduction
2. A Theoretical Framework for the Analysis of Narrative Texts
2.1 The Notion of Text Linguistics
2.2 On Defining Text
3. Narration: Structure and Main Features
3.1 On Defining Narrative texts
3.2 Narrative Texts: Main Elements
3.3 Narrative Texts: Structure
3.4 Narrative Texts: Textual Features
4. Narrative Texts and Language Teaching
5. Conclusion
6. Bibliography

1. Introduction
The main aim of Unit 10 is to present the issue of narrative texts in terms of structure and main
features. To do so, I will divide the study in five chapters.
In Chapter 2 I will offer a theoretical framework for the analysis of narrative texts since this concept
is related to other key notions which prove essential in the understanding of its study. So, I will
review (1) the notion of text linguistics since the analysis of narrative texts is discussed within the
framework of Discourse Analysis. Then, I will analyse (2) the definition of text and hence I will
examine (a) textual features, (b) the seven standards of textuality, (c) the notion of intertextuality,
(d) the main text typology to analyse (i) the main criteria to analyse text types and (ii) the concept
of narrative within text types.
Chapter 3 will offer an analysis and description of narrative texts in terms of (1) definition; (2) main
narrative elements: (a) narrator, (b) characters vs. characterization, (c) theme, (d) plot and (e) the
setting; (3) structure and (4) main literary devices within narrative text types: (a) cohesion, (b)
coherence and (c) other literary devices.
Chapter 4 will be devoted to present the main directions and educational implications in language
teaching regarding narrative texts and Chapter 5 will offer a conclusion to broadly overview the
present study. Finally, Chapter 6 will include the bibliographical references used in the study.

2. A Theoretical Framework for the analysis of text and context

In Chapter 2 I will offer a theoretical framework for the analysis of narrative texts since this concept
is related to other key notions which prove essential in the understanding of its study. So, I will
review (1) the notion of text linguistics since the analysis of narrative texts is discussed within the
framework of Discourse Analysis. Then, I will analyse (2) the definition of text and hence I will
examine (a) textual features, (b) the seven standards of textuality, (c) the notion of intertextuality,
(d) the main text typology to analyse (i) the main criteria to analyse text types and (ii) the concept
of narrative within text types.
2.1 The Notion of Text Linguistics: Discourse Analysis
The notion of text linguistics designates” any work in language science devoted to the text as the
primary object of enquiry” (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1988). In fact, many fields have approached
the study of texts, and that of narrative texts through literary studies: linguistics, anthropology,
psychology and stylistics. Text linguistics has its historical roots in rhetoric, dating from Ancient
Greece and Rome through the Middle Ages up to the present under the name of text linguistics or
discourse.
2.2 On Defining Text
Following Halliday & Hasan (1976) “the word text is used in linguistics to refer to any passage,
spokes or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole”. Generally, we know
whether an utterance or sequences of utterances constitute a text or not though it may be “spoken
or written, prose or verse, dialogue or monologue, and also anything from a single proverb to a
whole play, from a momentary cry for help to an all-day discussion on a committee”. In addition, a
text is best regarded as a semantic unit and not a unit of form. So, “narration” may be a short or
long story, a proverb, a play, a joke in term of narrating a fact.
Textual features such as texture and ties give a text the status of being a “text”. First, the concept
of texture is defined as the textual resource that functions as a unity with respect to its
environment and secondly, ties are defined as the resources that English has for creating texture
to contribute to its total unity by means of cohesive relations (reference, substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction and lexical cohesion).
In the approach to text linguistics by de Beaugrande & Dressler (1988), a text, oral or printed, is
established as a communicative occurrence, which must meet seven standards of textuality:
cohesion, coherence, intentionality and acceptability, informativity, situationally and intertextuality.
If any of these standards are not satisfied, the text is considered not to have fulfilled its function
and not to be communicative.
I will briefly review the first six standards of textuality to analyse the seventh one in next section:
(1) Cohesion is, as well as coherence, a text-centred notion which is related to the function of
syntax and the components of the surface text. It also deals with cohesive ties (anaphora,
cataphora, ellipsis, etc.) and signalling relations (tense and aspect, modality, junction,
conjunction, disjunction and subordination)
(2) Coherence is “the outcome of actualizing meanings in order to make sense” (Beaugrande &
Dressler, 1988). It gives sense to a text.
