A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE

THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
A PRACTICAL GUIDE
TO THE THEMATIC
APPERCEPTION TEST

The TAT in Clinical Practice

Edward Aronow, Ph.D.

Montclair State University

Kim Altman Weiss, Ph.D.

New York Presbyterian Hospital

Marvin Reznikoff, Ph.D.

Fordham University

Copyrighted Material
 USA Publishing Office: BRUNNER-ROUTLEDGE
A member oj the Taylor & Francis Group
325 Chestn ut Street
Philadelphia, PA 19106
Tel: (2 15) 625-8900
Fax: (2 15) 625-2940
Distribution Center: BRUNNER-ROUTLEDGE
A member oj the Taylor & Francis Group
7625 Empire Drive
Florence, KY 4 1042
Tel: 1-800-634-7064
Fax: 1-800-248 -4724
UK BRUNNER-ROUTLEDGE
A member oj the Taylor & Francis Group
27 Church Road
Hove
E. Sussex, BN3 2FA
Tel: +44 (0) 1273 2074 11
Fax: +44 (0) 12732056 12

A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE THEMATIC APPERCEPTION TEST: The TAT in Clinical

Practice
Copyrigh t © 200 I Taylor & Franc is. All ri ghts reserved. Printed in th e United Sta tes of
America. Excep t as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part o f
this publication may be reproduced or distributed in an y form or by any means, o r stored
in a database or retrieval system, w ith out prior written permiss ion of the publisher.
234 5 6 7 890
Printed by Sh erid an Books, Ann Arbor, M l.
Cover design by Nancy Abbol!.

A CIP ca talog record for thi s book is avai lable from the British Library.

@ The paper in thi s publication meets the requirements of the ANSI Standard
Z39.48 -1 984 (Perma nence of Paper).
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Aronow, Edwa rd.
A practical gu id e to the thematic appercep ti on test: th e T.A.T. in clinical practice /
Edwa rd Aronow, Kim A ltm an Weiss, Marvin Reznikofr.
p. cm.
Includes ind ex.
ISBN 0-87630-944-9 (a lk. pape r )
l. Thematic Apperception Test. I. Weiss, Kim Altman. !T. Reznikoff, Marvin. III.
Title.

BF698.8 .T5 A7 2001

I 55.2'844-dc2 1 2001027392

I SBN 0-87630-944-9

Copyrighted Material
 To Drs. Lon Gieser and Wes Morgan-
two dedicated TAT historians.

To Christiana Morgan-an early TA T pioneer.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
CONTENTS

Introduction ix

A History of Apperception Techniques

Test Administration 5

When to Use the TAT 5

Materials 5
Setting 6
Rappo rt 6
Which Ca rd s to G ive 6
In stru ct io ns 8
Reco rdin g the Responses 9
Inquiry 11
Testing Children 12
Im pact of Race o n the Exa min er 12

Interpretation 13

Th eo ry 13
Scori ng Systems 14
Main Themes Technique 15
Nomothetic and Idiograp hi c Interpretat io n 16
Areas of Interpretati o n 17
Rules and Ca ution s in Interp retat ion 25

vii

Copyrighted Material
viii Contents

Stimulus Characteristics of the TAT Cards 31

Research Findings 51

Need for Ac hi evement 51

H osti lity and Aggress ion 53
Scor in g of Defense Mec h ~1 ni sms 55
Interpe rso nal Ob ject RelJtions 56

Diversity Issues in TAT Use and Alternatives to the TAT 59

Alternatives to the TAT 61

Which Test to Use? 69
Cons id er in g Indi vidu al Differences in Assessment 70

The TAT in Psychotherapy 73

Pmtocol # 1 76
Protocol # 2 80

Integrating the TAT into a Test Report 83

Outline of a Psychologi ca l I\eport 84

Additional Suggestions for Effec tive Repmt Writing 89

Sample Protocols 95

Protocol # 1 95
Protocol # 2 98
Protocol # 3 102
Protoco l # 4 104

References 107
Index 115

Copyrighted Material
 INTRODUCTION

The purpose of the present text, as its name implies, is to provide the
student with a short, manageable, but also reasonably comprehensive guide
to the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) and other apperceptive tech-
niques.
As the present authors have stated elsewhere (Aronow, Reznikoff, &
Moreland, 1994), the TAT, like the Rorschach, provides essentially idio-
graphic rather than nomothetic information. Thus, it is quite effective in tell-
ing the clinician how the subject views the self and the world in his or her
own unique way. It is less effective as a psychometric procedure, provid-
ing a nomothetic measure of traits. For this reason, we prefer the term
technique when dealing with projective devices, reserving the term test for
those instruments that are primarily nomothetic (e.g., Millon Adolescent
Personality Inventory-2, MMPI-2). Rossini and Moretti (1997) have cor-
respondingly remarked on the resulting tendency of TAT applications in
clinical practice to abandon both any psychometric approach or scoring
system.
The present text will cover both the well-known TAT and the Children's
Apperception Test (CAT), and will also foray into the somewhat lesser
known cousins of these techniques that have come into the testing arena
in recent years. Subject populations that will be considered include chil-
dren, adolescents, and adults. Some scoring systems that have been put
forward will be discussed but, as we will state, we do not view scoring
systems for apperceptive techniques as time-effective. Their usefulness is,
thus, principally limited to research on apperceptive techniques. This book
will also give special attention to cross-cultural issues and the application
of apperceptive techniques to minority populations.
The text is organized as follows: Chapter 1 will discuss the history of
apperception techniques, with Chapter 2 devoted to test administration.

ix

Copyrighted Material
x Introd ucti on

Th e thi rd ch a p ter w ill prese nt tes t int erp rc ta tion , in cl udin g th e li se o f th e

onc -se n tence s u m m ary tcc hni q u e th a t we find ve ry h e lpful. Sco rin g sys -
te m s w ill be bri efly prese nt e d ill th e cont ex t or th is ch a pt e r.
C h a pt e r 4 w ill prese nt data o n t h e stimulu s va lu e of th e TAT ca rd s. Th e
fifth ch a pt er w ill s u ccin Cl ly d escr ibe resea rc h findin gs pertainin g 10 a pp e r-
cept ive techniqu es, w hile C h a pt e r 6 w ill d ea l w ith di ve rsit y iss u es a nd
a lte rn a tive a pperce pti ve m e thod s. Th e seve nth ch a pt er w ill cove r th e TAT
a n d psyc h ot h e ra py, w hile C hapt er 8 w ill d escr ibe ho w a ppe rcepti ve fin d -
in gs shoul d be integ ra te d in a psyc hologica l re p o rt. Th e fin a l ch a p te r, C h a p-
ter 9 , w ill prese nt sa mp le prolOcol s.

Copyrighted Material
A History of Apperception
Techniques

Th e pre hi story of projective techniqu es goes back quite far, including works
of th e ancient Greeks on st imulu s a mbiguit y, comments by Oa Vin ci on
the a rti sti c u se fuln ess of di sce rning obj ects in th e Illud or the e mbers of J
fire, and Shakespeare's co mm e nts on "cloud int e rpre ta tion ."
For in sta n ce, in th e 15rh ce nlUry, Leonardo Oa Vin ci quoted Botlicelli as
stat in g that when a spo nge full of various colors is thrown aga in st a wall, a
blot is produ ced in which figures of people, various animals, a nd so on ,
may be pe rce ive d. Oa Vinci sugges te d th e use of pe rce ption s such as th ese
lor a rti sti c in spira tion (cited in Zubin , Emn , & Schumer, 1965) . He sta te d :

Don't take Ill y a d vice li g htl y w h e n 1 adv ise yo u , eve n though it m ay a ppear
bo rin g to stop a nd gaze a t wa ll spo ts, or a t th e ashes in th e fire , in the cloud s,
or in th e Illud a nd a t similar things; yo u will, if yo u consider it caref ull y,
discove r in it Jllany wo nd e rful thin gs. For th e pa inter's spirit is a rou sed to
n ew thin gs b y it, be it in compositioll of batt les, of animals a nd m e n , or in
th e va ri o u s co mpo sition s of la nd scapes a nd of unu sual thin gs su ch as d ev il s,
a nd t h e ir lik e, w hi ch are ca lcul a te d to bring yo u hon or. Through th e ind e-
scribab le a nd indefinit e thin gs, the spirit becomes awa ken e d to new discov-
eri es. (Da Vinci, quo ted in Zubin et a I. , 1965, p. 167)

Copyrighted Material
2 A Prac ti cal Guid e to the TAT

Binet aJl(] Henri, the founders of modern intelligence testing, are usu-
ally given credit as the originators of the scielllific approach to projective
te chniques, using inkblots in the study of visual imagination (Binet & Henri,
1896). Binet and Henri also lI sed children's reaction s to pi ctures as m ea -
sures of int e ll ect.
The TAT was first de veloped by Murray and hi s covvorkers at the Harvard
Ps yc hological Clin ic, having first been described by Morgan and Murray
(1935). The term apperception was chosen in view of th e fact that subjects
don't just perceive, rather, the y construct stories about the cards in accor-
dance with their persona lit y characteristics and th e ir experiences (Ander-
son, 1999). As contrasted with the Rorschach, the TAT ha s usually been
regarded as providing Illore structure to the subject. As Murra y noted in
th e test m a nual, the original procedure required two on e- hour sessions
with 10 ca rd s used in eac h session. Those cards used in the second session
were chosen to be mort' unusual, with subjects asked to give free pla y to
t hei r imagi nat ions.
Th e re ha s been controversy about the eMIl' history of the TAT in that
Christiana Morgan was, at the initial stages, given the first authorship on
the TAT. Th e controversy \vas magnified beca use of the long, conlliClual
relation s hip between Morgatl and Murray. Douglas (199 3 ) has suggested
that the downgra ding of Christiana Morgan in the authorship of til l' TAT is
anexampic of male chau v inislll, though ll10st current authors view Murray
as lhe prim <lry lorce behind the TAT (c .g., M()rgall , 1995). There is gCllcra l
agreem e n r that the id e il lor t he TAT l'merged from a n in -class quest ion
asked b y on e of Murray's undergra duatt' students. The stud e nt reported
th a t h e r son, when ill, had spent the d ,lY making up stories about pi ctures
in maga zincs. This mother w()nliered if pictures might be used in a clini ca l
se lling to re lease fama sy material (Douglas, 1993).
The TAT quickly becam e one ()f the most popular a nd so m et imt's tile
most popular proj ective technique in the clilli cian's armamentariulll. Obrzut
and Bol ick (1986) describe thematic picture techniques as "lhe 1llost wide-
spread projectiv e technique s use d with children and adolescents" (p. 176).
Similarly, Piotrowski and Keller (1984) lound that clini ca l progrilill direc-
tors Illost often cited [he TAT as the projective test with which tra ined
psychologists should be familiar. Lubin , Larsen, and Matara zzo (1984) and
Watkin s, Ca mbell, Ni e berding, and Hallm a rk ( 1995) have likewise re ported
the instrument's continuing popularit y among projecti ve rec hniqu es in a
variety of situations and populations. The TAT and simi lar themaric in-
struillents have been round to be frequent ly used for ilssessmenl in cross-
cu ltura l resea rch (Ret ieL 1987) . A good grounding in the interpretarion of
a pperce ption techniques thu s appears highly desirable .
Th eTAT a ppea rs to ha Vt' rccei vell be t t er a ccep ta nce in t h e scient i fic com-
Illunit y than, lor example, the Rorsc hach. It s hould a lso be noted lhat the

Copyrighted Material
 A Hi story ot Apperceptioll Techniques 3

TAT is known for its nonclinical contributions as well, bcing an important

technique used in various areas of personalit y research; as for example,
McCklland's work s on the need for achievement (e.g., McClelland, 1958,
1961 a, 196 I b) . These more strictly sc ien ti fic applications of t hc TAT ha vc
probably facilitat ed its acceptance by res ea rch-ori e nt ed ps ychologists.
A numbe r of mh e r proj ectivt' story tec hniques have been put forward
su bseq uent to the TAT. These ha ve included till' CAT dt'signt'd by Bella k
(Bt'llak & Abrams, 1997 ); tht' CAT-H , using hum a n figure s [or older chil-
dren (l3ellak & Hurvich , 1966); th e Robe rts Apperception Test for Children
(RATC; McA rthur & Robe rts, 1982); tht' Blacky Pi ctures Tt'st (Blum, 1950);
tht' Make-A-Picture Story Tt'st (MAPS; Shlll'idman, 1952); th e School
Apperct'ption Me thod (SAM; Soloman & Starr, 1968); the Michigan Pi c-
tures Test Revised (MPTR; Hutl. 198 0); th e Gerontological Apperception
Test (GAT; Wolk & Wolk , 1971); th e Senior Apperception Tt'chniqut' (SAT;
13t'liak & Abrams) ; the Tcll-Mc-A-Story (TEMAS; Con stantino, Malgad y &
Va zquc z, 198 1); and the Southern Mi ss iss ippi TAT (SM-TAT; Ritzkr,
Sharkey, &- Chud y. 1980).
In addition, the TAT itst'lf has bet'n adapted a t tim es lor certain special
purposes by modifying the original set of picturt's, such as in altitude sur-
vt'ys evalu a ting tilt' attitudes toward iss uc s such as labor probkms and
authority (e.g., Ha rrison, 1(65). Another type of TAT modification invol ves
till' int e nsive measurenwnt of a single characteristic such as sex or agg rcs-
sion. The STudies by McCklland and hi s associaTes (m e ntioncd earlier) on
nced lor ac hicve ment (nAch), utili zing two of the TAT cards along with
two other pictures, rt'present an es pecia ll y impress ivt' bod y or research.
Series D of thc TAT lIas bt't' n in ust' for m a n y years; prev iou s Serics A, 13,
and C were dcsign ed to be ust'd by gluing pictures onto a cardboard back-
ground. Murstt' in (1963) has dt'scrib ed the se lection of cards for Series D,
with cards being choscn on the basis of their contribution to es tablishing
diagnoses lor various clients .
Man y peopl e associated with the Harvard Psychological Clini c arc rc-
portt'd to have contributed pictures, with artistic work bt'ing donc by
Christian a Morgan and Samuel Thai (Morgan, 1995). Morgan has also
noted that the ll1odification s of original images and earlicr TAT rq)I'cst'n-
tat ions were ge nerally in the direction of removing detail and complexity
and incrcasing ambigllity-thereby preslImably increa sing the lik e lihood
or proj ect ion.
Froll1 its ince ption, the TAT has steadfastly ITll1ain ed a widely uSt'd tcst
in clinical se ttings. It has spawncd man y variations having resea rch a nd
clinical applications. From the standpoint of both its historical a nte cede nts
and current lIsage, it is very likely that it will continue 10 be an important
instrull1ent in tht' area of perso na lity assessmcnt.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
Test Administration

D When to Use the TAT

The TAT is not unique, in that information obtained may overlap with
information received from an interview, observation, and other projective
techniques. However, the TAT does draw attent ion to and e li cit specific
types of material more t han other methods, particularly interpersonal as-
pects of psychodynamics. Responses are content-rich , and reveal the
subject's outlook in re lat ionsh ips with authority figures, subord in ates, and
same and opposite sex peers. This material can be lISefUI. for examp le, in
determining the match between a subject and a specifi c type of psycho-
therapy, and can be used to enhance the psychotherapeut ic process. The
TAT shou ld generally be considered only one of the tests in a standard test
battery.

