1.

CHAPTER 1
TITLE: AN ASSESSMENT OF OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH
AND SAFETY PRACTICES, INTERVENTIONS AT MSASA
INDUSTRIAL TRAINING COLLEGE WITH A VIEW FOR
IMPROVEMENT.
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This Research is going to focus on an Assessment of Occupational Health and Safety
practices, Safety culture and Safety performance at Msasa Industrial Training College.

Occupational Health and Safety is the responsibility of both Employer and Employee. The
Employer should show strong leadership and commitment to Occupational Health and Safety
activities and make appropriate arrangements for the establishment of an Occupational Health
and Safety management system. The system should contain elements of policy, organising,
planning and implementation, evaluation and action for improvement .The necessary
Occupational Health competence requirements should be defined by the Employer, and
arrangements established and maintained to ensure all persons have been trained and are
competent to carry out the safety and health aspects of their duties and responsibility and
improve on Industrial safety. It is in line with this that this research seeks to assess the
Occupational Health safety practices at Msasa Industrial Training College.

1.2 BACKGROUND OF NEED

Msasa Industrial Training College is an institution of higher learning under the Ministry of
Higher and Tertiary, Science, Innovation and Technology Development. A lot of Injuries and
accidents have been reported during workshop practice lessons on new intake classes, leading
to a reduction in attendance of lectures by learners and Tutors.

1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT

Reduced contact hours by Lecturers and reduced attendance by Students.

1.4 JUSTFICATION OF NEED

Life is valuable and therefore the need to preserve it Staff members and students should be
protected from hazards and risks to avoid loss of life and loss of finance for compensations
and medical treatment. Failure to identify these hazards and understanding their implications
on the personal lives of all staff will be consequential. Also, ensuring that regular monitoring
and review of these practices and interventions are important to examine their effectiveness.
The research could provide bases for the formulation of effective occupational health and
safety policies at Msasa Industrial Training College. The research will also provide the
opportunity to students, employees and management to identify their specific respective roles
in health and safety issues. It will also provide bases for other Institutions of Higher learning
in the country to adopt the recommendations in the formation of effective health and safety
practices in their institutions as well. The work will be used as reference material for policy
makers in making decisions concerning health and safety policies on institutions’ adherence
to best health and safety practices.

1.5 PROJECT AIM

Adherence and Compliance to health and safety bodies’ regulations.

1.6 OBJECTIVES

To comply with the Industrial Safety Regulations.

To engage Management to execute health and safety programmes at Msasa Industrial

Training College with the view to improve compliance.

To provide possible solutions, and reforms that will increase the level of compliance to
occupational health and safety practices.

1.7 SCOPE

The Research is going to be conducted within three months from the start date to finish.

1.8 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

a. What interventions can be put in place to adhere to best health and safety practices?
b. What are the indications that the Institution’s human resource, administrators and
supervisors are really concerned about occupational health and safety compliance?
c. What are the respective responsibilities and rights of Management, Staff members and
Students for effective occupational health and safety policy?
d. Is the Institution’s current occupational health and safety policies adequate?
e. What happens if staff, students fails to comply with occupational health and safety rules at
the institution?
1.9 ASSUMPTIONS
1.10 HYPOTHESIS
Adherence to Occupational Health and Safety rules and regulations through

Training.

1.11 DE-LIMITATIONS

This research is going to be focusing on Mechanical Engineering Workshops only.

1.12 CONCLUSION

The Chapter has given an overview of the problem background, objectives and aim of the
project as well as the justification. Chapter one has given the general direction in which the
research will flow as well as the aspects to be concentrated upon as the research progresses.
The following chapter will now highlight the different literature from different authors on the
occupational health and safety interventions to be considered by organizations or institutions
in adherering to best health and safety practices in order to save lives, reduce accidents,
injuries.
2. CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
The Government of Zimbabwe promotes safety and health in the workplace as a pre-
requisite for sound economic development and poverty reduction. The objective of this policy
is to provide for occupational safety and health as a major component in the creation of
sustainable business and therefore economic growth. The policy is deliberately gender
sensitive and recognises the rights of employers and workers in the delivery of safety and
health at work and upholds the sanctity of life by prevention occupational accidents,
injuries, diseases and fatalities.

The government together with its social partners of employers’ organisations and labour
unions is building and maintaining a national preventive safety and health culture that
increases awareness and training on hazard identification and risk assessment to make
every task and occupation safe and worthy an occupation. My Ministry, through this
policy, fosters the spirit of self−regulation by employers through the adoption and
implementation of a systems approach in managing safety and health. Zimbabwe’s national
occupational safety and health performance has not been pleasing the past 5 years 2015 to
2019 with 26 798 workers having been seriously injured and 285 of them succumbing from
their injuries compared to 20 641 workers seriously injured and 401 dying from their
injuries during the preceding 5 year period of 2010 to 2014. On the basis of such statistics,
the national OSH performance as measured by the key indicator of Lost Time Injury
Frequency Rate (LTIFR) show that the period 2010 to 2014 registered an LTIFR of 1.64
while for 2015 to 2019 the LTIFR stood at 3.16 against a standard of less than 1. The
major contributor to this under performance has been the slow uptake of a systems
approach by employers in managing occupational safety and health. This policy, together
with the envisaged enhanced updated OSH legislative framework stress the need for
workplaces to manage occupational hazards and risks through occupational safety and
health management systems. Additionally, the policy also introduces some incentives to
employers who embrace a systems approach in managing occupational safety and health in
their workplaces to eliminate or drastically reduce accidents and ill health.
 The enactment of a harmonised occupational safety and health law should also improve the
enforcement of minimum legal requirements to render the working environment safe and
without prejudice to health. All employers should have a copy of this policy and
communicate it effectively to their workers for harmonious and coherent implementation.
In addition to the social and economic costs it entails, it is not right and in fact immoral for
any workers to lose her or his life or limb while creating wealth for his or her employer.
Accordingly, the government of Zimbabwe together with its social partners shall take all
measures necessary to prevent occupational accidents and diseases through this policy.