(3) Intentionality subsumes the intentions of text producers, that is, their attitude. This standard
deals with the pragmatic perspective of discourse: “be informative, be truthful, be relevant
and be brief”.
(4) Acceptability concerns the receiver attitude, that is, the text having some use or relevance
for the receiver.
(5) Informativity concerns the extent to which the occurrences of the text are expected vs.
unexpected or known vs. unknown or uncertain by means of content words (verbs, nouns,
adjectives, adverbs). Hence, we expect different types of texts (poetic, scientific, literary,
etc.).
(6) Situationally concerns the factors which make a text” relevant to a current situation of
occurrence.
(7) And finally, intertextuality which will be reviewed in connection to text types and the notion
of narrative texts in next section.
2.3 Intertextuality: Text Types
Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the use of one text dependent upon knowledge of
one or more previously encountered texts, that is, the ways in which the production and reception
of a given text depends upon the participants knowledge of other texts. The usual mediation is
achieved by means of the development and use of text types, being classes of texts expected to
have certain traits for certain purposes: descriptive, narrative, argumentative, literary and poetic,
scientific and didactic.
2.4 Text Typology
I will approach the concept of text typology from two main perspectives: (1) the main criteria for
text typology regarding literary devices, order and sequence of elements and common text
structures; and (2) a text type classification and description.
Text Types: Main Criteria
There are three main criteria:
(1) Regarding literary devices, we deal with literary texts which share specific conditions of
production, contradictory cultural discourses and intercultural processes. We will deal with
literary elements and devices such as setting, plot, theme and so on.
(2) Order and sequence, which can be logical, chronological or psychological; much of
literature deals with storied elements which have their genesis in some type of conflict; plot,
then, moves from complication, through conflict, to resolution where deeper levels of
meaning are suggested through image, metaphor, and symbols; such storied literature
takes place in a real or imagined setting, within a time and a place; and finally, participants
are considered to be characters, and the reality they represent is characterization.
(3) Text Structure. Following a general division of any kind of text we may sometimes begin
with a brief heading or descriptive title, with or without a byline, an epigraph or brief
quotation, or a salutation (in a letter). They may also conclude with a brief trailer, by-line or
signature
Text Types: Narration
According to Trimble (1985) we may classify texts in two ways. Firstly, according to purpose in
which the discourse is intended to inform, express an attitude, persuade and create a debate, and
secondly, according to type or mode which can be descriptive, narrative, expository,
argumentative, and instrumental.
In this study we are dealing with narrative texts which, on the one hand, are intended to tell a story
in terms of communicative functions and, on the other hand, according to the category of text
types it is included within the type of narration, that is, the fact of narrating events, facts and
situations.

3. Narration: Structure and Main Features

The analysis of narration will be carried out in terms of (1) definition; (2) main narrative elements:
(a) narrator, (b) characters vs. characterization, (c) theme, (d) plot and € the setting; (3) structure
and (4) main literary devices within narrative text types: (a) cohesion, (b) coherence and (c) other
literary devices.
3.1 On Defining Narrative Texts
A narrative text is usually defined as a type of discourse concerned with action, with events in time
and with life in motion which answers the question “What happened?” to tell a story. Narrative is,
then, a recounting of things distant in time and space. The purpose of a narrative text is to
entertain, to tell a story, or to provide an aesthetic literary experience in fiction or real life.
Narrative text is based on life experiences and is person-oriented using dialogue and familiar
language. The genres that fit the narrative text structure are folktales (fables, legends, myths);
contemporary fiction; mysteries, science fiction, realistic fiction, fantasy, and historical fiction. So,
narrative text may be either fiction or non-fiction. Examples of fiction include realistic fiction,
science fiction, mysteries, folktales, fairy tales and myths whereas non-fiction is fact-based text
such as reports, factual stories, and biographies.
3.2 Main Elements
We can distinguish two types of narrative elements depending on the type of narrative text:
Common elements for all narrative text types and specific elements for literary texts. It is perhaps
in the domains of literature that narrative texts have been analysed in more detail.
First, for general narrative texts to exist, there must be three main elements: characters, plot and
intention. The “character” gives coherence to the story and must undergo transformation changes.