D Materials
The advantages of the TAT include the relative simplicit y of admin istra -
tion and the ease with which the materials are able to be transported. The
exam in er needs a set of TAT cards, an 8W' x II" pad of paper, a writing

Copyrighted Material
6 A Practical Gu ide to th e TA T

in strum e nt to record responses, and poss ibl y a n audio recorder (if desired).
A clirboa rd may be usdul to the exa miner for holdin g and discreetly re-
cmd i n g res po n ses.

Setting

The TAT, as we ll as other tests in th e bartery, shou ld be adm ini stered in a

we ll -lit, com fortab le, quiet room that will allow th e subject to be free from
interruption s a nd distractions. The su bject shou ld be seated in a cha ir at an
edge of the tabl e or desk adjacent to th e examiner. This arrangement a l-
lo ws t h e examiner to look a t the card s from the perspective of the s ubj ect,
and prevellls the tabl e or desk fwm being a barrier between the exam iner
and the exa min ee.

Rapport

Befo re beginning any test adm inis tra tion proced ures, it is s uggested that
the examiner ask th e s ubj ect if he or s h e knows the purpose of the tes tin g,
in order to better understand the Illeaning th e test procedure h as for the
indi v idu a l. The exami n er sho uld clear up mi sco n ce pti o n s regarding ho w
th e test results wi ll be used and a n y confidentiality issues relevant to the
situ at ion , and endeavor to esta bli sh proper rapport through presenting a
reasonably friendly atti tud e . The eXa llli l1 t'r cou ld poss ibl y begin by talking
brielly about some non-threatening topi cs.

Which Cards to Give

There a re 31 ca rd s in th e entire set, and Murray int e nd ed th a t subjects be

cldillin istered 20. It seeills that thi s nUlllber 01 cards is su ffi cient to lend a
representative sa mple of the subjects' " fcl nl asy" (Zuh in et a I. , 1965). So m e
of t h e ca rds were meant to be u se d for a ll su bj ects, and so m e are s uppos-
edly only a ppropri ate accord in g to the sex and age of th e su bj ect and a rc
so designated on the back of the carll. However, b ecause of tim e con-
stra in ts a nd the fact that the TAT is often a d mill istereci as part of a bat tery,
10-14 ca rd s are more t yp ica lI y g iven . The p resen tau t hoI'S sugges t eve n
Inver in th e interests of prac ti ca lit y.

Copyrighted Material
 Test Administration 7

Som e resea rch e rs and clinicians ordinarily use th e male se t of TAT cards
with men, and th e fe male set of TAT cards with women, because it is
beli eved that on the TAT examinees identify more with stimulus charac-
te rs of the sa me sex as themse lves, and therefore produce Illore projective
mate rial wh e n the stimulus figures match th e ir own sex. Kat z, Ru ss, and
Overholser (1993) conducted a study to test this assumption, however,
a nd their results do not support it. A Significant e tfect of gender wa s not
found for amount of fanta sy, amount of affect, intensity of affect, or le ngth
of story for any of the cards administered. Thi s study does not recommend
th e use of separate sets of TAT cards for men and women .
Clini cians often choose to administer cards tha t are re lated to their h y-
potheses about the subject's probl e ms. Howe ver, it is inadvisabl e to ad-
mini ste r only cards that th e exa min e r be lieves will have particular "pull"
for the individual subjecT, ba sed on s uspected areas of conflict (Rosenwald,
1968). Thi s practice results in a n unre prese n tat ive or bia se d view of the
subject. Rapaport , Gill, and Schafer (1968) suggest that the ca rds that do
not have as mu ch personal m ea nin g for the subject ma y provide a baseline
perform a nce lor eva luating th e more personally relevant cards.
Hartman (1970) asked 90 psychologists to rank th e ir choice of cards,
wh ich resulted in th e following recommendation for a STa nda rd set of eigh t
TAT cards: 1, 2, 3B M , 4 , 6BM, 7BM, 8BM, and 13MF. Thi s se t ha s been
critici zed (Bellak & Abrams, 1997) beca use all of th ese cards a re m ea nt lor
l11 e n, a nd none a re mea n t pa rt icula rly lor women. Bella k suggested s ub-
stituting card 7GF for card 7BM, and adding cards 9GF and 10 to create a
more bal a nced ba sic se t. In our experience card 12F may be far more use-
ful and provocative than card 10, the lalte r ofte n eliciting stereotyped,
unrevea ling th e me s. Other cards may be added if the examiner believes
that they ma y yield fruitful mate rial specific to the subject's conflicts.
The cards are usu a lly a dmini ste red in numerical order. However, a study
by Terry (I (52) indicated that th e ord e r of administration does not have
an impact on the e motional tone, outcome, or level of response of th e
s tori es .
Although it is not one of th e 1110re cOlllmonly used ca rd s (Hartlllan,
1(70), Ka h n (1984) suggested that the bla n k ca I'd, # 16, is a very use-
ful card to use beca u se it is completely neutral, simple, and culture-free.
Other cards have been criti cized as being overly n ega tiv e, too compl ex for
children, or oriented toward the middle cla ss . Th e blank card is not ame-
nabl e to such criticism, and on the contrary, is the ideal unstructured
projective stimulus. Because of th e absolute lack of external stimulus, one
ca n be assured that the re sponse is based completely on internal factors,
and therefore is lik e ly to be meaningful.
Problems with th e u se of the blank card can be attributed large ly to poor
instructions for its use . Kahn (1984) suggested the following instructions

Copyrighted Material
8 A Prac ti ca l Guide to th e TAT

as the blank card is give n to the subj e ct: "This card is diffe re nt from th e
others. This time you get to mak e up th e picture, too. Te ll m e a complete
st ory based on your picture ju st lik e in the other cards, and te ll me what is
h a ppening, what le d up to it. and what will happe n in th e e nd ." These
clear and simple instructions emphasize the similarit y be twee n th e blank
card and th e other cards, and remind th e subject to produ ce a stor y rather
than a d esc riptiv e scene. It is reco lllm e nd ed th a t th e blank card be admin-
istere d last. which highlight s th e speci a l nature of the task. " Whit e
respo n ses," such as "a po lar bear in th e snow," a re considere d rej ection s
of th e ca rd , and may re fl e ct hostility toward th e examiner and the pro-
ced u re.

,~,

Instructions

Murray's (1943) suggest ion s for in structing a subj ect a re th e following:

This is a tes t of im ag in a tion, one form of intelligence. I a m go in g to sho w

yo u so m e pictures, one at a time; a nd yo ur tas k will be to m a ke up as dra-
m a ti c a sto ry as you ca n for eac h . Te ll what h as led up to th e event shown in
th e picture, describe w hat is happ e ning ilt the Illoill e nt, what th e ch aracters
are feeling a11(i think in g. an d then give the outco me. Spea k yo ur thou ghts
as they co m e to yo ur mind. Do you understan d ? Sin ce yo u h ave 50 minut es
for 10 pi ctures, you ca n devote a bout li ve Illinutes to each story. Here is the
fir st picture. (p. 46)

The a bove in structions a re simplifi ed sli ghtl y for childre n and adu lt s of
limited ed ucation.
We suggest that th e exam in e r eliminate, "This is a tes t of imagination,
one form of inte llige n ce," and "Your tas k wi ll be to make up as dramatic a
sto ry as you can." Th e fiv e -minut e tim e limi t instruction ca n a lso be re -
moved. It is fe lt that these a re unn ecessa ry and m ay be di stractin g. If the
su bj ect ta lks too lon g, then it would be accep table for the exa min e r to ask
him or her to fini sh up and go on to the n ex t card.
Th e in structions shou ld be re peated on request. Parts of the instruction s
may have to be repea ted late r on, su ch as reminding the subject to te ll you
th e characters' thoughts and feelings, or to create an ending for th e stor y.
After repeating a spec ific in struction on severa l cards, the exa miner ma y
choose to cease to remind the subj ect 01 missing pa rts 01 th e story. How-
ever, it should be note d which pans of th e in structions mu st be repeated
pe rsistently, as thi s gives information regard ing what is difficult for th e
subj ect and can be quite m ea nin gful.

Copyrighted Material
 Test Administration 9

II may be helpful to put the four questions on a card in front of subjects

(possibly on an ind ex card) in order to remind them of the components to
include without interrupting their flow. With slight modification of in-
structions, the TAT can be self-administered or group administered.
The cards are kept facedown in front of the examiner, with the first card
to be administered on top. The examiner presents the cards to the subject
one at a time. Cards are placed face-down by the subject as they are COIll -
pleted.

o Recording the Responses

Record the stories and any other utterances verbatim, including pauses,
questions, off-the-record remarks, and additiona l verbali za tions that may
not be meant to be parr of the story. If the subject speaks too quickly, then
it is acceptable to ask him or her to speak more slowl y so that you are ab le
to record the stories word for word.
Rosenwald (1968) suggested that the responses be recorded by hand,
and as part of th e instructions the subject shou ld be told to speak slow ly so
that the examine r is able to write it all down. Rosenwald asserts that the
subject's compliance with this request will yie ld useful information about
his o[ her empathy and sell-res traint. This information would be lost by
the use of a recording device, or by allowing the subject to write down his
or her own stories.
Asking the subj ect to speak slowly so that you can reco[d ve rbatim is
preferable to asking the subject to repeat his or her story when you fall
behind. because it is common that the subject will alter stories on repeti-
tion (Rapaport et al.. 1968). If a subject asks what you are writing down,
or if you are writing a ll their remarks, respond truthfully that you are
recording the slOries and other remarks as they say them as part of the
standardized administration procedure.
Baty and Dreger (1975) conducted a study to compare three common
methods of recording TAT protocols: machine recording, subjects record-
ing their own stories, and the examiner recording the stories. The stories
yie ld ed were contrasted in the degree to which they revea led personality.
Seventy-two undergraduate subjects were administered the TAT on three
occasions, each time utilizing a different recording method. While th ere
were no significant differences in mean number of content categories u s-
ing the three methods, it appeared that a great deal of material was lost
when the examiner recorded the stories by hand. It was concluded that
recording by machine and by the subject are the most efficient methods.
Machine record in g. of cou rse, requires lengthy transcription and may miss

Copyrighted Material
lO A Practi ca l G uide to th e TAT

a ccompa n y in g beh av ior. A s ubj e ct m ay, on th e oth e r hand, re sist sel\-

recording becau se o[ a ll eged poor spe llin g a nd writing s kill s.
Wh e n th e exam in e r is recording, a bbre viations a re useful in cuttin g down
writin g time. Commonl y used a bbre vi a tions the exa min e r m ay find h e lp-
ful includ e :

II look s lik e bec beca use

dk don ' t know et eve rything
cd could wd would
w with r a re
st SOIllet h i n g c see
so som eoll e u you

Be h a vioral obse rva tion s should b e re cord e d. Bod y la ngua ge, fa cia l ex -
press ioll s, posture, hand IllOVe ll1 e nt s, tone of voi ce, pa u ses, att e ntion , and
motiv a tion a ll provid e inform a tion u se lul to int er pre ta r ion of th e
stori es .
D urin g TAT admini stra tion , s ubjects will oft e n as k th e exa min e r qu e s-
tion s to re duce the a mbiguit y of th e situ a tion. Th e ex amin e r s hould ta ke
care th a t hi s or h e r a n sw e rs do not lead th e s ubject and ruin th e int e nd e d
a mbi g uit y import a nt to th e purpose of th e tes t. Wh e n as ke d for g uid a n ce
in crea tin g respon se s, tlw e xaminer s hould a n swer a mbi g uou sly, usin g
sta tem e nt s s u ch a s "as you wi s h ," "as you think bes t," a nd "th e re arc no
ri ght or wrong a n sw e rs." Ove ra ll. it is bes t lor the exa miner to say nothin g
t hrou ghout th e tes tin g unle ss J bsolutel y n ece ssa ry, in ord e r to a v o id le Jd-
in g the subj ect.
II a s ubj ect's ve rba li za tion s a re simpl y d escripti ve of th e pi cture, re mind
th e s ubj ect 0] th e qu es tion s to he a nswe red b y th e stor y: whJt is h a ppen-
in g, chclfacte rs' thoughts a nd Ieelin gs, w hat le d up to it , how it J II turn s
OUI. It lll ay a lso help to remind th e s ubj ect th a t h e or s h e is to make up a
stor y th a t move s be yond the pi cture per se . Descripti o n s ma y be vi e w ed JS
refu sa ls (R a paport e t J I., 1968 ). The s ubj e ct might be gentl y remind e d th a t
th e ex amin e r is int e res te d in a stor y plot. not ju st a description o f th e
picr u re .
If th e s ubj e ct goes on too long b y be coming o ve rl y d e ta iled, th e exa m-
in e r m ay as k th e subj ect to m a k e up a n e nding lor th e story, a nd s ugges t
th a t th ey go on to th e n ex t one. Th e exa miner m ay te ll th e s ubject t hat th e
stori es n eed not be so long.
If a s ubj ect te ll s onl y short con s tri cted s tori es , th e exa min e r mi ght Js k
him or h e r to tell a lon ge r stor y, or to " let go " more (Be ll a k & Abra m s,
1997, p . 58 ). A h esita nt subj ect mi ght be prompted b y say ing " So?," "W e i!? ,"

Copyrighted Material
 Test Administration 11

"What comes 10 mind?," or "What are you thinking?"