FIG 1 Interaction of Worker, Equipment and Environment in an Accident

Occupational safety and health (OSH) is generally defined as the science of the anticipation,
recognition, evaluation and control of hazards arising in or from the workplace that could
impair the health and well-being of workers, taking into account the possible impact on the
surrounding communities and the general environment. This domain is necessarily vast,
encompassing a large number of disciplines and numerous workplace and environmental
hazards. A wide range of structures, skills, knowledge and analytical capacities are needed to
coordinate and implement all of the “building blocks” that make up national OSH systems so
that protection is extended to both workers and the environment. The scope of occupational
safety and health has evolved gradually and continuously in response to social, political,
technological and economic changes. In recent years, globalization of the world’s economies
and its repercussions have been perceived as the greatest force for change in the world of
work, and consequently in the scope of occupational safety and health, in both positive and
negative ways. Liberalization of world trade, rapid technological progress, significant
developments in transport and communication, shifting patterns of employment, changes in
work organization practices, the different employment patterns of men and women, and the
size, structure and life cycles of enterprises and of new technologies can all generate new
types and patterns of hazards, exposures and risks. Demographic changes and population
movements, and the consequent pressures on the global environment, can also affect safety
and health in the world of work. It is no coincidence that the protection of workers against
sickness, disease and injury related to the working environment. Occupational safety and
health is a key element in achieving sustained decent working conditions and strong
preventive safety cultures. Close to 80 per cent of all ILO standards and instruments are
either wholly or partly concerned with issues related to occupational safety and health. A
large number of areas of ILO activity include an OSH or OSH-related component, among
them employment, child labour, the informal economy, gender mainstreaming, labour
statistics, labour inspection and maritime safety, HIV/AIDS and the world of work, and
international migration. This breadth of penetration gives a clear indication of the continued
importance of occupational safety and health as a core element of ILO activity and of the
Decent Work Agenda in particular. In November 2000 the Governing Body of the ILO
decided to apply on an experimental basis an integrated approach to ILO standards-related
activities in order to increase their coherence, relevance, impact and currency. OSH was
selected as the first area to benefit from this approach, and at its 91st Session (2003) the
International Labour Conference (ILC) held a general discussion to this end (ILO, 2003a).
The ILC adopted conclusions defining the main elements of a global strategy to bring about
measurable improvements in safety and health in the world of work and recommending the
development of a new instrument aimed at establishing a promotional framework for
occupational safety and health. As a result, the ILC adopted, at its 94th Session in June 2006,
a Convention (No. 187) concerning the promotional framework for occupational safety and
health and its accompanying Recommendation (No. 197). The main purposes of the
Convention are to ensure that a higher priority is given to occupational safety and health in
national agendas and to foster political commitments in a tripartite context for the
improvement of occupational safety and health. Its content is promotional rather than
prescriptive, and it is based on two fundamental concepts: the development and maintenance
of a preventive safety and health culture, and the application at the national level of a systems
management approach to occupational safety and health. This new edition of Fundamental
principles of occupational health and safety introduces these new ILO instruments promoting
occupational safety and health, as well as new approaches, tools and areas of action such as
national OSH programmes, national OSH profiles, OSH management systems, HIV/AIDS
and the world of work, and technical guidelines for the sound management of chemicals. The
book aims to serve as a guide or reference work for the development of OSH policies and
programmes. It covers the fundamental principles of occupational safety and health, based on
the ILO’s philosophy of prevention and protection, which stems from the Organization’s
mandate in this field (see box 1). The Conventions, Recommendations and codes of practice
that make up the set of “core” ILO instruments on OSH embody all the principles, provisions
and technical guidance necessary to establish, implement and manage OSH systems. They are
presented here in a form that will be useful for those involved in policymaking (governments,
and employers’ and workers’ organizations), those within enterprises who are concerned with
the practical implementation of measures to promote and protect the safety and health of
workers (managers, supervisors, workers’ representatives), and legislators and labour
inspectors. A single work cannot hope to cover all the subject areas in the vast field of
occupational safety and health.

2.2 NATIONAL LAWS, LABOUR CODES AND REGULATIONS

Occupational safety and health in Zimbabwe is regulated generally by the Factories and
Works Act (20 of 1948), the Labour Act (16 of 1985), the National Social Security Authority
(Accident Prevention and Workers Compensation Scheme) Notice No. 68 of 1990 .The
Factories and Works Act provides (amongst others) for the regulation of conditions of work
in factories, supervision of the use of machinery, precautions against accident to persons
employed on structural work. The Labour Act defines the fundamental rights of employees
and regulates conditions of employment (including issues relating to occupational safety and
health). The National Social Security Authority (Accident Prevention and Workers
Compensation Scheme) Notice provides comprehensive regulations for the prevention of
occupational injuries and diseases; and the compensation of employment-related injuries and
diseases. In addition to these, industry-specific legislation regulates occupational safety and
health in particular industries. These include the:
• National Social Security Authority (Accident Prevention and Workers' Compensation
Scheme) Notice, 1990 (S.I. 68 of 1990)
• Labour Act [Chapter 28:01] (Acts 16/1985).
• Hazardous Substances Act [Chapter 322].