Second, the “plot” is said to be a sequence of predictable events which must be altered ao as to
change the normal story line. Finally, the “intention” gives sense and orientation to the text and it
may be explicit (off voice in advertisements) or inferred (the same news on two different
newspapers).
On the other hand, literary texts are said to have five common elements: narrator (point of view,
voice); characters (people or animals in the story) vs. characterization (round vs. flat characters);
theme (central idea of the story); plot (sequence of events, conflicts) and setting (time and place).
Narrator: Point of View
The narrator is defined as the voice that tells the story (not to be confused with the author). Then,
the narrator is the author’s creation and belongs to the narrative world as well as characters. He is
defined as the person who bears some relation to the action, either as an observer or a participant
who serves the reader as a kind of guide to the action. We may approach the figure of the narrator
regarding (1) who the narrator is in the story, depending on the relation they bear to the action,
that is, how much they know about the story (omniscient vs. mere observer); (2) the point of view
the story is told (first, second, third person); and (3) the mode of presentation (telling vs. showing).
With respect to the point of view of the story, we distinguish the narration in (a) third person
singular, (b) first person, (c) second person singular and (d) explicit address on the part of the
narrator.
a. The narration in third person singular is the most usual form. It offers an impersonal point of
view about the story. The narrator can have an omniscient point of view who reports all
aspects of an action and may go into the head of any or all the characters involved in the
action. Also, we find a non-omniscient point of view where the author does not sweep the
entire field of the action.
b. The first-person singular is used when the narrator is a character in the story and talks in
first person singular. His knowledge on the story will depend on him being the main
character (he will tell the story from his own point of view) or an internal observer (narrator-
observer).
c. Although quite rare, the author can make the narrator speak in second person singular
when he wants to transmit the feeling of confession or internal story facts.
d. The mode of the story can be “telling” or “showing” depending on the intention of the
narrator. If the narrator reports actions from his own point of view, we talk about “telling”; in
contrast, if the narrator reports actions from an objective point of view, we talk about
“showing”
Character vs. Characterization
Characters are necessary to maintain coherence and consistency in a story and they are defined
as the people (or animals) that perform actions in narrative texts. We can distinguish three main
types:
 (1) The main characters, who participate most in the plot, (2) secondary characters, who are a
support for the main characters and (3) juncture characters, who are not even introduced as
individuals (extras).
According to the way participants are introduced in the plot, characters are classified into (1)
characters as individuals (round character) and (2) characters and stereotypes (flat characters).
There are two main ways of characterization: direct (the narrator describes the person’s physical
appearance and accounts for his personality (attitudes, thoughts, behaviour) and indirect (all we
know about characters is drawn from actions, not from their personal description)
Theme: The Story Central Idea
The theme is the central idea of the story which can be directly stated or using story elements,
characters.
Plot: Sequence of Events
The plot of the story is defined as the knowledge of how stories are organized with the beginning
of the story containing the setting, the characters, and the characters’ problem(s). In fact, the plot
is causally related to actions. The storytelling may be chronological or reverted (flashbacks or
foreshadowing). So, we can say that narrative texts are organized around a plot built through
character interactions. As a result, characters and the environment influence the narrative.
Then, the plot involved a problem or a conflict which is presented in the story in a specific order of
events and sets the action in motion. The plot includes a series of episodes that are written by the
author to hold our attention and build excitement as the story progresses. Included in these events
may be some roadblocks that the character encounters while attempting to solve the problem. The
ending of the story contains the resolution.
Therefore, the structure of a narrative piece would contain these components:
(1) Beginning, an initiating event that starts the main character off on a series of events to
solve the problem and in a specific setting (time and place)
(2) Middle, a series of subsequent events that the character encounters, which are setbacks for
him when attempting to solve the problem.
(3) End, the last sequence in which the author brings the story to a resolution. The main
solutions to a problem are:
Twist endings, the writer often end the story in a way that the reader does not expect.
Flashback, the story begins with an event and then goes back in time allowing the reader to
understand previous events.
Setting: Space, Time and Atmosphere
The setting of a story is defined as the environment of the action as constituted by time, space and
atmosphere. So, space, time reference and atmosphere refer respectively to where or when the
story takes place and the general effect produced by these two concepts. Authors may tell the
reader the exact time or place of the story, but often these must be inferred by the reader. The
time and place are usually important to the plot of the story when the details of the setting have
metaphorical significance.