If th e subject gives many "or" responses, and vacillates between possible
choices, the examiner may ask the subject, "Which is it?" and have the
subject choose.

Inquiry

An inquiry stage may be used as an adjunct to the subject's free responses

where there are ambiguities or idiosyncratic elements. At this time, the
examiner can clarify responses, and obtain more information. Bellak and
Abrams (1997) suggested that the examiner ask for associations to names,
dates, places, or any otiler specific mate rial given by th e subject. It is lelt,
however, that information obtained in an inquiry is not as interpretively
lIseful as spontaneously offered mate rial (Rosenwald, 1968).
Rapaport et a!. (1968) outlined types of inquiries that can be made. Firstly,
inquiries can be made when th ere is lack of clarity on a number 01 levels.
Secondly, inquiry into perce ptual unclarity is important to the discovery
of pathology and possibly psychoses. Perceptual unclariti es include dis-
torting the prese nt stimuli or overlooking prominent stimuli. Inquiry can
help distinguish slips of the tongue fwm greater perceptualmisrecognition
indicative of diffe rent patholog y. Inquiry into verbal unclarity involves
asking the s ubject about slips of the lOngue , in order to find out if the
subject m ea nt what was said. This can be done by immediately interrupt-
ing the story, under the guise of trying to accurately follow or record , and
simply repeating the phra se in qu es tion and see ing if the subject corrects
or repea ts it. Inquiries into meanings of the story that a re unclear should
also be made. Re pea ting t he instructions and asking the subject for parts of
the story omitted-such as what led up to the picture, and what th e char-
acters are thinking-can also be considered part of the inquiry phase. The
examiner should tr y to get th e subject to make d ecision s and be specific
about his or h e r res ponses.
Some examiners (e.g" Bellak & Abrams, 1997) believe that the inquiry
should be done after all th e stories are completed so that the inquiry does
not impact on subsequent stori es . Howe ve r, Rose nwald (1968) suggested
inquiries immediat e ly following each story, while the story is still fresh in
th e s ubject's mind . Inquiries about gaps, vagueness, a nd mix-ups in the
narrative should be clarified .
We reco mmend that inquiri es should be the exception rather than the
rule, and, if done, should be don e immediately following each story. Thi s
procedure guards against th e subject being overwhelmed by qu est ions at
the completion of th e TAT, and re duces the likelihood of the examiner

Copyrighted Material
12 A Prac ti ca l Guide to th e TAT

be ing viewed as a "grand inquisitor." All inquirie s should be nonsuggestive

and nonleading. "The more non committal the inquiry, th e more sign ifi-
cant the answer" (Rapaport et aI., 1968, p. 477).

Testing Children

When admin istering the TAT to a ch i Id, t here a re some specia I consider-
ations to keep in mind. The examiner should be more concerned with
es tablishing sufficient rapport with a child than with an older individual,
beca u se children may be slower to warm up to a stranger. Becoming overly
authoritarian is also to be especia ll y avoided with children. The exam in er
should take great care to gear hi s or her language to the cognitive leve l of
th e child, in order to enhance rapport and to help the child understand the
instructions for the task at hand. The examiner should be sensitive to the
fact that children have a lower aHe ntion span than Jllan y adults, and may
need a break in th e middle of administration .
On the other h a nd, the same instructions m ay be use d with chi ldren
and adults. If an inquiry is used, illlmediat e rather than delaye d inquiry is
reco mm e nd e d with ch ild ren. We suggest that the TAT shou Id not be ad-
mini ste re d to subjects under the age 0\ 5 (though a very mature 4 -year-
old Illight still be a test subject).

[] Impact of Race on the Examiner

There has been concern in contemporary te sting that the race or the racial
match of the examinee and exa min e r h as an e ffect on test results. A l-
thou g h thi s issue has not bee n thoroughl y investigated , we have found no
compe llin g evidence to support this concern.
One study found that race of s ubject. race of exa miner, racial match
between subject and examiner, and race of stimulus figures do not have
an impact on assessment of need for achievement and power using the
TAT (Lefkowitz & Fraser, 1980) . This study failed to support the common
assumption th a t racially congruent stimuli or examiners increase id e ntifi-
cation, and thu s impact TAT responses, influencing productivity.

Copyrighted Material
Interpretation

D Theory

TAT responses can be meaningfully interpreted because it is assumed that

what an individual makes of an ambiguous stimulu s, such as TAT cards,
reflects his or h e r own personality and characteristic mod es of interacting
with the e nvironment. Subjects create TAT stories based on a combination
of thre e things: th e card stimulus , the testing environment, a nd th e per-
sonality or inner world of th e subject (Murstein, 1959). On the TAT, the
degree of ambiguity of the stimulus vari es from card to card, but each
requires the individu a l to subjectively interpret th e pictures and create a
story, which involves borrowing on events from one's own ex periences,
feelings, and conflicts (Worchel & Dupree, 1990) . Inte rpreting informa-
tion obtained from a testing situation is ordinarily a u seful way to obtain
access to an individual 's psychological makeup because when th e subject
is reacting to pictures, rather than rea l peopl e and real social situations, he
or she is und e r less pressure from conventionality and is more lik ely to
depict his or her inn e r feelings (Reznikoff & Dollin, 1961) . In addition to
the actual TAT stories, th e subj ect's be havior during testing also provid es
useful data, as be havior during psychological assessment can be seen as a
sample of more generalized behavior. Interpre tation involves discerning

13

Copyrighted Material
14 A Practi ca l Guide to the TAT

common factors underlying the var ious stories (both their content and
form) and behavior observed during testing, and translating these themes
into meaningful exp lan ations of the subject' s personality .

Scori ng Systems

Severa l scoring systems have been developed in order to help standardize

interpretation of TAT materia\. Murray's (1943) or igina l scoring system
involved analyzing every sentence of every story, taking note of and rank-
in g the needs (motives and feelings) of the main character and press (op-
posing forc es in the environment). Interaction s between need and press
and outcomes were a lso taken into account. Partly due to the somew hat
unwield y, time -consu ming na tu rc of Murray's met hod, til is system has
not been w id e ly used by psychologists.
1'v1any other scoring systems have bcen developed to measure single or
multiple variables such as aggress ion (Dav id s 5· Rosenblatt, 1958; Hafner
& Kaplan, 1960), ach ievemcnt (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowe ll ,
1953), object re lations (Westen, 199 1; Westenct al., 1991), and depres-
sion (Aaron, 1967); and somc have attemptcd to be more comprehens ive
(Tompkins, 1947; lubin et a\., 1965).
In an ambit iou s attempt to create a relatively objective, inclusive scor-
in g system, lubin et a \. (1965) prcscllted scales for each particular card
and genera l scales to rate stories lor cmotional tOile and outcome. Sepa-
rate norms by age, sex, e ducatioll , and so on are provided, as well as the
pe rce ntage of subjects who have allY given number or more of stories of
each degree of emotiolla lton e. The authors report good interrater reliabil-
it y. However, like Murray's system, lub in et a\.'s seems too cumbersome
to use for int e rpretation of every card, and still only addresses limited as-
pects of the stories. Perhaps more practical than th e aforement ion ed scor-
in g system, llibin et a \. also presented frequency co unt s that est im atc th e
fre qu e ncy of occurrence of various features of stories not Jccounted lor in
the rating sca les. The frcqu e ncy counts cover thcmes, perceptual distor-
tions, id cntity of character Jnd objects, and deviations from instructions.
The check li st provid e d is quite detail ed. The advantages of frequency co unt s
or checklists arc that they can be used to highlight abstruse aspects of TAT
responses that need to be pursued in a more comprehensive interpretive
fashion (llibill et aI., 1965).
II appears that there ex ists a trade-olf between comprehensiveness and
practicality in scoring systems. Perhaps none has ach ieved widespread ac-
ceptance or usage (Dana, 1985) because each baSically addresses only lilll-

Copyrighted Material
 In terp retation 15

it ed a reas o f pe rso n a li ty , o r ta kes too m uc h ti me to li se. Wh e n scor-

in g sys te m s a re e mplo yed, info rm a ti o n n ot ad dressed b y th a t sys te m is
essenti a ll y lost. Thi s is reg re lla ble, as va ri a ble s of illleres t in pe rson a lit y a rc
infinit e. SCDrin g sys te m s a rc more a ppropri a te fD r resea rch purposes th a n
clini ca l purposes unless o n e is int e rested in specifi c, pre d e te rmin e d a reas
or varia b les (Ka ron , 198 1). Ka ro n asse rt s t ha t "th e hum a n ll1ind is th e
o nl y co mputer w hi ch can co n side r a lte rn a ti ve h ypo th eses in suffi cie nt co m-
plexi ty a nd di ve rsit y to vv inllO W th ro ug h th e inform a ti on inv ol ved in th e
TAT" (p. 97) . Alth o ug h ex cl us ive u se o f sco rin g sys te m s is not reco m-
m e nde d , we s ugges t th a t exa min e rs read th ro ug h va ri o us scoring sys te m s
to ge t a fe el for the ty pes a n d th e co mpl ex it y of th e va ria bles th ey mi g h t
wa nt to in cl ud e in iIll erp re ta tio n , as we ll as beco mi ng ro ug hl y fa mili ar
w it h norm s.

IJ Main Themes Technique

Be ll ak a nd Abra m s ( 1997) int rod u ce d a n a na lys is sh ee t to be comp leted

for each stor y. It s umm a ri zes info rm atio n rega rd in g th e hero (m a in c ha r-
acte r ), th e h ero 's n eeds and d rives, v ie w of th e wor ld a nd pe ople , co nfli cts,
a n x ie ti es, d efe nses, a n d integ ra ti o n of th e ego. In ad dition , th ese a uthors
sugge sted th a t th e exa min e r w rit e brief s umm aries o f th e th e mes pre-
se nt ed in the TAT stori es, a nd w rit e th ese sum maries ontilrel' lev el s, r,l ng -
ing fro m rel a tivel y con cre te to more a bstra ct. Th e d escripti ve th e me is th e
o ne neclres t to o bse rva t ion, w it h t he int e rpre ti ve a n d d iag nos t ic bec()m in g
in creasing ly observa ti on-dista nt. Th e d escripti ve th eme b ri efly resta te s th e
sto ry in th e third pe rson , u sing simp le w ord s. Th e int e rpret ive th e m e is a
m o re ge n era li zed res ta teme nt o f th e stor y, usi ng "o n e" as th e s ubj ect. Thi s
ass um es a m eanin g beyo n d th e sto ry. Th e d iag n os ti c vers io n int e rprets
th e p rev iou s themes using k now le d ge o f psych ody n am ics, in cl udin g sta t-
in g co nfli cts, de fen ses, a nd in terperso n a I pa lt e rn s. I mp ress io ns a re tU rn e d
into d e finitiv e sta te m e nt s.
The followin g is a n e xa mple base d on th e stor y of a 24 - ye a r-old
fe m ale :

Card 4: So m eon e pi ssed thi s gu y o il a nd h e's gonn a ddcn d h is m a nlihood

a n d return th e bl ow or get into a fi g ht a nd she does n ' t wa n t h im to
go . Sh e's begg in g him- sh e ca res-I th ink th a t she ca lm s h im a nd
ta lks sense in to hi m a n d hi s rage m e ll ows o ut a n d h e does n ' t go o il to
fig ht.

Copyrighted Material
16 A Practical Guide to th e TAT

Descriptive theme: A rageful man is stopped from fighting with someone

who angered him by an imploring, concerned woman who reasons
with him and calms him ciown.
l11terpretive theme: When one's masculinity is threatened , one seeks re-
venge, but a female figure intervenes and successfully prevents ag-
gressive retaliation.
Diag110stic theme: Reacts with anger to threatened masculinity, but con-
flicted over expressing aggress ive drives. The anger is repressed. Fe-
males seen as concerned, comforting, and persuasively rational.

Writing summaries on these three levels is Illeant to ground the exam-

iner and reduce the chance of "wild interpretations" by proceeding with
interpretation in a step-by-step manner, Irom observation-near to obser-
vation-distant.
The present authors find that sUlllmarizing the TAT thellles is very use-
ful. Summaries may be called maill thel11es that are simp ly short, descrip-
tive restatements 0] the essence of the stories. Main themes should be
written out for each story. More than one thcllle may be present in any
given TAT story. Main themes are helpful in that glancing over the brief
Sl"atements during interprctation renders the comillonaities and repetitions
in themes across stories Illorc sa lient to the cxailliner.

Nomothetic and Idiographic Interpretation

A combination of bOlh nomothetic and idiographic Illethods yie ld s the

most comprehensivc and va lid TAT interpretations. Nomothetic rders to
comparing the subject's responses to a normative comparison sample, in
order to determinc the degree of unusualncss of the responses. This helps
guard against interpreting respollses as pathological that may be quite com-
mon and, a ltcrnatively. lailing to recogni ze responses that are ran~ , and
therefore particularly meaningful. This also aids in understanding to what
degree the subject sces thc world in a conventiona l manner (rea lit y test-
ing), and determining thc extent to which the subject is defending against
sell-disclosure by limitin g crcative or unusual responses. In genera l. COI11-
parison to normative data aids the examiner in isolating personalized as-
pects of the protocol that arc likely to be especially revealing, as well as
pointing to cards that have particular meaning for subjects. Norms help
ensure that relevant elell1ents are noticcd (Zubin et a I. , ( 965). Eron (1950)
pre sents norms lor ell1ot iollaltonc and outcoll1e based 011 20 TAT cards for

Copyrighted Material
 In te rpretati on 17

a dul t m ales and s ubsequ e ntl y for a dult fem ales (Eron , 1953 ). Norm s for
th e m es a re a lso not e d accordin g \() a ch eck li st o f more t han 100 th e m es.
Th ese norm s a re qui te de ta il e d . Howeve r. usin g n o m o th e ti c d a ta a lon e
lea ves th e ri sk of losin g a ll m ea nin g ful da ta a bout a reas not addressed in
th e norm s. Anoth er limit a ti o n is th a t re ly in g on nomoth e ti c da ta m ay e n-
courage a n overe mphas is o n di scre te e le m e nts ra th e r th a n a n int eg ra te d
pe rson a lit y pi cture, a nd on e m ay " lose th e forest lor th e trees."
Th e idiographic a pproac h in vol ves exa minin g th e individu a l s ubj ect 's
record a nd d isce rnin g m ea n in g from th e pa rti cul a I' respon ses he or she
chose . Durin g thi s kind o f a n a lys is, th e exa miner asks him- or h erse lf,
"Wh y w ould a hum a n be in g say th a I. out o f a ll th e possibiliti es that e x ist?"
(Ka ron , 198 1). Und e rsta ndin g t he person a li zed story is th e cr u x of int e r-
pre ta tion. This t ype of m e thod a llo ws th e exa miner to m ax illl a ll y pe rson-
a li ze th e writt e n re port, doin g ju sti ce to th e indi v idu a lit y of res pon ses .
Howeve r, w ithout the g roundin g pro vid e d by good norms, so me illle rpre-
ta tion s m ay be of I-tra cK .
Both nOllloth e ti c a nd idiogra phi c m et hod s should be u sed in TAT inter-
pre ta tion. Th e d eg ree of unu s ualn ess of th e res pon se a s we ll as th e idio-
sy ncrclti c m ea n ing to th e s ubj ect are both importa nt pi eces contributin g to
a thorough int erpre tat ion . Compa ri son to norm s is u seful in puttin g th e
re spon se in broa d er pe rs pec ti ve, pa rti cul a rl y for th e beginnin g exa min e r.
Howeve r, eve n w h e n th e ge n e ra l plot Ill ay be common , th e d e ta il s a re
o ft e n di stin ct ive, per ha ps by th e choi ce of ve rb s a nd a dj ecti ves, or by usc
of proper na m es a nd d a tes (Ro se n wa ld , J 96 8). Co m m on th e m e s ca n be
u sed in idiog ra phi c ways. Th e compl ex it y a nd indi v idu a lit y of idiog ra phi c
int e rpre ta tion , a long w ith reg ul ar comparison to norm a ti ve d a ta, yields
th e most compre hen sive a nd va lid TAT inte rpret a tion s.