• Pneumoconiosis Act, No. 13 of 1971 (Chapter 327)

• Factories and Works Act

Appropriate legislation and regulations, together with adequate means of enforcement, are
key policy instruments for the protection of workers. They form a basis for efforts to improve
working conditions and the working environment. The inspection mechanism should make
use, among other things, of a workers’ health surveillance system, which may be run by the
government, the community or the enterprise. Labour legislation lays down minimum
standards which are compulsory and applicable to everyone. As employers and plant
managers have to fulfil these stipulations by adopting appropriate techniques, and as the
efficacy of safety measures ultimately rests on their application by workers, it is imperative
that representative organizations of employers and workers be consulted at the various stages
in the preparation of laws and regulations. It has been recognized, in countries with good
safety records, that it is more effective to stipulate the duties of those with primary
responsibility for OSH measures in general terms, rather than to attempt to regulate a
multitude of hazards in minute detail. This approach is important because technology is
developing at an increasingly rapid pace, and it often proves difficult for the legislation to
keep abreast of progress. More recent legislation has therefore avoided setting out detailed
requirements, but rather has defined general objectives in broad terms. The trend in major
industrialized countries is to restrict the number of statutory instruments and to promote the
publication by government agencies or specialized professional bodies of directives, codes of
practice and voluntary standards, which are more flexible and can be updated more easily.
This approach fosters prevention but does not in any way preclude the enactment of specific
regulations where strict measures are required to control serious occupational hazards.
Standards, specifications and codes of practice issued by national standards organizations or
professional or specialized institutions are generally not binding, but in some cases they have
been given the force of law by the competent authority. This practice, which is more common
in countries where such organizations and institutions are public bodies rather than private
concerns, considerably lightens the legislator’s task, but it may increase the burden on the
OSH administrators unless they can rely on approved bodies or institutions for the application
and monitoring of these standards and specifications. 33 National policy on occupational
safety and health Role and obligations of the competent authority. The formulation of a
national OSH policy should reflect the respective functions and responsibilities of public
authorities, employers, workers and others, and should recognize the complementary
character of those responsibilities. Having said that, is the responsibility of the national
designated competent authority to identify the major problems and draw up a realistic policy,
taking into account the resources and means available. In doing so, the competent authority
must set priorities on the basis of the urgency and importance of the problems to be overcome
in that particular country. In order to give effect to OSH policy, and taking account of the
available technical means of action, the competent authority or authorities in each country
will need to:

• review from time to time the OSH legislation and any other related provisions issued or
approved, e.g. regulations or codes of practice, in the light of experience and advances in
science and technology

• issue or approve regulations, codes of practice or other suitable provisions on occupational

safety and health, taking account of the links existing between safety and health on the one
hand, and hours of work and rest breaks, on the other

• undertake or promote studies and research to identify hazards and find means of
overcoming them

• provide specific measures to prevent catastrophes, ensuring that action is coordinated and
coherent at all levels, with particular attention to areas of potentially high risk for workers
and the population at large

• provide information and advice, in an appropriate manner, to employers and workers, and
promote or facilitate cooperation between them and their organizations, with a view to
eliminating hazards or reducing them as far as practicable

• ensure that national laws and regulations, and other approved provisions (for example,
guidelines developed by national organizations), are clear, consistent and comprehensive, and
reflect national conditions

• verify that national legislation takes into account the applicable provisions of international
labour standards, especially Conventions Nos. 155 and 161 and their accompanying
Recommendations.

With regard to ensuring that the policy is implemented within enterprises, the competent
authority or authorities should:
• set the conditions governing the design, construction and layout of undertakings with a view
to avoiding or minimizing hazards

• ensure that hazards are avoided or controlled when operations begin, or when major
alterations or changes are made

• verify the safety of technical equipment used at work

• see to it that the procedures defined by the competent authority are enforced

• identify work processes, substances and agents which are to be prohibited, limited or made
subject to authorization or control, taking into consideration the possibility of simultaneous
exposure to several substances or agents

• establish and apply procedures for the notification of occupational accidents and diseases
by employers and, when appropriate, insurance institutions and others directly concerned, and
produce annual statistics on occupational accidents and diseases

• hold inquiries in cases of accidents, diseases or any other injuries which arise in the course
of or in connection with work and appear to reflect a serious situation

• publish information on measures taken in pursuance of the national OSH policy, and on
accidents, diseases and injuries which arise in the course of or in connection with work

• introduce or extend systems to examine chemical, physical and biological agents, and
ergonomics and psycho-social factors, with a view to assessing the risk to the health of
workers, in so far as is practicable in current national conditions.