With respect to “space”, some stories are set in faraway lands or imaginary places, others are set
in familiar places. It may also be a universal place or a specific place. Regarding number, the
action may take place in only one setting or in more places. Moreover, we may find indoor scenes
or outdoor. Finally, the place may have a symbolic meaning. Regarding “time reference”, a story
can be set in the present, past or the future. The relationship between the acting time and narrated
time will give us four different subclassifications of time: (1) historical time is set up in the time of
the action(Viking Age); (2) internal time frames the story (one day in James Joyce’s Ulises);
(3)verbal time is usually presented in past tense although simple present is used to give a feeling
of lively actions; finally (4), the narrative rhythm is independent from the chronological setting the
story has since the author may slow the pace by means of descriptions or, on the contrary, may
summarise the pass of several tears in a few sentences.
Another important element in the setting of a story is the “atmosphere”, that is, the general effect
or feeling produced by the theme, the characters, the place, etc. of the story (the atmosphere
produced in Edgar Allan Poe’s stories).
3.3 Narrative Texts: Structure
Structure refers to the order of events that are structured by time, rather than space, what marks a
text as narrative. We may find three types of narrative developments:
1 In order to know the ending of the story, we will find a linear development which follows a
chronological order from the beginning to the end of the story.
2 If the focus is not on the ending but on the circumstances leading to the ending, events may start
at the end of the story and be described I terms of “flash-backs” in order to draw the reader’s
attention.
3 If the focus is on both the beginning and the ending, the telling may start at an intermediate point
within the story for events to be described in terms of backwards and forwards movements. This
technique is called “in media res narration”.
3.4 Narrative Texts: Main Literary Devices
The main textual features in narrative texts are given by literary devices which are words used to
enrich the understanding of the story (dynamic and static verbs, common and concrete nouns,
quantity and quality adjectives, time and place adverbs, etc.). The author may use a wide range of
word choice for different purposes, thus, to entertain, to inform and to persuade the reader about
the telling. Readers must understand the meaning of vocabulary as used in the story context, for
instance, the meaning a word has in the story (“A ring” in “The Lord of the Ring”).
Now I will analyse the basic literary devices in narrative texts from the disciplines of syntax,
pragmatics and semantics together with a grammatical approach. So, I will analyse cohesion
including anaphora, cataphora, connectors and deixis; coherence and other literary devices
(stream of consciousness and free indirect style).
Cohesion
The term “cohesion” concerns the ways in which the components of the surface text (the actual
words we hear or see) are mutually connected within a sequence of utterances, that is, intra-text
linking devices are connected to extra-textual reference. The notion of “cohesion” can be
explained as a multiple coding system comprising three levels of coding: the semantic one
(meanings), the lexico-grammatical (forms: grammar and vocabulary) and the phonological and
orthographic one (expressions: sounding and writing). “Cohesion” has a close relation to the
second of the textuality standards, “coherence” since cohesive markers can be used to enhance
“coherence”.
Since “cohesion” is expressed partly through the grammar and partly through the vocabulary, we
find two main types of cohesive devices: grammatical cohesion (substitution, ellipsis, conjunction,
reference) and lexical cohesion (reiteration, collocation). A third type is graphological devices
(orthography, punctuation, headings and footnotes tables of contents and indexes).
Grammatical Cohesion
It is within grammatical cohesion that we find different types of relation: substitution, ellipsis,
conjunction and reference. Conjunction and reference refer to the terms, “anaphora”, “cataphora”,
“connectors” and “deixis”.
Substitution, this device is very similar to that of ellipsis. Substitution is the replacement of an item
by another, and ellipsis is the omission of an item. They are essentially the same process since
ellipsis is the substitution of one item by zero (Halliday).
We may find different types of substitution which are defined, in grammatical terms rather than
semantically. The criteria are the grammatical function of the substituted item, so the substitute
may function as a noun, a verb or a clause. So, there are three types of substitution: nominal (one,
ones, sone), verbal (do), and clausal (so, not).
Ellipsis, As I stated above it is that form of substitution in which an item is substituted by zero. It is
related to the notion that it is “something left unsaid” but “understood” nevertheless.
Like substitution, ellipsis is a relation within the text, and in the great majority of instances the
presupposed item is present in the preceding text, that is, in “anaphoric” relation.