Areas of Interpretation

Th e exa llli ner mu st be awa re of wh a t to look lor as he or she rea d s TAT

stor ies in ord er to recogni ze person a ll y re vealin g materi a l th a t w ill be use -
lui in int e rpre ta tion. Th e follo w in g section is provid e d to th a t e nd . Th e
Illost common pot e nti a l dom a ins for anal ys is are di sc u ssed , a lthou g h it
would be imposs ible to includ e eve ry poss ible source of frui tful inform-
a tion. It a lso should be e mpha size d th a t ea ch of th e followin g are a s of
interpre ta tion should n o t be addressed in e very tes ting protocol , as th e
res ulti ng re port would be roo lon g, a nd th e most important int erpre ta tion s
woul d be diluted b y m a te ri a l less rel e va nt for th e individual subj ect in
term s of th e reason s th e subj ect w as refe rred for tes tin g. All of th e follow-

Copyrighted Material
18 A Practica l G uide to th e TAT

ing a reas should , howe ve r, be a t lea st considered during int e rpre tation.
Th e followin g are sugges tion s a s to wh e re e xa min e rs should fo c us th e ir
atte ntion as th e y are con Sid e ring respon ses to TAT assess m e nt. Th e areas
of inte rpre tation are brok e n into three ca tegori es : story cont e nt, story stru c-
ture, a nd be havior obse rvation s.

Story Content

Exa miners should interpret th e actu a l content of tile stories subje cts te ll in
res pon se to th e TAT ca rd s. Th e mo st fruitful mate ri a l for interpre tation
u suall y comeS from fo cusing atte ntion on th e hero or m a in characte r of
t h e stori es, th e rel a tion ships be twee n ch a racte rs in th e stori es, th e m a nn e r
in whi ch th e e nvironm e nt is de pi cte d , a nd th e outcomes of th e stori es .

The Hero

Th e e xa min e r can disce rn much inform a tion a bout th e subj ect by exa min-
in g th e h e ro of th e stor y. Th e h e ro ca n be identifi ed by lookin g for th e
ch a ra cte r most spok e n or. th e on e who se feelin gs a nd s ubj e ctive notion s
a re m os t di scu ssed, th e on e w ho initi a tes importa nt a cti viti es, or th e fi g ure
w ith w hom th e subj ect se e m s to id e ntify. [fit is uncl ea r, th e hero is usu-
a ll y th e fi gure most rese mbling th e subject in a ge, se x, or other ch a racter-
istics (Be ll a k & Abra m s, 199 7) .
Th e n eeds and drives of th e he ro are lik e ly to be re la ted to th e subj ect' s
n ee ds a nd dri ve s. For exa mpl e, a h e ro w ho is a mbitious a nd work s pe rsis-
te ntl y m a y indi ca te th e subj ec t's n ee d for a chi e ve m e nt. A hero who see ks
th e compa n y of oth e rs Jll ay re vea l th e s ubj ect's nee d for a ffili a tion ; on e
who destro ys prope rt y or hurt s peopl e demon stra tes a stron g aggress ive
dri ve . Th e direction of a gg ress iv e dri ves (out or in) is a useful pi ece of
information . For exa mpl e, a hero who sma shes a sculpture would be as -
sum e d to direct hi s or he r agg ress ion out wa rd , w he reas o ne who spee ds
hi s or h e r ca r into a tree would be a ss utll e d to ha ve inn er- directed agg res -
sion.
Th e be ha viors o f th e he ro a re usua ll y a mi xture of be ha v iora l n eeds a nd
w ishe s or fa ntas ies of th e subj ect. It is import a nt but some tim e s q uite d if-
fi cult to tr y to di stin g ui sh betwee n la te nt n eeds a nd ove rt be havior. Th e
ps yc holog ist m ay Li se biog ra phi ca l or ba ckg round inform a tion a nd be h av -
iora l ob servatio n s to help di stin g ui sh be twe en th e m. Th e exa min e r ca n
a lso look to cha ra cte ri stics o f th e h e ro to di sce rn how acce ptable the subj ect 's
needs a nd drives a re to th e se lf. More obj ec tion a ble ch a racteristi cs a re a lso

Copyrighted Material
 Interpretation 19

ordinarily attributed to characters tar away in age, sex, or place from th e

subject, as an attempt at distancing (Dana, 1985). Indicators of distance
should be noted and related to particular cards. Sometimes there is a sec-
ond hero in the story, who often presents drives and sent im ents more
objectionable to the subject. Aspects of the subject's overt behavior may
be revealed when the opposite occurs; that is, when the subj ect loses d is-
tance and tells patently biographical stories.
The subject's ego funct ioning (wh ich includes the subject's sell-percep-
tion, sense of competence, judgment. and personality integration) is
revealed in the subject's depiction of the hero. The examiner should ex-
amine the subject's attitudes toward the hero, as this often reflects his or
her own sell-vi ew. Additionally, the hero's abi lit y to reach his or her goa ls
illu strates the subject's sense of competence. To eval uate the quality of the
subject's judgment, one Jllay look to the adequacy of the hero's decisions
and eva luation s of the consequences of his or her actions.
Additional information about th e subject's ego-functioning is obtained
by eva lu at in g the extent to which conflict in g demands of the superego, id,
a nd outsid e world are integrated. In particular, the adequacy of the subject's
superego can be seen by evaluating if the hero's "pun ishments" are appro-
priate for ex peri e nced "crimes." Are the punishments overly harsh or le-
nient/ If punishJllents seems to be inconsistent, pe rhaps the superego is
not well integrated . The adequacy of the balance between the id and ego
may be analyze d by examining the hero 's ability to delay gratification and
express drives and fee lings in neither an overcontrolled nor undercontrolled
way.
The subject's con fli cts are exemp lifi ed by those of the hero. It shou ld be
noted which drives are in conflict wi th th e hero 's superego or th e env iron-
ment, and which drives are in conflict w ith each othe r. Similar to conilicts,
the subject's anxieties are revealed in th e hero's fears and discomforts.
The hero's reactions to such conflicts and anx iet ies reveal the subject's
defensive structure. Brielly, defenses are intrapsychic processes that block
distressing material (impulses, confl icts) from an individual's awareness
(lor a detailed exp lan ation of defenses and their interpretation, see Schafer,
1954). The exam in er should tak e note of how adequate th e reactions , or
defenses, are in warding oft anxiety or depression by examining story
material and the subject's behavior subsequent to the defensive expres-
sion. This will give an indication of how adaptive the employed defenses
arc. or if they interfere with adaptive functioning. One can a lso consu lt
The DiaWlOstic and Statistical Manual oj Mental Disorders (DSM - IV , 4t h ed;
American Psychiatric Association, 1994). which provides a Defensive Func-
tioning Sca le indi cating dilferent levels of defenses .

Copyrighted Material
20 A Prac ti ca l Guide to th e TAT

Object Relations

The figure s in the stories represe nt the subject (the hero or id e ntification
figure) and oth e r important figure s in his or her life , such as parents , chil-
dren, sa me-sex peers, love objects, siblings, and so m e times oth e rs. Atti-
tudes toward , and relationships with, parental figures are us ually see n in
ca rds that show older and younger figure s together. such as 2, 5, 6BM,
7BM, 7GF. 12L and sometimes 8BM, 6GF, and 12M (Rapaport et aI., 1968).
Subjects us ually identify with th e younger-looking s ubj ects on these cards
because parental figure s remain so significant in the su bject 's psychologi-
cal world (Rapaport e t al.. 1968). Relationships with sex ual partners are
u suall y revealed in cards 4, 10, 13MF, and sOllletimes 5, 15, 17GF, 3GF.
and 6GF (Rapaport et aI., 1968).
The exa miner should look at the rl'lation ships in the stories as depic-
tion s of the subject's own tend e ncies in relation ships. To what ex te nr are
the relationships free of maladaptive elemcnts more appropriate to child-
hood situations t ha n presl'lll ones ? Are relat ions cha ract e ri ze d by u nre -
solved conflicts, hostility, imIllaturit y, or sadomasochism? Are rclation s
gratifying to adult sex ual. aggressive, and ego needs? Does the hero gener-
a ll y react to others with submission, autonomy, empathy, discomfort,
e nthusi as m, conflict. or noncomplian ce' What are th e hero's emotional
n.:'actions to others ' How does th e hero anticipate others will treat him '
The most pathological situation is a protocol t hat depicts a complete ab-
se n ce of social relations.

Conception of the Environment

Through the attitudes and e ncounters 01 the hero, the exam iner can look
at th e s ubject's view of the world. This is becau se th e subject's memori es
of the past inlluence his or h e r lutulT e x pectation s and color his or h e r
interpre tation of card stillluli. One should keep in mind such questions as
the following: Does the out sid e world foster rhe hero's development or
hinder his Of her growth? Does th e environmelll act as an obstacle or
facilitator of th e he ro' s goals? [s it fri e ndly or hostile ? [s the h ero comfort-
able in his or her e nvironm e nt or in conflict with it ? Look for what forms
environmelll'al obstacl es take (such as other pe ople), their freq ue nc y, and
their strength.

Outcome of the Story

How the subject's stories are resolved revea ls pot e ntially important intor-
mation a bout th e s ubj ect. Degree of optimism or pess imi sm is demol1-

Copyrighted Material
 Interpretati o n 21

stra ted b y th e d egree to whi ch rh e storie s have happ y or unh a ppy e ndin gs .
Rea lit y tes tin g a nd fa ntasy livin g a re revea led b y th e a ppropri a te n ess of
th e e ndin gs that, not a typi ca ll y, have wish - fulfillin g compon e nts. Se n se of
compe te n ce is sho w n b y how s u ccessful th e h e ro is in te rm s of reachin g
hi s or her goa ls, fulfillin g hi s or h e r need s, a n d resol v in g confli ct.
Wh e n int e rpre tin g co nt e n t o f the TA T, th e exa min e r should we igh
hea vil y th e d eg ree to wh ich th e stor y is con siste nt w ith th e ca rd stimuli.
Thi s ca n be don e b y compa ri son to norm s, a nd to a lesse r d egree by re ly in g
on th e exa min e r's o w n ex perie n ce a nd a ppe rce ption . Beca use there a re
thought to be thre e contributors to th e response-th e ca rd stimulu s, the
tes tin g e n v ironm e nt, a nd th e s ubj e ct 's inn er world a nd ex pe ri e n ces-
th e less th e stimulu s see m s to contribute, th e more th e oth e r tw o compo-
n e nt s a re likel y a ddin g. Ka ron ( 198 1) h as suggeste d th a t th e less the re -
spon se "fit s" th e card , th e more m ea nin g ful it proba bl y is; th a t is, th e more
idiog raphi c inform a tion it pro vid es . Th e refore, t he more proj ection th a t
see lll s to be taking pl ace, th e more th e respon se should be we ig h ed during
in t erpre ta t ion .
In th e precedin g secti o n , interpre ta tion of story collle n t w as di sc ussed
prim a ril y from th e sta ndpoint of idiogra phi c inte rpre ta ti o n , but nonn a ti ve
compa ri son for th ese a reas is a lso a pprop ri a te a nd d esira ble to put respon ses
in conte xt. Th e conte nt of res pon ses ra n ges from ste re ot y pi ca l to ori gin a l,
a nd is u s ua ll y a mi x, som e wh e re in betwee n . A record th a t sho w s the
a bilit y to see thin gs as oth ers co lllmonl y see th e m a nd th e a bilit y to be
c rea ti ve delllon stra tes go od ego-fun ctionin g of th e s ubj ect. In ge n e ra l,
st imuli to whi c h s ubj ects react with bl a ta ntl y di scord a n t res pon ses a nd
infre qu e nt th e m es a re li ke ly to h ave person a l m ea nin g for the s ubj ect a nd
dese rve a ddition a l a tt e ntion in int erpre ta tion .