2.3 POLICY COORDINATION

In order to ensure coherence in formulating and applying the national OSH policy, there must
be coordination between the various authorities and bodies designated to implement the
policy. There should also be close cooperation between public authorities, representative
employers’ and workers’ organizations, and any other concerned bodies, with a view to
making arrangements that are appropriate to national conditions and practice. Such
arrangements might include the establishment of a central body to take overall responsibility
for implementation of policy measures.

The main purposes of these joint efforts should be to:

• fulfil the requirements regarding policy formulation, implementation and periodic review
• coordinate efforts to carry out the functions assigned to the competent authority

• coordinate related activities that are undertaken nationally, regionally or locally by public
authorities, employers and their organizations, workers’ organizations and representatives,
and other individuals or bodies concerned

• promote the exchange of views, information and experience nationwide, within particular
industries, or in specific branches of economic activity.

If the goals of OSH policy are to be achieved, employers and workers must be continuously
involved in its implementation and review. National tripartite seminars can be an effective
means of associating employers and workers in the policy-making process. The consensus
developed by such seminars increases the commitment to implement the agreed measures.

2.4 EDUCATION AND TRAINING

Education and training provide individuals with the basic theoretical and practical knowledge
required to carry out their trade or occupation successfully and to fit into the working
environment. Because of the importance of occupational safety and health, measures should
be taken to include these subjects in education and training at all levels in all trades and
professions, including higher technical, medical and professional education. OSH training
should meet the needs of all workers, and should be promoted in a manner that is appropriate
to national conditions and practice. The idea is to incorporate OSH principles related to the
student’s needs into the teaching of all trades and professions. It is therefore important to
ensure that OSH matters are integrated in the curricula and teaching materials of trades and
occupations at a level in line with the future functions and responsibilities of the people being
taught. In general, individuals have great difficulty in modifying acquired habits or
abandoning ingrained actions and reflexes. Schooling or apprenticeship should therefore
inculcate safe working methods and behaviour at an early stage, so that they are followed
throughout working life. Vocational training, whether in the enterprise or at school, often
leaves workers poorly prepared to deal with the hazards of their trade. Where they 36
Fundamental principles of occupational health and safety have learnt to work with defective
or badly guarded machines and tools, it would be surprising if they were later to be much
concerned about safety. If, on leaving school, they are unaware of the importance of good
personal hygiene, they are scarcely likely to practise it in the workshop. If people are to be
taught how to earn their living, they should also be taught how to protect their lives. The need
to give appropriate training in occupational safety and health to workers and their
representatives in the enterprise should thus be stressed as a fundamental element of OSH
policy, and should be stated explicitly in the policy document. Workers should be provided
with adequate training in terms of the technical level of their activity and the nature of their
responsibilities. Employers should also learn how to gain the confidence of their workers and
motivate them; this aspect is as important as the technical content of training. The need to
train labour inspectors, OSH specialists and others directly concerned with the improvement
of working conditions and the working environment cannot be overemphasized and should be
reflected in the policy document. The training should take into account the increasing
complexity of work processes, often brought about by the introduction of new or advanced
technology, and the need for more effective methods of analysis to identify and measure
hazards, as well as action to protect workers against them. Employers’ and workers’
organizations should take positive action to carry out training and information programmes
with a view to preventing potential occupational hazards in the working environment, and to
controlling and protecting against existing risks such as those due to air pollution, noise and
vibration. The public authorities have the responsibility to promote training and to act as a
catalyst by providing resources and specialized personnel where necessary. Such support is
essential in developing countries. Initial training, even under the best of conditions, cannot
cover all foreseeable and unforeseeable situations. Consequently, occupational safety and
health training is a long-term task, and one that is never completely finished.

Education and training provide individuals with the basic theoretical and practical knowledge
required for the successful exercise of their chosen occupation or trade. Education and
training must therefore also cover the prevention of accidents and injury to health arising out
of or linked with or occurring in the course of work. There should be special emphasis on
training, including necessary further training. In addition, attention should be paid to the
qualifications and motivations of individuals involved, in one capacity or another, in the
achievement of adequate levels of safety and health. Where there are health hazards
associated with hazardous materials, the competent authority should make appropriate
arrangements, in consultation and collaboration with the most representative organizations of
employers and workers concerned:

• To promote the dissemination of information on hazards and on methods of prevention and

control
• To educate all concerned about the hazards and about methods of prevention and control.
Training and information at the national level