Reference: anaphora, cataphora, deixis. The third type of grammatical cohesion is reference
where the information to be retrieved is the referential meaning, the identity of the thing or class of
things that is referred to. In the case of reference, it is not constrained to match the grammatical
class of the item it refers to. There is a logical continuity through situational reference and textual
reference which can point back (anaphora) or forward (cataphora). The typical direction as we will
see later is the anaphoric one.
First, anaphora, is the cohesive device that uses a pro-form after the co-referring expression:
Ex: “We asked Bob to sing a Christmas carol and so he sang.
In its more formal form, it is simply the presupposition of something that has gone before, whether
in the preceding sentence or not. This cohesive device places the identity of someone or
something at the beginning of the text (oral or written) and through the discourse it is referred to by
means of other grammatical categories, such as pronouns (personal, possessive, interrogative),
adjectives (possessive, demonstrative) or other categories such as determiners (the).
Second, cataphora. So far, we have considered cohesion purely as an “anaphoric relation”, with a
presupposing item that has gone before. But this presupposition may go in the opposite direction,
with the presupposing element following, that is, the cohesive device which has forward reference
instead of back-reference by means of possessive, demonstrative, definite and personal pronouns
and adjectives.
Ex: “Nobody knew them, but Rose and Bob soon became well-known.
Types of reference: deixis. Reference is the relation between an element of the text and
something else by reference to which it is interpreted in the given instance. When the
interpretation involves identifying, the reference item functions as a deictic item which is always
specific and typically anaphoric, this includes: “he, she, it”. Sometimes the reference can also be
achieved by cataphoric reference.
Ex: “I would never have believed it; they’ve accepted the whole scheme.
Demonstrative reference, the speaker identities the reference by locating it on a scale of proximity,
regarding place (here/there), time (now/then) or “this/that = near vs. far”.
Comparative reference, which is “indirect refence by means of identity or similarity” (adjectives or
verbs expressing a general comparison based on identity, or difference, or express a particular
comparison).
Conjunction is a relationship which indicates how the subsequent sentence or clause should be
linked to the preceding or following sentence or parts of a sentence. Frequently occurring
relationships are “addition, causality and temporality”. Subordination links words when the status
of one depends on that of the other by means of many conjunctive expressions: because, since,
as, thus, while, therefore, etc.
With conjunction we move into a different type of semantic relation which is a specification of the
way in which what is to follow is systematically connected to what has gone before (de
Beaugrande).
We may distinguish three varieties of presenting conjunctions in a text: “conjunctive expressions”,
“conjunctive relations” and other conjunctive items called “continuatives”.
“Conjunctive expressions” involve the presence of a preposition (instead of, because of). These
are called conjunctive adjuncts and we distinguish three types: (1), adverbs: simple adverbs (but,
so, next, then), compound adverbs (ending in -ly: accordingly, actually) and compound adverbs
(there/where-: therefore, whereas); (2) other compound adverbs (furthermore, anyway, besides,
instead) and prepositional phrases (on the contrary, as a result, in addition to); (3) and finally,
prepositional expressions with “that” or other reference item (as a result of that, instead of that, in
addition to that).
“Conjunctive relations” involve the phenomena we group under the heading of conjunctions.
Different classifications are possible, each of which highlight different aspects of the facts grouped
in four categories: “additive” (And in all this time he said nothing), “adversative” (Yet he was aware
of his own mistake), causal (So he tried to apologize) and temporal (Then, as he thought, she
didn’t forgive him).
Finally, there are other ways of expressing conjunctive relation called “continuatives” which
although do not express any conjunctive relation are nevertheless used with a cohesive force in
the text. We refer to items such as: “now, well, surely, of course, anyway, after all”.
Intonation is the final cohesive device. Thus, the falling and the falling-rising intonation pattern are
considered as expressing forms of conjunctive relations.
Lexical Cohesion
There are two types of lexical cohesion: “reiteration” and “collocation”. Reiteration includes
repetition, synonymy, hyponymy, metonymy (part vs. whole), antonymy whereas collocation is nay
pair of lexical items that stand to each other in come recognisable lexico-semantic relation,
(sheep-wool).
Collocational relation exists without any explicit reference to another item, but now the nature of
relation is different since it is based on associations in the reader mind.
Graphological Devices
They are visual devices as we refer to orthography, punctuation, headings, footnotes, tables of
contents and indexes.