Story Structure

In a ddition to th e a ctu a l cont e nt of TAT stori es be in g a n indi ca tor of a

subj ect 's person a lit y, th e stru ct ure , or th e m a nner in whi ch th e stori es a re
told , a lso yie ld s mu ch m a te ri a l lor int erpre ta tion . Th e followin g section
w ill d escribe va riou s as pects of th e story tellin g th e exa min e r Ill ay find u se -
ful to con sid e r.
Th e bas ic ton e of a story should be a n a lyzed for und e rl yin g fee lin gs,
ass umption s, a nd optimi sm or pess imi sm . Th e psycholog ist ca n use th e
d eg ree to w hi ch th e stories exe mplify log ica l thinkin g as re fl ection s of th e
subj ect 's thou ght processes . Th e d eg ree to w hi ch th e stories conform w ith
rea lit y lll ay indi cat e if psychoti cislll is p rese nt. Becau se th e TAT respon ses
are e xa ll1ples of th e ex te nt to w hi ch th e subj ect is a ble to sol ve nove l prob-

Copyrighted Material
22 A Practi ca l Guid e to the TAT

le m s, th e integrit y a nd coh esiv e ncs s of a story shoul d be vie w ed as indi ca -

to rs of th e subject's l'go-fun ctionin g. Th e subj ec t's abilit y to tell a ppropri-
a te stori es w ith a n appropri a te amount of di sta nce from th e stori es refl ects
how well th e subject is a ble to fun ction.
Th e exa min e r should note an )' unu s ua l use ofl a nguagc by th e subject.
Ex tent of usage of adj ecti ves, ad vL'J'b s, Illulti sy ll a bi c word s, a nd compound
and comple x scnt e nces Gill be used to a ppro xim a tc t he subj ect' s le ve l 01
int e lli gc nce (Stein , 1981) . Poor g ra lllm a r Ill ay indi ca te low edu cati o n, or,
if in con sistent ac ross ca rd s, it Ill ay rc veal a n xiet y in reaction to a pa rti cul ar
stimulu s. Pro fa nit y may indi C:lll'. amon g other poss ibiliti es, poor impul se
control, aggression tow ard th e exa min er. or di sinhibiti o n.
A subj ect 's trea tment 01 tim e pniod s (pas t. prese Ilt , future ) sh o uld be
cOll side rcd durin g interpretation. Th e proportion of tim e spent Oil each
tim e pe riod m ay indi ca te w hi ch pe riod in til1le is most influ e nti a l in th e
subj ec t' s Iil e . Not e vvhen signifi ca nt eve nt s ta ke pl ace; if a n y tim e pe riod s
are avoid ed; a nd e xpressed attitu des to wa rd th e pas t, prese nt. a nd future .
Is the futur e drea ded ? Is the pas t sec n as "the good old days"? Thi s m ay be
pa rti cul a rl y re le vant it th e subject is cur re ntl y going throu gh a li fe tra nsi-
tio n, such as gellin g ma rri ed or re tirin g.
Th e e xa miner should no te w hi ch object s (th a t a rc rel a ti ve ly sali e nt in
th e TAT pictures) a re o verlook ed hy th e subject ; th ese a re ca ll ed omissions.
Omi ss ion s usua ll y indi cate th a t th e ignored obje ct is di sturbi ng to th e sub-
jcct, a nd int erpre ta tion ca ll spl'a k to th e subj ect's a n x iet y or confli ct. Th e
mo st extrelll e omi ss ioll is complete rl' jL'ctioll of till' ca rd. According to
Ra pa port e t al. ( 1968), d ilfl' I'C lll omi ,s ion s indi ca te differe nt degrees of
m ea ningluln ess, depen d in g Oil th e d q;rL'l~ of salil'll Cl' or ambi g uit y o f the
ca rd. Fo r exa mple , a stm y igllorill g the nUlk klllale fi gure on card 13MF
w ould be more note w orth y th 'lIl olllillillg the to y/ ke ys/g Ull on card 313 M .
Th e exa mi ne r should a lso check the degre e to IV hi ch the omi ss ioll is COIll -
IllOl l or unu sua l by cOlllpar ison to norm s.
On th e othn hand , subject s Ill ay ill Clllcic o bjects ill their sturie s th a t a re
no t ill th e pi ct lll'e c(lrds . The se arc ca lled dddiliollS and a re ta r less frequ e llt
th a ll omissiolls. Th ese a rc Lll w(lY, signifiea lll bl'cel ii se th e)! a rc purl' projec-
tion s, rat hl'!' th a n a mi xtulT uf the stimulu s 'In<l the subject 's inner w orld .
Additi o ll s ma )' re lkct w ishes or k a rs. M uch a tt e lllion to a pa rti cular de -
ta iL evell if not a n addit io ll , l'Cve al s preoccupa tion w ith the topi c or a
te lld e ncy toward obsess ive thill k ing. Omi ss iun s clnd addition s ca ll occu r in
co m hi na t ion .
i3e ing prese nt ed w ith a '> eri es 01 ca rd s to respond to is compa ra ble to
laci ng co nsec uti ve evc nt s in (bil y li le. Bv looking a t th e va riou s stori es
told in sequ e ncc, th e l' xa illill n is pri vy tll the lll a llnCl' in w hich th e s ubj ect
reacts a lt er va riolls emotion s are evok ed . For exa mple, ,1 ft er tcllin g a stress ful
stor y in w hic h th e he ro is all ac ked, dol' S ti ll' ne xt story spea k of co III fort in

Copyrighted Material
 Int er[)retiltion 23

ilnother's arms? Or does the hero in the next story ex perien ce an even
more terrible e nco unter? Looking at the TAT stori es in rei a tionlO th e ones
before and alter th em is cal led seqllt'l1ce analysis. This gives a n indi ca tion of
th e sub ject's defenses. Of reaction s to stress .
TIll' sllbj ect's defenses Ciln also be re vea led in unusual types 01 story
st ructure; for example, responding with short descriptions 01 the pictures
ra ther than storil's, cOlll lll c nt s on pictures themselvcs (e.g., that they a re
out of date), or excessively detailed stori es . The examiner should a ttempt
to discern the type of defense used, and the adequacy 01 th e defenses in
wa rding ofl anxiety or depression, possibly by lookin g at the respo nse to
the following card elnd by observing the subject's behelvior and nonverbal
cO llllllunica tion. Dcil'nse:; that interfere with perfo rilling th e TAT assess-
Illent lllel Y be vie we d as in co nsistent with adaptive fun ctioning. For
cxample, avoidance (possibly a defe nse aga in st ex press ion of a nge r) th a t
pre ve nt s th e subject Iroillm a kin g up stories on th e TAT may a lso be illter-
Icring with the subject's co mmuni ca tion in personal rel a tion ships in li fe
out side th e test ing situation.
The icngth elnd timing ()f storie s should be considered indi ca tors of sub-
ject conflict or prcoccupat ion. The average sto ry is 100 words told in elbout
3 minllt es, a nd is begun aftt'!' the stimlilus card is preselHl'd for a ppro xi-
Ill a tel y 20 seconds (Rapelporl et a I. , 1968) . Significa nt de via tion s from these
averages Illa y point the exam iner to potential areas or con ce rn. The exa m-
iner should look lor inter- elnd intra- indi vidual incon sistencies (Rapaport
et a l. ). Int e r-individu a l in co nsisten cies (nomothetic) include pallerns that
consistl'lltly diner frolll average. These may revea l stable characteristics of
the s ubjecl. For example, conSistently quick res pon se tim es Ill ay indi ca te
impul sive ne ss, w hile long pau ses may dClllonstrate dLicnsiveness or slow
cog niti ve pro cess ing . Intra-indi vidu a l incon siste ncies refe r to differe nces
in res ponse cO lllparcd to o thn sto rie s by the sa llle suhje ct. For example, a
particul ar ly IOl1 g story lllay reveal el ll a rea of preocc upa tion. When th e
psyc hologist notes 10 which cclI'c1s th ese deviations occur, interpretatiol1s
ca n take th ese e xce pt ions into accou nl.

Test Behavior Observations

The subject's beila vim durin g tes ting is ass um ed to rdle et hi s or ill'!'
thought s, k clin gs, a nd allx ieties evo ked in response to the testing situa -
tion a nd vclI' iou s card stimuli. Accordingl y, by ca relull y obst'rv ing the
subject's 110n vcrba i and verba l behavior, va luable information lll ay be
obtained regarding the subj ect's rea ct ion s to th e vclI'ious situ a tion s depicted
in the cards, and th t' testing si tu a tion it se ll.

Copyrighted Material
24 A PrZlctical Guide to th e TAT

The qUJlity of the subject's interZiction with the eXZlllliner can be re-
gMded as a sJmple of his or her illlerpersoncli relations in general. The
attitude toward the exallliner, the JlllOunt of eye contJct, friendlin ess,
Jnd JppropriJlt'lless of the interaction should JII be noted Jnd used as
corroborJtive eviclence lor pJttcrns noticed in the story contcnt.
COlllmcnts outsidc of thc TAT stories shollid be consicieredl1latcrial for
interprctation. Statelllents of sell-denigriltion or self-doubt, such as "Oh, I
won't be good at this, l'lll not creiltivl'," refil'ct the subject's view of his or
her own cOlllpetence. Subjects of tell vl'l"bali/e their reactiolls 10 panicular
cards . For exampil', thcy lllil)' stilte whether thc y like or dislike the scenes,
whether they are relevallt or irrcicvilnt to their own li ves, ilnd if they
consider till' piClures dated. Sllch COllllllcnts Ciln bc cOllsidercd defensive
statelllcnts, becallse the subject is basically avoiding creating a story. In
addition, declilring that the pictures Me irrelevant or old-fashioned is a
WelY of distancing oneself frolll the stories. This is an indi cation thilt the
particulilr stil1lulus causes ilnx iety ill th e subjcct, or thilt unilcceptabil' lcel-
ings or drives arc threatening to surface in response to that cMd.
Subjccts l1lay illso dCl1l0nstrilte their anxiety in respollse to the stillluills
through nonverbal be hilvior. The examiner should tJke cMelu l note 01
when thc subject blushcs, hites his or her nilils, seems restil'ss, smiles,
frowns, exhibits mannerisllls, illtl'l"s fluenc y of speech, c hanges affect, and
so on because th ese often indi ca te Mt'ilS of conllict lor thc subject. It should
be kept in lllilld th at words llla y helVl' difkl"l'llt meanings depending Oil
the tone with which the y MC delivl'l"eti. Of particular note is when a subject's
words and the cmotionillit y behind tile words seelll to convcy confli cting
l1lessages. For exalllple , "Hc really loves his parents!" spoken w ith a cyni-
ca l ring lll elY inforlll the eXillllinn th a t SOllle confl ict exists. Perhaps the
subject hates his parents, perhaps the SUbjl'ct harbors guilt about his lccl-
ings toward hi s parents; the particlliar interpretation shou ld be based on
th e context of the statel1lent in tl'l"lllS or hilckground inforlllation and other
test responses.
Perhaps one of the clearest \-VelyS to ohtain information about the subject
is by observing th e degree to w hich the subject complics with thc given
instruction s to tell a story, including what is happening, what led up to it,
what the characters are thinking and lceling, ilnd how it all turned OUI.
The ll10st COIllll10n olllissions are thoughts and feelings of the still1ulus
characters (Rapaport et ill., 19(8). Compliance with in structions rellects
th e personality organization and general adequilcy of functioning of the
subject (Dana, ( 985). The examiner shou ld note the cards for which
the subject gave an incomplete respon se, and which questions (e.g.,
what the characters are thinking, leeling, the outcoll1e) are omitted . It also
should be recorded if cOlllpliance was obtained through prompting by the
exa miner.

Copyrighted Material
 Interpretation 25

Noncompliance with instructions ordinarily reflects an inability to do

so. According to Rapaport et a l. (1968), failure to comp ly with particular
instructions usually POilllS up areas of conflict for the subjecT. It usually
indicates that the material that would have been revealed had the instruc-
tions been followed wuuld have been intolerable for the subject. It is cau-
tioned th a t omissions on one card a lon e should not be overinterpreted
and that patterns of noncompliance are far more meaningful. The oppo-
site or noncolll pi ia nce-strict adherence to in struct ion s-such as the su b-
ieC[ telling every story in the following pattern: "Th ey are ... what led up
to it was ... she is thinking ... she is feeling ... it ends up th at ... " may
rdl ect a rigidity and cOlllpu lsive need for structure, and possible obsessive
ten den ci es.

[--.J Rules and Cautions In Interpretation

Exam iners should keep the following guide lines in mind when interpret-
ing TAT stor ies. They will a id exam iners in making interpretations that
come va lidl y from the data. These guidelines are based on ones presented
in a previous book by the present authors concerning the Rorschach Tech-
nique (Aronow et a I. , 1994).

Be Conservative In Interpretation

Exam in ers should he cautious rather than hold when interpreting TAT
stories. When in doubt about an interpretation, the examinc r sho uld pre-
fer to err on the sid e of conservatism, rather than going out on a limh. It is
better not to say anything than to say sOllleth in g th a t is in va lid about the
subject. Related to this guideline abo ut being conservative in interpreta-
tion is the preference to err on the sid e of health rather than to err on the
side of pathology. Essent iall y, be carefu l not to go beyond the data when
making statelllents about an indi vidual.

Use Caution when Interpreting Responses with Uncertain

Referents

Somet im es it will nor be clear whom th e subject is referring to when cre-

at in g characters in TAT stories . For example, if a young female subject
describes a young male figure acting in a destructive manner, it may not

Copyrighted Material
26 A Practi ca l Gui de to the TAT

be cl ea r if th e s ubject v iews Ill e n in ge nera l as a gg ress ive , v iews youn g

Ill e n as agg ress ive, or is proj ectin g her ego-d ys to n ic agg ress ion on to so m e -
o n e o f th e opposite ge nd er as a n a tt e mpt a t di stan c in g he rse ll from un ac-
ce pt a bl e pro cli v ities. Wh e n th e exa min e r ca nnot cla ri fy t h ese un ce rt a in-
ti es b y loo kin g a t th e s ubj ect's oth e r res pon ses, th e exa min e r should 1"('-
fra in from int e rpret in g sll ch m a te ri a l.

Attempt to Disentangle the Projective from the

Nonprojective

TA T respon ses are a bl e nd of obj ect ive d escr iption of th e ca rd stimuli , ty pi -

ca I react ion s, a nd proj ect ion of nlore i nd iv id lI a li zed m ea n i ng. Wh e n inte r-
pre tin g th e stori es, th e exa min e r should tease a pa rt wh a t as pects o[ th e
res pon ses a re refl ect ion s o f wh ich so urces . Compa ri son to norma tive re -
s po nses a nd clini ca l ex perie n ce is useful to thi s e nd. [n ge n e ra L on e should
more rea dil y int e rpre t as pects of respon ses that com e from th e subj ect's
o w n inn er w orld th a n as pects th a t a re mo re con siste n t w ith res pon ses of
o t he rs a nd th e ca rd stimuli .