The competent authority or authorities in each country should provide information and
advice, in an appropriate manner, to employers and workers, and should promote or facilitate
cooperation between them and their organizations, with a view to eliminating hazards or
reducing them as far as practicable. Where appropriate, a special training programme for
migrant workers in their mother tongues should be provided. Training at all levels should be
emphasized as a means of improving working conditions and the work environment. OSH
institutes and laboratories, labour institutes and other institutions concerned with training,
technical support or research in occupational safety and health should be established.
Workers’ organizations as well as employers should take positive action to carry out training
and information programmes with a view to preventing potential occupational hazards in the
working environment, and controlling and protecting against existing risks. In their own
training, employers should also learn how to gain the confidence of their workers and
motivate them; this aspect is as important as the technical content of the training. The training
of labour inspectors, OSH specialists and others directly concerned with the improvement of
working conditions and the work environment should take into account the increasing
complexity of work Health promotion, education and training 113 processes. In particular,
with the introduction of new or advanced technology there is a need for training in methods
of analysis to identify and measure the hazards, as well as in ways to protect workers against
these hazards. The OSH programme should place particular emphasis on activities related to
the collection, analysis and dissemination of information, taking into consideration the
differing needs of government agencies, employers and workers and their organizations,
research institutions and others concerned with the improvement of working conditions and
the work environment. Priority should be given to the collection and dissemination of
practical information, such as information on the provisions of legislation and collective
agreements, training activities, research in progress and the content of technical publications.
Information should be easily accessible through a variety of means, including the Internet,
computerized databases, audio-visual materials, serial publications, information sheets and
monographs. A special effort should be made to provide information at low cost or free of
charge to trade unions and other interested organizations and audiences which might
otherwise not be able to afford them. The establishment of regional, sub regional or national
information systems on working conditions and on occupational safety and health should be
encouraged. This could be achieved through the establishment of technical advisory services
such as the ILO International Occupational Safety and Health Information Centre (CIS)
national centres, as well as the organization of national and regional workshops and the
inclusion of information activities in technical cooperation projects. Information systems
should be examined to ensure that there is no overlap with the activities of other institutions
providing information in the field of occupational safety and health, and that the most
appropriate and cost-effective techniques are used. Training and information at the enterprise
level. The need to give appropriate training in occupational safety and health to workers and
their representatives in the enterprise cannot be overemphasized. Training at all levels should
be seen as a means of improving working conditions and the work environment. Employers
should provide necessary instructions and training, taking account of the functions and
capacities of different categories of workers. Furthermore, workers and their representatives
should have reasonable time, during paid working hours, to exercise their safety and health
functions and to receive training related to them. Employers’ and workers’ organizations
should take positive action to carry out training and information programmes with respect to
existing and potential occupational hazards in the work environment. These programmes
should focus on:

• Prevention

• Control

• Protection.

Workers should be provided with the type of knowledge commensurate with the technical
level of their activity and the nature of their responsibilities. Representatives of workers in
the enterprise should also be given adequate information on measures taken by the employer
to secure occupational safety and health. They should be able to consult their representative
organizations about such information provided that they do not disclose commercial secrets.
At an individual level, each worker should be informed in an adequate and appropriate
manner of the health hazards involved in his or her work, of the results of the health
examinations he or she has undergone and of the assessment of his or her health. Information
activities are a key means of support for OSH programmes. These activities should
emphasize practical materials targeted at specific groups. Special priority should be given to
information that can be put to immediate use in enterprises. Policy-makers, labour inspectors
and the staff of institutions carrying out research and technical support activities should also
be provided with information relevant to their priorities. The participation of such institutions
in information networks, both national and international, should be encouraged and
developed. Workers and their safety and health representatives should have access to
appropriate information, which might include:

• Notice of any forthcoming visits to workplaces by the competent authority in relation to

safety or health

• Reports of inspections conducted by the competent authority or the employer, including

inspections of machinery or equipment

• Copies of orders or instructions issued by the competent authority in respect of safety and
health matters

• Reports prepared by the competent authority or the employer on accidents, injuries,

instances of ill health and other occurrences affecting safety and health

• Information and notices on all hazards at work, including hazardous, toxic or harmful
materials, agents or substances used at the workplace

• Any other documentation concerning safety and health that the employer is required to
maintain

• Immediate notification of accidents and dangerous occurrences

• Any health studies conducted in respect of hazards present in the workplace.