Orthography is related to a correct spelling and all the rules to get ability to spell. Byrne says that
most of us are obliged to consult a dictionary from time to time as the relationship between sound
and symbol in English is a complex one, and spelling becomes a problem for many users of the
language.
According to Quirk (1972) punctuation serves two main functions. Firstly, the separation of
successive units and secondly, the specification of language function (an apostrophe indicates
that an inflection is a genitive). Moreover, capital letters, full stops, commas, inverted commas and
so on).
Other Literary Devices
Other two literary devices are: “stream f consciousness” and “free indirect style” by means of
which the narrator reports the character’s thoughts or speech. Regarding the “stream of
consciousness”, we may say it is a form of narration in which the character’s thoughts are
introduced in an immediate manner, literally as a copy of the thoughts itself. On the other hand,
“the free indirect style” is used when the narrator reports the character’s thoughts or speech
directly, that is, with no accompanying reporting clause (He said) as in direct speech.
Coherence
The term coherence concerns the ways in which the components of the textual world, thus, the
concepts and relations which underlie the surface text, are mutually accessible and relevant (de
Beaugrande & Dressler, 1988).
Main Features
Coherence is a purely semantic property of discourse. A coherent text is a semantically
connected, integrated whole, expressing relations of closeness, thus, casualty, time or location
between its concepts and sentences.
A text must be coherent enough for the interlocutor to be able to interpret it. It seems probable that
this coherence can be achieved either through cohesion, for instance, markers and clues in the
writer’s text. These markers are defined as all the devices which are needed in writing to produce
a text in which the sentences are coherently organised so as to fulfil the writer’s communicative
purpose.

4. Narrative Texts and Language Teaching

One of the pleasures of teaching the written language is that it is so easy to provide good models
of almost any kind of writing. We may find models of texts and models of sentences created for
different purposes. Thus, according to Jenni Conn (1995), the model of narrative texts provides
students with the opportunity to write narrative essays using appropriate linguistic elements and, to
connect with real-life experiences.
With so much writing in foreign language classes over so many years, one would expect to find
highly effective methods for teaching this skill and marked success in learning it. Unfortunately,
examination papers in composition are, with few exceptions, disappointing. Many college and
university students with four, five or even six years of study of another language behind them are
still unable to express themselves in a clear, correct and comprehensible manner in writing.
Nowadays new technologies may provide a new direction to language teaching as they set more
appropriate context for students to experience the target culture. Present-day approaches deal
with a communicative competence model in which first, there is an emphasis on significance over
form, and secondly, motivation and involvement are enhanced by means of new technologies.
Regarding writing skills, there is a need to create classroom conditions which match those in real
life and foster acquisition, encouraging reading and writing, and within this latter one, to distinguish
text types and its main characteristics, and in particular, narrative texts.
The success partly lies in the way the language becomes real to the users, feeling themselves
really in the language. Some of this motivational force is brought about by intervening in authentic
communicative events. Otherwise, we must recreate as much as possible the whole cultural
environment in the classroom. This is to be achieved within the framework of the European
Council (1998) and the Spanish Educational System which establishes a common reference
framework for the teaching of foreign languages where students are intended to carry out several
communication tasks with specific communicative goals within specific contexts and registers.
Thus, foreign language activities are provided within the framework of social interaction, personal,
professional and educational fields.

5. Conclusion
In this study, narrative texts have been approached in terms of elements, main textual features
and structure. We may observe that writing or reading stories enables us to carry out everyday
tasks which prove essential in our current society, for instance, a complaint letter, reporting an
accident to the police, taking notes or writing an essay.
The role of writing or telling stories in present society is emphasized by the increasing necessity of
learning a foreign language as we are now part of a globalized world, and as such, we need to
communicate with other countries at oral and written levels. Written patterns are given an
important role when language learners face the monumental task of acquiring not only new
vocabulary, syntactic patterns, and phonology, but also discourse competence, sociolinguistic
competence, strategic competence, and interactional competence.

6. Bibliography
 Bal, M. Narratology: Introduction to the theory on Narrative (1985)
 Beaugrande & Dressler Introduction to text Linguistics (1988)
 Conn, J. Choosing and using Literature (1995)
 Council of Europe (1998)
 Kellog, R. The Nature of Narrative (1988)