Be Aware of Your Own Projection and Blind Spots

Th e exa min e r should be a tt e nti ve to pa tt e rn s in hi s or he r ow n int erpreta -

ti o n ac ross subj ects . II th e exa min er fin ds th a t h e or she te nd s to d escribe
th e psyc h o d y n a mi cs o f a va ri e ty of di verse s ubj ects in a simil a r m a nn er,
a nd pa rti c ul a rl y in a m a nn e r con s iste nt w ith hi s or h e r own psyc h o -
d y na mi cs, it is poss ibl e th a t th e exa illin e r is proj ect ing hi s or he r pe rson a l-
ity into th e int e rpre ta tion. Th e oppos it e Ill ay a lso OCC Ul". w he re th e ex am -
in er observes th at ce rtain th e m es of in terpre ta tion a re compl e te ly a bse nt
in hi s or h e r interpre ta ti o n s o[ m a ll Y record s. [n thi s case, a blindness to
ce rt a in a reas of psychod y na lili cs Ill ay ex ist. Clini cia n s a re e ncouraged to
becom e as se ll- awa re as poss ible in ord e r to minimi ze s uch diffi culti es .
Person a l th era p y is useful in thi s reg<lrd.

Attend to Indicators of Heavy Dynamic Loading

Telke no te of ch a ract eri sti cs of respon ses th a t te nd to have hi g h perso na l

m ca ning for til e su bject, includin g origi na lit y, cha ngc in volum e of speech ,
increase or d ec rease o f defe n sive he h av ior, show o f e mo tio n , im ag in a tive -
ness, re pe titi o n , a nd cil a nge in non vcr bel l be hav io r, a mon g oth e rs.

Copyrighted Material
 InterpretJtion 27

Rely on a Confluence of Data

Rather th an attach in g too much sign ifi cance ro a n yone response, exam-
in ers shou ld look lor co rro bo ratio n among stories, and among different
areas or int erpretatio n (con tent, structure, a nd behavior observations).
In terpretat ion s made with this gu id e lin e in mind are lik e ly to be more
rel iable and va lid . Occas io n a ll y, howeve r, there a re except ion s where a
sin g le response or behavior is so st rikin g that it warrants in terpretat ion
based on it a lon e. In th ese cases, it is appropriate to do so, qualifying the
tenta ti veness or the interpretat io n and m e ntioning th e iso lated n at ure 01
th e response.
The rule 01 u sing a confluCIlce of data for interpreta tion can optimally be
served by admini sterin g the TAT as a part of a test battery, rather than in
isolation. II a battery is lI sed, then hypotheses based on TAT data can a lso
be supported or negated by responses coming from other tests that, to-
gether, may create a more comp lete and accurate port rait of the subj ect.

Consider the Subject's History

T he more comprehens ive a history the examiner h as of th e subj ect, th e

more effective wi ll be the id iograp hi c interpretation of the test data . It is
h e lpful to know th e subj ect's age, marital status, education, family con -
figurat ion , occupation , psyc hiatric history, and significatll li fe eve nt s cmel
stressors. To int erpret TAT sto ri es w ithout su ch informat ion is "b lind analy-
sis." We recommend th a t taking J reasonab ly comprehens ive history be
pan of the assessme nt process. Howeve r, on occas ion it is not possible to
obtain much background informat ion . In these instances , one can offe r a
leg itim ate TAT interpretation, but one shou ld ce rt ain ly be aware tha t it is
a t a fa r more conjectu ra l le ve l.

Obtain Feedback from Other Professionals

Periodically, a n exam in er shoul d ask other profess ionals for feedback abo ut
the acc uracy of h is or her int erpretat ion o f test material. Fo r examp le, th e
exam iner might approach th e psychotherapist of a subject (if this was agreed
upon durin g inform ed conse nt) to see if interpretations fit with what th e
therapist sees. The examiner co uld a lso ask any o th er professional expe ri-
enced in TAT int e rpretation for reliability checks. Obtaining feedback ca n
help the exam in er avoid misinterpretations and h e lp the psycho log ist be -
come aware 01 his or he r own blindspots.

Copyrighted Material
28 A Practica l Gu ide to th e TAT

Consider the Context

Psycho logists should take into accollnt the con text in w hi ch th e teSTing
took p lace. What e n viro nll1 enta l f,l Clors Illay h,lVl' influ enced the responseQ
Was th e assessment cond u cted in a hospital? Was it done by a stranger?
Was the room comfortable,) The potential illlpact of th ese factors shou ld
be considered.

Use the Appropriate Degree of Generalization

The degree of ge n t'r,lii /ation inllul'nces till' valid it y 01 your conclu sion s.
The more specific th e co neiu s ion , the ll1ort' dillicult it is to ('onlirm and the
easier it is to in val id a te. The Illore genera l the coneius ion , the more li ke ly
it is to be va lid (Piotrowsk i, 1950). For examp le, il a s ubj ect tells a story in
wh ich a ho y smashes the v io lin his parents make ilim pl ay, the interpreta-
tion would be more lik ely to be correct il it sai d , "The subject Illay have
aggress ive tendencies," than il it sa id , "The subject breaks objects w h e n his
pMenTs act con trollin g."
Beg inners tend to interpret stories too litl'i"lil y (Ste in , 1981). For ex-
aill ple, on cclrd 7GF, th e subject tells J story in w hi ch the litt le gir l does not
WJnt to stay ins id e and li sten to thl' hook heing read, but wishes she were
outside taking a wa lk in th e s u nshine. One shou ld not a utom at ically as -
sUllle the subject prl'lcrs walking to rl'<ld illg, unle ss ev id ence Imlll o th er
stories supports thi s. In stl'cld, one Illa y in tcrpret th at th e s ubject is dissatis-
lied with her c ur rent activ iti es ami wislws fo r change. The feelings and
,lt tilllci es expressed by th e subject Me ty pil\l ll y more vcl lid than th e par-
ticular stimulu s objects mentioned lll'cause th e kl'iings are more lik e ly
project ion s, as op posed to the stimulus objects that Me more obj ectivel y
presented in the pictures.

Beware of First Impressions

Psyc hologi sts s hould take (Me not to unduly weigh t the first Icw stories
read. It is poor practi ce to form hypotheses Irom the first lew cards and u se
laTer stories to gat her confirmin g evideIlce w hil e ig n ori n g d isconfirill in g
evidence. All cards shou ld be read for possible n ew hypOTheses and a ll
data s hould be taken in to considera ti oIl (lub in c t a I. , 1965). Simi lar ly,
p syc hologists s hould not be undul y swayed b y the iniTial appearance and
behavior of the subject.

Copyrighted Material
 inte rpre t,ltion 29

Take Developmental Status into Account in Interpreting

Children's TAT Stories

When int e rpre ting TAT st ori es told b y c hiILin.' n , on e IllUst co nsider the
c hild 's ilge, developillent a l status, and verbal abi lit y . Younger age is gener-
a ll y ilssociated w ith lo wer norillilli ve illlpui se co ntrol. less sophisti cate d
a nd proper la nguilge, and less Illilturity in pee r relations. Filillasy li v ing is
more ilcceptilble in c hildren than in il dults. Overilii. the range of what is
con s idered "n orlllal " is somewhilt greater in c hildre n. Exa miners more
fa miliar with assessing ildults s hould be careful not to ovcrpatllOlogize the
resp on ses of children and should remember lh a t ildult norm s are inilppro -
priate for assessing th e commonality of respon ses in c hildre n. With c hil-
dren, it is eve n more impo rt a nt to consider the tes tin g context a nd behav-
iora lob servat ion s.

Demonstrate Cultural Sensitivity

Assessors are e thi ca ll y obligat ed to co n sider c ultural iss ue s in interpret a-

tion of test milteri a l. Before embarking Oil a n y t ype of te sting, exa miners
should be fa illili a r with thc Hum iln Differences Standard of th e APA's eth-
ics co de . Exa miners should "obta in the trainin g, experie n ce, consultation,
or supervision n ece ssary to e n s ure the cO lllp e tc n ce oith e ir serviccs" w here
IlLlm,ln difkre n ces significantly a ffec t th e Jl sych ologist 's w ork (( ilnter,
Bcn n l' tt , .lones, & Nagy. 1994. p. 39). This m ax illli zes the ch il n ce th il t 1"(:' -
spollSes w ill be cO ll s id e red in c ultura l co nt ext (Da n a . 1985).

Method of Interpretation

Th e following is our reco illmend ed proced ure for interpreting TAT tes t
Illat e ri a l. III sUlllmary, illt e lVITt a lioll is ba sed on ver bil tilll reco rdin g, s um-
m aril ing the storie s, d e termining which aspects of till' stori es a re Illo st
sig nifi ca nt. organizing the IllJteri a l by a rea s of s ubj ect pe rsonillit y, co m-
pJri so n to norlll S, Ill a king h ypoth eses. and discerning m ea ning abo ut til e
indi v idu a l s ubje ct.

I. Read t h e stori es, highlightin g or underlinin g signili can t m J teri a l. This

ma y includ e s u c h as pects as introdu ced objects, e motion a l lang u age,
unu s lIalli se of la ngll ilge, and d escr iptions of rel at ionship s. It should be

Copyrighted Material
30 A Prilcti ca l Guide to th e TAT

re m e mb e red tha t th e TA T is best used as a n in strument to assess th e

psychod yna III ics 01 in terp ers on a I re lel t iOl1 sh ips.

2. Writ e sUlllm a ry sta tl' lllent s 0 1 rill' Ill <l in th e lll es lor eac h stor y. NOl es
m ay be m ade ill th e Ill Mgins legMcii ng tenwti ve interpre tive h ypoth -
eses .

3. No te wh ich ca rd s Iw hi ch typl'S III st imllli ) ev ok ed w hi ch rea cti o ll s (e.g ..

a n xie ty. co mfo rt . <lll ger) in till' sllbjeCl.

4 . Loo k o ve r a li st of CO lll1l1OJl a reas to int er pret . such as the Oll l'S pre-
se nted ill thi s cha pte r. 10 ,]Vo id Ie,w in g (l ut import a nt indi ca tors 01
pe rson a lit y.

S. Compare t() Ilorm s a nd not e UIlU SlI ,l l ()CC UITe n Cl'S o r lac k of th e m .

6 . Lookin g a t hi g hlight ed ma tL'lial. lll <lin the1l1 es. story stru cture. a lld
lll' ha v iora l obse rva tio 1lS. \lot l' re pl' titioll S o f th e me s. confli cts. a nd
react ion s.

7 . Co nsider th e subj ect's ag e. sex. culture. fa mil y st ru cture. a nd ()cc upa -

tion. O rga ni ze ma te ri a l. Ill,lke se nSL' of th e pa tt e rn s not ed. a nd deve lop
h yp()th eses. In int erprl't a tio ll o j lll atcr i,l l. li St' COllllllon SL' nst' . life ex -
per ie n ce. el nd psyc hologi ca l tra inin g IK a ro n. 198 1).

8 . Illl eg ra tl' ciille rl'nt as pects o f th e indi vidu a l's pn son ,l lit y into a m ea n-
in gful pi cture th a t C,l n be d es nib l'll in a re port .

Copyrighted Material
Stimulus Characteristics
of the TAT Cards

In order to interpret projective mate ri a l, it is essential to be able to disen-

tangle what is projective from what is an accurate description of th e stimu-
lus. Some deg ree of familiarity with what is typically described by subjects
on particular TAT cards is, therefore, quite helpful to the practicing clini -
cian . As Zub in (1949) stated, "It is clear that ... the stimulus it se lf needs
much more clarification before we can differentiate that which inh eres in
the stimu lu s from that which inh eres in the res ponder himself" (p. 18). It
is strongly recommended that the asp irin g clinician become acquainted
with what is known abo ut the TAT card st imulu s characteristics .
Emil (1950) carried out a very comprehensive study on the st imulu s
values of TAT cards using male subje cts. In this study, approximately 3,000
TAT stories contribut ed by 150 male veterans were ana lyzed. The subject
pool included 50 co llege students, 25 nonhospitalized "psychoneurotics,"
2 5 hospita Iized psychoncu wtics, 25 hospitali ze d schizophrenics, and 25
miscellaneous neuropsychiatric patients.
One major finding of this study was that the preponderance or stories
to ld by a ll subjects on the TAT was sad. This correspo nd s with commonsense
views of the TAT cards and strongly suggests that negatively toned stories
shou ld be interpreted very conservatively. However. there was also a ten-
dency on the part of the more normal subjects to give the stories a rela-
tively happy end ing-suggesting, perhaps, that the ending of the stories is

31

Copyrighted Material
32 A Pra cti ca l Guide to th e TAT

a critical point. Fewer individuals in the hospilJli zed groups gave extreme
outcomes as well.
Eron (1950) also found that sex misidentifications of the ligures were
common, with no particular differences evident betwee n the normal and
the cl ini ca I groups. The overinterpretat ion of sex misiden ti fications is, thus ,
something to be avoided. Howcver, Eron found that misidentifications in-
volving variables other than sex werc Il10rc COIl1mon in the genera l hospi-
tal group. Other differcnces that were found include thc normal subjects
offering Illore thellles of belongingncss and also of rUlllin ation .
In a table, Eron (1950) report cd on the "stiIl1u latory va lli e" of TAT cards
(i .e., the number of themcs e li cited by thc cards). The rank ordering was
as follows (from most thcmes to least thellles elicited): I 3MF, 20, 188M,
68M, 38M, 4, 12M, 15, 7BM, 10, 178M, 8BM, 9BM, 14, 5, 2, L 19 , I L
and 16. However, even the least stimulatory card, card 16 (the blank card),
elicited fully 199 thellles.
In 1953, Eron published a study utilizing fcmale subjects via college stu-
dents and a group of pregnant women. Eron again reponed the lllost com-
mon themes for TAT ca rds.
[n a 1972 study, Murstcin investigated thcstillluluspull of TAT cards for
a group of introductory psycholog y college students. In this study, Murstein
found that the stud ents' stories tcnded to be prcdominantly sad in terms of
what is happening and why it is happcning, but that the stories tended to
havt: happy e ndings. Considt:rablt' variatioll was fOlilld among the cards.
Thu s, cards 2, 8GF, [L and 14 were found to be predominantly neutral for
th e "what" and "why" categories, whereas 38M, 3GF, 13MF, and 18BM
were highly negative in these respects. Cards 8BM, 10, 12M , and 18GF
were predominantly positive.
GolcHried and Zax (1965) used semantic differential ratings of male and
female co ll ege students to d es cribe the characteristics of the TAT cards
(with the exception or the blank card).
In a 1962 study, Weisskopf-Joclson and Foster teste d whether having
humans or anima ls as the protagonists in pictures produced greater emo-
tional productivity in stories, and a lso whether colored or black and white
cards produced more productive stories . In this study, kindergarten Stli-
dents were the subjects. Modifications of four CAT cards were made to
produce the human and color conditions.
The authors found that neither the human or a nim al variable nor the
color variable affected the emotional productivity of th e cards. However,
there was a tendency for subjects with low transcendence scores to tell their
most productive stories to anima l and black and white pictures, with high
transcendence subjects tending to tell their most productive stories to chro-
matic pictures. Transcendence refers to going beyond the obvious stimu-
lu s qualities of the cards.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulu s C haracteri sti cs oi the TAT Cards 33

In a 1950 stud y, Weisskopf found th at co ll ege -age s ubj ects are sig nifi-
ca ntl y more produ ct ive when responding to pi ct ures about pa rent- child
relationships a nd a bout h e te ro sexua l re lat ion sh ips among contemporaries
th a n to pi ctures abo ut other lOpics.
The following is a sum ma ry of th e general a ppearance of th e TAT ca rd s,
what in our e x pe ri e n ce a re common them es, and wh a t lh e resea rch lit e ra -
ture see m s to indi ca te about them.