2.4.1 TRAINING METHODS AND MATERIALS

The importance of training lies in the fact that regulations and warning signs will not prevent
risky behaviour unless workers understand dangers and believe that safety measures are
worthwhile. Workers, in particular new recruits, need to be instructed in the safety aspects of
their work and kept under close supervision to ensure that they have fully understood the
dangers and how to avoid them. This instruction must be supported by effective materials and
practical training methods. Specific training materials should be developed to assist action in
poorly protected sectors, and emphasis should be placed on the training of trainers.
Developing countries have special needs to which training materials and methods will need to
be adapted. In some cases, entirely new materials and methods will be required. This work
should utilize research on sectors with particularly high safety risks and pilot experiments
identifying the cost effectiveness and appropriateness of measures. Whenever possible, work
on developing training methods and materials should be done in consultation with workers’
and employers’ representatives. Given the fact that many workers in developing countries are
either illiterate or semi-literate, great care must be taken in choosing an appropriate means of
communication. Information on safety and health should be presented in a manner that is
easily understood by all workers regardless of their level of education. Language should be
kept simple. Everyday language, i.e. the vernacular or local dialect, should be used whenever
possible. Information should be conveyed using a medium that does not rely heavily on the
written word. Discussions or lectures in the vernacular, along with demonstrations, vivid
posters or films, are often more effective than written material in putting across safety and
health messages. Other techniques include on the-job demonstrations, role-playing, and
audio-visual presentations accompanied by explanatory discussions. Any new techniques
implemented must be periodically evaluated. If communication is effective it will produce the
desired effects: a reduction in the number of accidents and diseases, or their elimination;
savings in medical bills and compensation payments; and improved productivity and worker
morale. Fundamental principles of occupational health and safety. International chemical
hazard communication tools. The prevention of exposure to hazardous chemicals in the
workplace is a major focus of occupational safety and health. Any strategy for the sound
management of chemicals at work is therefore effective only if it adheres closely to the
general principles of occupational safety and health, namely: identification and
characterization of hazards; assessment of exposure; characterization of risk; and
implementation of risk management measures. However, this is possible only if reliable
information on chemical hazards and risks is developed and made readily and widely
available, and if training is provided on all the aspects of safe dealing with chemicals. Amid
growing concerns for human and environmental health, unprecedented national, regional and
international efforts have been made since the 1980s to develop and implement globally
coordinated and harmonized regulatory and technical management tools for the safe
production, handling, use and disposal of hazardous chemicals. Over these years the ILO has
taken part in the development of a number of important internationally harmonized hazard
communication and management tools, some of which are described below. The International
Chemical Safety Cards (ICSCs) 2 The ICSC project was developed in 1984 and is funded by
the EU, the ILO and the WHO. The project is currently managed by the ILO on behalf of the
Joint ILO/WHO/UNEP International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS). The ICSCs
summarize essential safety and health information on chemical substances in a clear way and
are intended for use at the shop-floor level by workers, and by those responsible for
workplace safety and health. To a large extent, the information provided in the ICSCs
conforms to the provisions of the Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170), and the Chemicals
Recommendation, 1990 (No. 177), on chemical safety data sheets and, more recently, to the
Globally Harmonized System for the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS).3 The
ICSCs are designed to serve as an international reference source for chemical safety
information and are accordingly prepared through an ongoing process of drafting and peer
review by scientists from specialized institutions designated by those member States who
contribute to the work of the IPCS. This process also takes account of the advice and
comments provided by manufacturers, workers’ and employers’ organizations, and other
specialized national and professional institutions. A large number of national institutions are
involved in the translation of the ICSCs into different languages currently over 1,600 ICSCs
are available free of charge on the Internet in 18 languages. The Globally Harmonized
System for the Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) The ILO initiated this
project as a follow-up to the adoption of the Chemicals Convention, 1990 (No. 170), and
played an important role in steering its development under the umbrella first of the IPCS and
then the Inter Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). It
was carried out by three institutions in partnership: the OECD for the harmonization of
classification criteria for health and environmental hazards; the United Nations Committee of
Experts on the Transport of Dangerous Goods (CETDG) for physical hazards; and the ILO
for the harmonization of chemical hazard communication (labelling and chemical safety data
sheets). In order to provide a mechanism for maintaining and promoting the application of the
GHS by member States, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC)
decided in 1999 to reconfigure the CETDG as the United Nations Committee of Experts on
the Transport of Dangerous Goods and on the GHS. At its December 2002 session in Geneva,
the full Committee adopted the final version of the GHS, which was officially published in
2003 in the six languages of the United Nations. The GHS has been designed to cover all
chemicals, including pure substances and mixtures, but accepting pharmaceutical products,
and to provide for the chemical hazard communication requirements of the workplace, of the
transport of dangerous goods, of consumers and of the environment. As such it is a truly
harmonized and universal technical standard that is already starting to have a far-reaching
impact on all national and international standards, both regulatory and technical, for safe
dealing with chemicals. An increasingly large number of countries, including the United
States and the EU countries, have made a commitment to progressive implementation of the
GHS.4 the table in Annex VIII provides in a summary format the chemical hazard categories,
related statements and classes defined by the GHS. Box 28 shows a sample of the pictograms
designed under the GHS to identify particular chemical hazards.

2.4.2 TRAINING: RULES AND PROCEDURES

Good training is often assumed - simply because training is a formal requirement for those
employed in an industry. There are, however, many assumptions which are made about the
quality of the safety training provided. The two most common assumptions are:

a) That the training addresses all the relevant safety issues; and

b) That the training was initially effective and will continue to be effective.

Central to both potential problems areas is a lock of measurement of training effectiveness,

both immediately after the training and periodically (e.g. annually) after the training. The
latter can be important to determine a need for any specific refresher training. Measures for
testing understanding may therefore need to be developed and applied. Measuring the
effectiveness of training. Without this measurement of training effectiveness there can be no
systematic feedback to the trainers to show where elements of the training packages could be
improved to better convey the information on the rules or where selected individuals may
require further tuition. If, for example, the feedback shows that about 60% of the trainees
have not fully understood certain issues on the course, then it would suggest that the training
course/material would benefit from being reviewed. In such an event, the implications would
be that most of the workforce could have a serious lack of understanding, which under certain
circumstances could lead to errors and subsequent accidents/incidents. If, on the other hand,
the feedback shows that only 10% of trainees are having difficulty, then clearly the training
course is effective for the vast majority of trainees and would probably not need further
consideration. In this case the feedback suggests that there are a small number of trainees
with special difficulties who have additional training needs. Care should be taken when using
the test results of many training courses. Especially with some of the computer learning
packages, the final tests can simply be a measure of a trainee's short-term memory and not of
a deeper understanding of the important factors relevant to safety. For example a test may
simply ask a trainee to restate the order of operations in a complex task. A deeper
understanding of the safety issues may better be tested by targeting the trainee's
understanding of the consequences of not adhering to the various operation stage rules.

2.4.3 REFRESHER TRAINING NEEDS

Many industries have policies to repeat facets of safety training at fixed intervals. In practice,
the need for retraining and the period between training sessions are often decided by
management on the grounds of best judgement and practicality. Although in many
circumstances the retraining arrangements may be satisfactory, there are likely to be instances
where a more systematic approach would prove beneficial. A wide range of factors will
determine the individual's need for refresher training. For example a person will probably
need more refresher training on a task rarely performed than on one regularly performed. A
change in work methods or equipment specification may also suggest retraining. The specific
needs of each operator may be determined by supervisors regularly asking them to
demonstrate their skills and understanding of procedures, etc.