Copyrighted Material
34 A Practical G uide to th e TAT

Card 1

This card presents a picture of a bo y staring in contemplation at a viol in.

Morgan (1995) indicat es th a t thi s ca rd had it s origin in a drawing by
Chri stiana Morga n based Oil a photogra ph of the violini st, Ye hudi Menuhin,
as a child.
Bell ak and Abrams (1997) have cha ra cteri zed thi s ca rd as the most use-
ful in th e e ntire TAT. COllllllon theill es eli cit ed include those of achieve-
Illent, fear of failure, and sOllletillles a co nfli ct betwee n pa re nt a l demands
and the de sires of the bo y in the picture .
Ero n 's 1950 stud y found that for Ill ales th e most frequelll story is ne u-
tral to Illod e rately sa d. The Illost frequ e nt outcome is ha ppy. When there
is an e motional shifl fWIll the bod y of the story to th e ou tcom e, more
subj ecrs shift to happier rather th a n sadder con clu sion s. The thre e most
frequent themes, acco rding to thi s st ud y, are as piration , pa rent al press ure,
and belongingness.
In Eron 's 19 53 stud y w ith fe III a Ie subject s, th e most common th emes for
this card we re pare ntal pressure , occupational conce rn , a nd as piration .
The se ma nti c differential stud y of Go ldfri ed a nd Zax ( 1965) found th a t
males a nd fe mal es tend ed to vie w thi s ca rd as pass ive a nd somewhat sad .

Card 2

This card presellts a rural sce ne w ith a young girl in th e foregro und hold -
in g a book, a preg na nt wOlllan watching, and a Illan laborin g in a field in
the bac kground. According to Morgan ( 1995), thi s ca rd had it s origin in a
pailltillg don e by the a rti se Kroll.
In our expe ri e nce , th e m os t CO IllIllOIl th e lll e is one of the young
girl desiring to continu e her education a nd leave th e farm , cont ra ry to
th e desin:,s of th e family. Sometimes there is an allian ce desc ribed be -
twee n ce rtain membe rs of th e fa mil y aga in st other members th a t ca n be
rev ea lin g.
Ero n 's 1950 stud y found th at for males th e I110St frequ e nt story is mod-
e rat ely h appy and th e most freq ue nt outcome is ha ppy. More subjects
shift to happy rather th a n sa d co nclu sion s. The three most frequent th e mes
are occu pation a I concern, as pi rat ion, a nd eco nomi c press Li re.
Eron 's (1953) stud y with fe males found th a t th e three most co mmon
themes are asp ira tion, occupation al co n ce rn , and pa rental press ure. The
se mant ic diflerential stud y found thi s ca rd to be lack in g in stron g stimulu s
quality.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulus Chara cteri stics of th e TAT Ca rd s 35

Card 3BM

A figure (male or female?) is huddled on the floor with an indistinct object

(keys? a gun?) on the floor. Morgan (1995) indicat e d that this card repre-
se nts J drJwing by Christiana Morgan based on an existing photograph.
In our experience, thi s cMd strongly brings forth depressive thellle s, such
as s uicide or depression over loss of a relationship . Themes of drug abuse
ma y result from the object on the floor being perceive d as a needle.
Emn's (1950) study found that with male subjects, the preponderance
of stories arc moderatel y to very SJd. The most frequent outcolll e is Illod-
erately hJppy. About haIr of all subjects shift to happier conclusions. The
three most frequent th e mes are suicide, pMe nral press ure, a nd behavior
disorder.
Semantic diflerential studies of this ca rd point to a strong negative qual-
it y, with it be ing pe rce ived as quite sa d , hope less, and unpl easa nt. Th e
eXJminer should be wary of overinterpre ting negative stories told to Card
38 M.

Card 3GF

This CMel portrays a Iemale figure standing next to In open cloor. One
hJnd is clutching her face, which is clowncJst. Morgan (1995) has lillie 10
say about the provenan ce of this card. In our experience this ca rd, like
38M, strongly elicit s depressive themes. Eron's (195 3 ) study with femJIe
subjects [ound th e most common th e m es for this ca rd involved th e deJth
or illness of a child, pressures from J partner. or In unre quited femJIe
pMtner.
The selllJntic differential studies with 3GF come out similar to those
with 38M, with sadness, hope lessn ess, a nd unplea sJ ntn ess prominent. As
with 3B M, the eXJminer should be carelul not to overint e rpre t negatively
tinged stories to this cani.

Copyrighted Material
36 A Practi ca l Guide to th e TAT

Card 4

This card portrays a woman grabbing the shoulders of a man while the
Illan is turning away from her. There is a distant picture of another woman
undressing in th e background. Morgan (1995) indicat ed that thi s card comes
from a color illustration.
In our experience, the woman is usually perceived as trying to restrain
the Illan from hostile action or tl1l're is a love triangle involving th e figure
in the background. Eron's (1950) study with male subjects found that emo-
tional ton e ratings are neutral to mildly negative. The most fr e qu e nt
outcome is moderately happy. Only rare ly will subjects shift to sadder con-
clusions. The three most fre quent thellles are pre ss ure from a pa rtner,
succorance from a partner, and competition.
The Eron (1953) st udy with females found the most common themes to
be succorance from a partner, departure from partner, and nurturance to
partn e r. The se mantic difterential ratings of this card paint st rong and defi-
nite reactions to it, involving the card being described as impulsive, ag-
gress ive, and dangerous.
The nature of how male and Iemale relations are see n can be portrayed
very graphically on this card.

Card 5

Thi s card portrays a n older woman looking into a room from the doorway
with a look (of surprise?) on her face. Morgan (1995) reports that this
drawing was originally done by Christiana Morgan.
Feelings involving the mother are often elicited by this card. Wh e re she
catches the child mi sbehaving, it is inte restin g to note how she handles
it-I s she und e rstanding? Does she invoke guilt?
Er()Jl'S (1950) study found that th e most frequ e nt story to this card is
n e utral to mod e rately nega tive, with the most frequ e nt outcome neutral.
The three most frequ e nt th e mes involved curiosity, pressure from parents,
and illicit sex.
Eron's (1953) study with temale subjects found the three most fre quent
themes to be curiosity, parental press ure, and concern on th e part of the
parent. Semantic diffe re ntial stud y of thi s card yields ambiguous results.

Copyrighted Material
 St imulu s Character ist ics of the TAT Cards 37

Card 6BM

This card portrays an older woman in int eraction with a somewhat yo unge r
mak. Morgan (1995) reports that this p ict ure lik ew ise had it s origin in a
drawing by Christi ana Morgan.
In our ex pe ri ence, common themes in vo lve brin g in g the mother bad
news or informing the mother that he (the son) is leaving or moving out.
Ero n' s ( 1950) st ud y found that most stories to this picture are sad, with
n e utra l stories rare. More than h alf the s ubjects sh ift to h app ier conclu-
sions. The three most frequent them es are pressure from parents, depar-
ture from parents, and marriage of a ch ild. Bo th male and female subjects
in the semantic differential study viewed this card as sad and unpl easant.
This card is often referred to as the mother card for male subj ects. It is
thus int erest ing to note the complexity of feelings between th e male and
female figures, whether she is designated as his mother or not.

Card 6GF

A yo unger woman is sitting down and turning to a somewhat older man

with a pipe who is beh ind her. Morgan (1995) indi cates that this card
originated in a black and white illu stration. In our experience, this card
most typically in vo lves the man s uggesting something to the woman,
whether sexua l or otherwise.
The Ero n (1953) study using female subjects found that the three most
common themes for this card were pressure from partner, fear or worry,
and ordinary activity. The semantic differential study found males and
females viewed this card differently, with males viewing the card as only
slig htl y aggress ive and impul sive; but females viewing it as quite agg res-
sive, and slightl y impul sive, unpleasant, dangerous, severe, and sexy. Th e
theme of a sexua l advance is thus suggested, at least for female
subjects.
This card has been described as the father card for female subjects; how-
ever, the simila rit y in ages between the people pictured rende rs this ap-
proach somewha t questionable. The card may thus be more of a refl ect ion
of h eterosex ua l relations genera ll y. Thus, is the interaction positive, or is
the male regarded, for in stance, as inappropriate ly intrusive?

Copyrighted Material
38 A PrJ cticJI Guide to the TA T

Card 7BM

This card fea tures an older man looking at a younger man who is not
returning the look. Morgan (1995) hJS little to S,lY of the origin of thi s
ca rd. In our experience, this card typically elicits stori es of an older man
giving advice to a younge r man. The 1950 Eron stlldy found that th e most
fr equent story to this card is n e lltralw moderatel y sad. The most frequent
outcome is moderately happy. Then:, are many shilts to happi e r conciu-
sic)!1 s. Th e three most frequent themes seen were succorance from a par-
ent, pressure twm pare nt s, and OccupJtional concern.
Semantic dilfere ntial study or this card suggested an ambiguous appear-
ance. Thi s card has bee n des crib ed as the lather card for male s ubj ects and
in our ex perience is sliccessflli in eliCiting feelings toward the father and
other mall' authority figures.

Card 7GF

A yo un g girl is seated, holding a dolle) while a woman is reading a book

to her. Th e young girl is staring into space. According to Morgan (1995),
thi s card originated in a black and white reproduction of a painting.
In our eX I)erience. thi s card d()cs stilllulate theille s or ll1oth e r-daughter
intera ctions. The 1953 Emn study with female subjects found that the
three most common themes elicited were pa rent a l pressure, facts of life.
and that a sibling is coming.
Semantic differe ntial sllldy of this card finds it being described as pa ss ive
and sa fe . Thi s card ha s bel'n referred to as th e l110th e r card for female
s ubject s and is apparently successful in that respect. Ps yc hologists should
be awa re of th e feelings betwee n mother and daughter that are be ing
elicited.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulus Characteristics of the TAT Cards 39

Card 8BM

This card depicts a young boy in the foreground with an operation l<lking
place behind him. The barrel of a rifle is visible at one sid e. According to
Morgan (1995), this card had it s origin in an illustration that accompanied
a short story and pictured an emergency appendectomy.
In our experience, common s\"Ories to this card center arollnd amb ition
or an operation scene. In Emn's (1950) study, it was reported that about
ha lf of a ll stories were moderately sad, with about half of all outcomes
moderately happy. There is a frequent shift to the happy direction. The
thre e most common themes seen were aspiration, war, and death or ill-
ness of a parent. The semant ic differential study suggested a somewhat
amb iguous stimulus.
It is not unusual for Oedipal conflicts to be seen on this card, with the
s ubj ect identifying with the adolescent boy. How these confl icts arc played
out can be quite interesting.

Card 8GF

A woman is seated and stJring off into space. According to Morgan (1995),
this card originated as an oil painting currently at the Metropolitan Mu-
seulll of An in New York City.
In our expe ri ence, this is a vague card th at does not yield particularly
i11l erest ing stor ies. The three most common themes reported in Eron's
(1953) study of female subjects involved happy reminiscence, aspirat ion ,
and occupational concern. The semantic differential stud y genera ll y found
a positive tone for this card.

Copyrighted Material
40 A Practical Guide to the TAT

Card 9BM

This card depicts four men lying down against each other in a field.
According to Morgan (1995), this card originated as a photograph with
Western-style clothing more prominent in the photograph.
In our experience, this card typically elicits stories involving a hobo theme.
Eron (1950) found that the most frequent story is neutral in tone. The
three most frequent themes were found to be retirement, exhaustion, and
vacillation. The semantic differential study suggested a lack of specific stimu-
Ius qualities.

Card 9GF

This card features two female figures. One of them is standing behind a
tree, watching the other run along a beach. According to Morgan (1995),
this card originated as an illustration to accompany a serialized novel.
In our experience, this card usually elicits a story involving conflict be-
tween the two female figures, usually over a man. Eron's (1953) study
with female subjects found that the three most common themes involved
escape from a perilous environment, curiosity, and jealousy. The semantic
differential study found both male and female subjects viewing this as an
unhappy card. Themes of female peer competition are often seen on this
card. The card may also tend to elicit paranoid themes because of the ele-
ment of the one woman being observed.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulus Characteristics of the TAT Cards 41

Card 10

Secn on this card is a young woman's head leaning against a man's shoul-
der. Morgan indicates that this card originated as a photograph. In our
experience, this card usually involves a story about a heterosexual relation-
ship. Eron ( 1950) found that the most frequent outcome lor this story was
moderately happy. The three most frequent themes seen were content-
ment with a partn e r, nurturance to a partn e r, and departure from a
pa n ner.
The Eron (1953) study with female subjects found that the three most
comlllon themes were contentment, death or illness of a child, and
nurturance to a partner. The se mantic differe ntial study found this to be
rated as one of the happi es t cards.
The quality and fabric of heterosexual relationships are often cl ea rly
seen in stories to thi s card. If both panies are indicated to be male, this
Illay be indicative of hOlllosexual orientation in mal e subjects.