2.4.4 TRAINING: HAZARD AWARENESS AND RISK PERCEPTION

Behaviour is strongly influenced by a persons’ awareness of hazards in the workplace. With little or
no awareness people will more readily deviate from the rules and procedures of the workplace.
Indeed, these rules are likely to be seen more as simple restrictions on actions rather than good and
safe working practices. For example when working with trichloroethane, workers may ignore a no
smoking rule because they find that the chemical is no easily set alight. In fact, the rule exists
because the hot cigarette-end breaks the vapour down into toxic gases, which the smoker then
inhales. Once an individual is aware of the existence of the hazard, the next important question is
how much risk does the individual associate with deviations from the prescribed rules and
procedures. Underestimation of risks may be common. Many older workers, for example, appear to
think that there is little risk to their hearing from working in noisy environments. Some of these
people are therefore very reluctant to comply with local requirements to wear hearing protection.
Similar problems are sometimes found with eye protection. The assessment of hazard awareness
and risk perceptions is therefore central to an understanding of the reasons behind some rule
violations. There is, however, a further dimension to consider. The decision to commit a violation is
often derived from a conscious decision which balances the perceived risks against the perceived
benefits. Thus, when assessing the training needs associated with reducing rule violations it is
important to obtain some understanding of:

 The degree to which the workforce understands the hazards

 the risk they will incur if they choose to deviate from each rule
 The benefits (both to themselves and their organisation) which they perceive would come
from breaking each rule.
The benefits may be short term or long term. They may be personal benefits (e.g. ego needs,
financial rewards, compliance with group norms) as well as benefits for the company (e.g. more
production, faster repairs). It is likely that the exact balance of risks and benefits will differ
throughout the workforce so any single management approach will be more effective for some of
the workforce than for others. As a result, management can never be sure that their actions will be
satisfactory for all their staff. They may be confident that their actions have moved attitudes in the
right direction, but they can never be certain that they have gone far enough, for all the workforce.
It is important to measure changes in attitudes throughout any programme of change. The data
collected should be sufficient to allow management to focus on those rules and procedures requiring
further attention and those aspects of risk/benefits which need to be addressed. Questionnaires
have been successfully used. The main problem, however, is the initial identification of the detailed
behavioural factors which need to be measured. For example the assessment will probably need to
address specific risk areas such as, anchoring a fall-arrest harness system to a handrail (which is not
designed or tested to safely take the high g-force loading which can occur during an arrest), as
opposed to anchoring a fall-arrest harness system to an approved fixture. A small multi-disciplinary
team, consisting of representatives of the workforce, safety and training departments, should be
able to quickly identify the unsafe behaviour that should be examined first. These detailed scenarios
can never fully represent all the risk factors, and in practice they probably do not need to. Actions
taken to heighten people's perceptions of risks in several areas may produce additional benefits of
better risk perceptions in general. The exposure of the factors (previously not considered) which
could combine to create the tangible safety risk may be relevant to other areas which are not
specifically addressed. The crucial point is to determine and assess a workable selection of critical
behavioural situations. Less critical behaviour can then be targeted in subsequent assessments if
necessary. In particular, management should:

 Develop a thorough understanding of the need for procedures (via accident case studies,
potential accidents, etc.), and the consequences (safety and plant damage/loss production)
resulting from failure to comply

 Clearly demonstrate the dangers of operating machinery and processes beyond the limits
laid out in any safety or work procedures; provide a general safety knowledge of the whole
system as well as detailed knowledge of all relevant specific plant

 Increase perception of risk by a variety of methods including interviews with actual victims.
Risk communications should include consequences of accidents in terms of financial loss,
effect on family, career and permanent disability; ensure that workers and supervisors are
continually made aware of accidents and their costs
  Ensure that people are made aware of the likelihood of detection and disciplinary actions
which would be taken against them. It is important, however, that this should not detract
from a 'no blame - near miss reporting culture which can be very effective for addressing
inadvertent breaking of rules.

2.4.5 THE INTERNATIONAL CHEMICAL CONTROL TOOLKIT

The increasing use of chemicals in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and in
emerging economies, where access to people with the experience to assess and control
exposure to chemicals is limited, has led to the development

FIG 2 EXAMPLES OF GHS CHEMICAL HAZARD PICTOGRAMS

of a new approach to the control of chemicals called control banding, it is a complementary

approach to protecting worker health by focusing resources on exposure controls and forms
the basis of the ILO’s International Chemical Control Toolkit (ICCT). Since it is not possible
to assign a specific occupational exposure limit to every chemical in use, a chemical is
assigned to a “hazard group”, each group requiring defined control measures based on its
hazard classification according to international criteria, the amount of chemical in use, and its
volatility/dustiness. This leads to the assignment of one of four recommended control
strategies:

• employ good industrial hygiene practice

• use local exhaust ventilation

• enclose the process

• seek the advice of a specialist.

The user takes the hazard group, quantity, and level of dustiness/ volatility and matches them
to a control approach using a simple table. The controls are described in control guidance
sheets, which contain both general information and, for commonly performed tasks, more
specific advice. This technique is not a substitute for OSH expertise, and specific operating
knowledge and professional judgement are required for implementation of the best
“reasonably practicable” combination of controls to minimize risks to workers. Much of the
recent work on control banding derives from work carried out by the UK Health and Safety
Executive. Designed to assist SMEs in complying with the UK chemical safety regulations –
the Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) – the HSE scheme uses the ‘EU
risk phrases’: wording that must be used within the EU in the classification and labelling of
potentially harmful chemicals by the manufacturer of the chemical, and that the user may find
on the safety data sheets or labels supplied with the chemical. Increasingly being applied
worldwide, this Health promotion, education and training 119 Corrosive Explosive
Flammable Toxic Box 28 Examples of GHS chemical hazard pictograms approach has been
internationalized by the ILO. The hazard bands in the ICCT are based on both the EU and
GHS classification criteria, either of which can be used independently to achieve the selection
of control measures; the GHS will become the single standard classification when it is
incorporated into an EU directive currently in the making. A draft version of the Kit is
available free of charge on the ILO’s website.

2.5 KEY ELEMENTS OF SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

The key elements of a successful safety and health management system are set out in this
section.. They also comply with the main elements of an occupational safety and health
management system as set out in the ILO Guidelines. The manner and extent to which the
individual elements will be applied will depend on factors such as size of the organisation, its
management structure, the nature of its activities, and the risks involved.

2.5.1 POLICY AND COMMITMENT

The organisation should prepare an occupational safety and health policy programme as part
of the preparation of the Safety Statement required by section 20 of the 2005 Act. Effective
safety and health policies should set a clear direction for the organisation to follow. They will
contribute to all aspects of business performance as part of a demonstrable commitment to
continuous improvement. Responsibilities to people and the working environment will be met
in a way that fulfils the spirit and letter of the law. Cost-effective approaches to preserving
and developing human and physical resources will reduce financial losses and liabilities. In a
wider context, stakeholders’ expectations, whether they are shareholders, employees or their
representatives, customers or society at large, can be met.

2.5.2 PLANNING

The organisation should formulate a plan to fulfil its safety and health policy as set out in the
Safety Statement. An effective management structure and arrangements should be put in
place for delivering the policy. Safety and health objectives and targets should be set for all
managers and employees.

2.5.3 IMPLEMENTATION AND OPERATION

For effective implementation, the organisation should develop the capabilities and support
mechanisms necessary to achieve its safety and health policy, objectives and targets. All staff
should be motivated and empowered to work safely and to protect their long-term health, not
simply to avoid accidents. The arrangements should be:

•underpinned by effective staff involvement and participation through appropriate

consultation, the use of the safety committee where it exists, and representation systems;

• sustained by effective communication and the promotion of competence which allows all
employees and their representatives to make a responsible and informed contribution to the
safety and health effort.

There should be a planned and systematic approach to implementing the safety and health
policy through an effective safety and health management system. The aim should be to
minimise risks. Risk assessment methods should be used to determine priorities and set
objectives for eliminating hazards and reducing risks. Wherever possible, risks should be
eliminated through the selection and design of facilities, equipment and processes. If risks
cannot be eliminated, they should be minimised by the use of physical controls and safe
systems of work or, as a last resort, through the provision of personal protective equipment.
Performance standards should be established and used for measuring achievement. Specific
actions to promote a positive safety and health culture should be identified. There should be a
shared common understanding of the organisation’s vision, values and beliefs. The visible
and active leadership of senior managers fosters a positive safety and health culture.

2.5.4 MEASURING PERFORMANCE

The organisation should measure, monitor and evaluate its safety and health performance.
Performance can be measured against agreed standards to reveal when and where
improvement is needed. Active self-monitoring reveals how effectively the health and safety
management system is functioning. Self-monitoring looks at both hardware (premises, plant
and substances) and software (people, procedures and systems, including individual
behaviour and performance). If controls fail, reactive monitoring should find out why they
failed, by investigating the accidents, ill-health or incidents that could have caused harm or
loss. The objectives of active and reactive monitoring are:

• To determine the immediate causes of substandard performance;

• To identify any underlying causes and implications for the design and operation of the
safety and health management system. Longer-term objectives should also be monitored.

2.5.5 AUDITING AND REVIEWING PERFORMANCE

The organisation should review and improve its safety and health management system
continuously, so that it’s overall safety and health performance improves constantly. The
organisation can learn from relevant experience and apply the lessons. There should be a
systematic review of performance based on data from monitoring and from independent
audits of the whole safety and health management system. These form the basis of complying
with the organisation’s responsibilities under the 2005 Act and other statutory provisions.
There should be a strong commitment to continuous improvement involving the development
of policies, systems and techniques of risk control. Performance should be assessed by:

• Internal reference to key performance indicators;

• External comparison with the performance of business competitors and best practice in the
organisation’s employment sector.

Many companies now report on how well they have performed on worker safety and health in
their annual reports and how they have fulfilled their responsibilities with regard to preparing
and implementing their safety statements. In addition, employers have greater responsibilities
under section 80 of the 2005 Act on ‘Liability of Directors and officers of undertakings’
which requires them to be in a position to prove they have proactively managed the safety
and health of their workers. Data from this ‘Auditing and Reviewing Performance’ process
should be used for these purposes.

FIG 3 KEY ELEMENTS OF A SAFETY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

CHAPTER 3 METHOLOGY