Card 11

This card presents a picture of a road by a chasm between high cliffs-on

olle side is the head and n eck of a dragon(?). This card stems from a paint-
ing by th e J 9th-century Swiss artist, Bocklin (Morgan, 1995).
In our experience, this is one of the less useful and less frequently used
of tht' TAT cards. Eron (J 950) found that the most frequent story for this
card is Illo(kratel y sad, with the most frequ e nt outcome n e utral. Th e three
most frequent the mes were aggression from an imperso nal source, escape
from pe ril, and aggression from a peer.
Th e Eron (1953) study with fe male subjects found the three most com-
mon themes to be aggression from the e nvironment, escape from a peril-
ous t'nvironIllent, and fear or worry. The semantic differe ntial study indi-
cated a connotatioll of fe a r for thi s card.

Copyrighted Material
42 A Practical Guide to th e TAT

Card 12M

This card depicts a m a n w ith hi s h a nd raised and a boy lyin g down with hi s
eyes closed. Morgan (1995) indi cated onl y th at thi s card a ppeared with
so m e variations in ea rli e r sce n es or t h e TAT.
Emn (1950) found that th e most frequent s\()ry lor thi s card is Illod e r-
a te ly sa d , with stori es rare ly h a pp y . The three most freq u e nt th e m es were
h ypnoti s m, religion, a nd illn ess or death of th e ce ntral ch a ract e r. Th e se -
m a nti c differential study sugges ted few strong stimulu s chara cte ri stics for
thi s card.
In our ex perien ce, this card ca n be parti cul a rl y useful in elucidating a
patie nt' s possible reaction to psychotherapy, th a t is, th e nature o lth e re la -
tion s hip th at h e or s h e is lik e ly to es tablish in thera p y.

Card 12F

Thi s re presents a portra it of a yo ung wO l1l a n w ith a weird old woman

g rim acin g in th e bac kg round . Morgan ( 1995) described thi s ca rd as ori g i-
n a tin g in a drawing by C hri s ti a n a Morgan ba sed on a paintin g by th e En -
glish a rti s t, Augustus Jolin.
It is Ilot UIl CO llllllon lor th e older wO lll a n to h ave very n ega tive qu a liti es
ascribed to her, a nd oft e n be described as a stepmoth e r or m o ther-in -law .
This m ay , in fact, b e a disguise for fee lings toward the Illoth e r.
Eron 's (1953) slUd y foun d th a t th e three most freq u e nt themes with
female s ubj ects were found to be disappointllll'nt in a p are nt , p a rent a l
press ure, and s u cco ra n ce from a pa re nt. The sema llti c diffe renti a l stud y
s u ggested a n e utra l or sa d ell1o tion a l tone lor Icm a le subjects.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulu s Charac teri sti cs o f th e TAT Ca rd s 43

Card 12BG

This ca rd di spla ys a rowboat drawn upo n th e bank of a woodland stream.

Morga n (1 99 5) describe d thi s ca rd as ori ginatin g in a photog ra ph b y a
w e ll-kno w n photog ra pher. Th e se m a nti c differe nti a l stud y indica te d th a t
thi s ca rd has strong a nd pleasa nt connot a tion s for both m a le a nd fe m a le
subje cts. He alth y subj e ct s typi call y describe a ha pp y, pe a ceful scene . Some-
tilll e s th e m es of lon e lin ess and e ve n suicid e a re found in less h ea lth y tes t
records.

Card 13MF

Thi s ca rd d e pi cts a male with hi s h ea d buri e d in hi s a rm , with a n uncl a d

wom a n lying (life less? ) be hind him in th e be d. This card is sill1pl y d e -
scribcd by Morgan (1 995 ) as be in g simila r to ea rlier e dition s of th e TAT
ca rd s.
In our expe ri e n ce, thi s card pre se nt s a stron g stimulu s for both sex ua l
a nd agg ressive th e m es for subj ects. II sex and agg ress ion a re not prese nt in
the story, thi s ma y su ggc st stron g uses o f d e ni a l. Ewn (1 9 50 ) found th a t
th e grea t pre pond e ra n ce of subj e ct s' stori es were sad. Th e three most fre-
qu e nt th e m es sce n we re d ea th or illn ess of pa rtn e r, guilt a nd re morse, a nd
illi cit sex .
111 Eroll 's (1 953 ) stud y with fem a le su bj ects, th e three l110st common
thelll es w ere d ea th or illn ess of a fe m a le pa rtn cr. g uilt. and aggress ion
from th e m a le pa rtn e r. Th e se m a n tic diffe re nti a l stud y found signifi ca nt
dille ren cc s be twee n m a le a nd fe m a le s ubj ects, with th e fema les a llribut-
in g ll10re phobi c a nd dange rou s cha ra cte ri sti cs to th e sce ne .

Copyrighted Material
44 A Pra cti ca l G uide to th e TAT

Card 138

Thi s ca rd di spl ays a youn g boy silling on th e doorstep o f a log ca bin. Ac-
co rdi ng to Morga n ( 1995), thi s ca rd has it s origin in a photogra ph e nt it led,
" Mr. Abe Lin co ln , Jr. " The cro pped print of it b y Murray focuses more
a tt e ntion on th e child .
In our ex peri e n ce, how childhood is viewe d is often revea le d in stories
to thi s card a nd , so m e tim es, th e m es of loneli ness a re see n . The sema ntic
differential stud y of thi s ca rd indi ca tes th a t th e stimulu s ch a ra cte ri sti cs a re
not stron g or pronoun ce d.

Card 13G

This ca rd depict s a littl e girl climbin g a w inding fli g ht of ste ps. Morgan
(1995) indi ca ted that thi s ca rd ori g in a ted as a photo of the ph o tograp h e r' s
wife, who wa s pe tit e .
Like th e prev iou s ca ret th e m es of c hildhood a nd lon e lin ess are [ound in
stori es to thi s card . The se manti c diffe re ntial st ud y indi cates no stron g stimu-
lu s prope rti e s for thi s ca rd.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulus Characteristics of the TAT Cards 45

Card 14

This card shows a person's silhouette against a window. Morgan (1995)

indicated that this card was an origina l drawing by Christiana Morgan. In
our experience, this card is sensitive to themes of contemplation, some-
times burglary, and also themes of depression and possibly suicidal ide-
ation. Eron (1950) found that the three most frequent themes of male
subjects were curiosity, aspiration, and happy reminiscence. In the 1953
Eron study of female subjects, the three most common themes were aspi-
ration, ordinary activity, and occupational concern. The semantic differ-
ential study generally found this card viewed in a positive manner.

Card 15

This card portrays a gaunt man with clenched hands standing among grave
stones. Morgan (1995) indicated that this card originated in a woodcut
print by an American illustrator.
Eron (1950) reported that the most frequent story to this card was ex-
tremely sad, with the most frequent outcome sad. The three most com-
mon themes found were death or illness of a partner, religion, and death
or illness of a peer.
Eron (1953) found that among female subjects, the three most common
themes were intra-aggression, religion , and death or illness of a female
partner. A very sad quality was indicated in the semantic differential study
of this card.
In our experience, this is not one of the more useful cards. It is so struc-
tured that it almost always produces death themes.

Copyrighted Material
46 A Practical Guide to the TAT

Card 16

This is the blank card in th e series. For best results, it should be adminis-
tered as the last in the series. Stories are highly variable-some are quite
revealing, with others revealing lillI e or nothing about the subject.
Emn (1950) found that the most frequent story is ncutral in tone. The
three most common themes werc ioundto be favorable environment, war,
and contcntment with a partner.
Emn (1953) found that among female subjects, th e three most com 111 on
themes were pa ren tal contentlllen t, asp i rat ion, a nd aggression from the
environment.

Card 17BM

This card shows a (naked?) lllan climb in g a rope. This card is described by
Morgan (1995) as a drawing by Tha i based on an unfinished skctch by
Daumier.
III our experience, frequent themes in volve at hl et ic events or escape
from a dangerous situ at ion. Because of the Iludity, themes in vo lvin g
homosexual idcation may be obtained from latent homosexual male
Sli bjects.
Eron (1950) found that th e most frequent story to this card was neutral
to moderately happy. The thrce most frequcnt" themes were self-esteem,
exhibit ion, and compe ti tion with a peer. A neutra l to moderately happy
view of this card was suggested by the seillant ic difierential study.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulus Characteristi cs ot the TAT Carcls 47

Card 17GF

This card shows a fe male figure leaning over a bridge's railing with tall
buildings and small figures of mt'n in the background. Morgan (199'5) in-
(licated th ell this card originat e d as a woodcut.
In our experience, this is not on e 01 the Illore useful cards. An exception
is that individuals may see the ligure as contemplating or preparing to
cOll1lllit suicide by jumping off the bridge .
EnlIl (19'53) lound that among female subjects the three ll10st com III on
themes were suicide, ordinary activity, and curiosity. The scmantic dillcr-
ential study lound this card to be low in stimulus propertics.

Card 18BM

This card shows a Illan being clutched fwm behind by three hands. Mor-
gan (199'5) indicated tha t this card originat e d in a drawing by Christiana
Morgall.
E mn (19'50) found that the most frequcnt story to this card is neutral to
moderately happy. The three Illost frequellt themes were found to be sclf-
estcem, exilibition, and co mpetition with a peer. A Ilcutralto moderatcly
happy tont' lor this card was suggcstcd by the semantic diflerential study.
In our expcricncc, drunkenness and attitudcs toward it is a cOlllmon
thcmc lor this card. Paranoid individuals Illay also rca c t to it as rcpresent-
ing an "attack (rom behind."

Copyrighted Material
48 A Pra cti cal Guide to th e TAT

Card 18GF

This card displa ys a WOlllall with her hands aroulld the throat of another
WOl11all, with a flight of stairs seen. Morgan (1995) indicates that this im-
age was redrawn by ThaI. possibly frolll all carlin photogrclph.
Emn (1953) lound that aillollg !elllak subjects, the three most COIlll110n
themes for this card were found to be succorance from a parellt. parental
pressure, and death or illness of a child. A Ilegative valence for this card
was suggested by the semantic diflel'Cnti,ll stud y.
In our experience, hostile interactions with other feillale figures tend to
be highlighted in stories to this carll. whether Oed ipa l in nature or not.

Card 19

This card presellts a "weird" piC! ure of cluuds o\'n a slluw-covered cabin.
Morgan (1995) reported that this card is based on a watercolor painting
that was dOlle by a painter who, at the tillle, was suffering frulll severe
depression and ha Ilucinat ions.
[n our experience, this is not olle of the Illorl' usdul cards. The Emn
(1950) study found that the most frequent story to this card is neutral to
Illoderatel y sad. The Ihrel' 11I()SI lreljucill lilcilles seen were aggressioll
frolll an impersonal source, contclltlllcnt ell 11Onll', and vacillation.
[n the ErOIl (1953) study with Icmak subjects, the tlllTe most COllllllon
Ihemes were aggression frolll the ellvironlllClll, contentmellt with a par-
ent. and the supernatural. In the seillantic diflcrenti ,ll study, !elllaks had
a sOlllewhat more negative illlpressioll of this card than did males.

Copyrighted Material
 Stimulus Characte ristics of the TAT Cards 49

Card 20

This card rcprese nts a somewhat ha zy picture of a man leaning against a

lamppost at night. Morgan (1995) indicated that thi s card had its origin in
,1 photograph .
In our experiencc, a variet), of storics ca n be e licited b y this blot. includ-
ing thcmcs of lonelincss, going on a date, or a sinister cncountcr. Eron
(1950) found that with Illale s ubj ects the most freq ucnt story is modcr-
ately sad. The three most co mmon themes seen were vacillation, economic
pressure, and aggrcssion frol1l a n impe rsonal source.
In the 1953 Emn swd y, the three most comll1on themes were vacilla-
tion , IOllcliness , and aggression to the environment. No particular pattern
was evident in semantic differential study of this ca rd .

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
Research Findings

Research stud ies that have utili zed th e TAT are q uite numerous. The present
ch ap ter w ill co n cern it se ll w ith areas that have been researched in some
depth and have sign ifi cant clini ca l re levance.

[-1 Need for Achievement

David McCl e lla nd 's need for ach ieve ment resea rch has bee n one of the
more famou s and creat ive efforts in TAT resea rch. McClelland a nd his co -
workers somew hat narrowe d Murray's definition of th e nAch to, essen-
ti a ll y, des ire to do a good job; that is, to atta in a standard of exce ll ence
(McC le ll and eta\., 1953; McCle lland, 196 1a, 196 I b).
McCiella nd used seve ra I TAT pi ctures, bu t a Iso included stimuli specia ll y
designed to e li cit nAch o In struct ion s were a lso often modified to enhance
nAcho It should be noted that McCl e ll and assumed that nAch is learned
rat h er than inn a te. Further, McClelland found th at nAch , as he measured
it. did not co rre late wit h subj ects' own se lf-d escripti ons as to the stre n gt h
of such a Illotive in themse lves (McCl e ll and, Koestner, & Weinberger, 1989;
Spang ler. 1992) .
NAch ha s a lso been found 10 have biological corre lates. Th u s, th e arousa l

51

Copyrighted Material
52 A Practic:ti Guide to th e TAT

of nAch has been shown to be relclted to the release of the antidiuretic

hormone argine vasopressin (McC lelland, 1995). Thi s hormone enhances
melllory for the situ ations in wh ich the subject is involved (McGaugh,
1990). It has been hypothesized that nAch-invoking situations (s uch as
moderately challeng in g tasks) become incentives a n d consequent ly are
rewarded with enhanced lllemory and learning of th e be havior in ques-
tion. McClelland ill1d Pilon (1983) hav e suggested that scheduled infant
feeding and strict toil er training Me related to the development of nAcho
With respect to the latter, McClellclild ha s reasoned that if a yo un g child is
punished lor relieving him- or herse lf at the wrong time, argine vaso-
pressin wi ll be released, associated w ith parental urgings to act more ap -
propriately. Sin ce such learning takes place very early, this lllight explain
it s persistence throughout life.
Much of McClelland's work has dealt with an even more narrow aspect
of nAch, what might be referred to as nEAch, a need for econom ic achieve-
ment (usually an entrepreneuriill ty pe of clChievement). McClelland's
measures have bee n found to be rather good predictors of success in the
business world (busi ness perhaps represent i ng a n opt illlUIll middle grou nd
between risk and incentive).
Thus, McClelland (1965) has demonstrated that college students scor ing
high in nAch are lllore lik ely to make their living in entrepreneurial occu-
pations than those low in nAch (over a period of fourteen years). In addi-
tion, he has found th a t primitive tribes with folk tales high in nAch are
more likely to contain en trepreneurs, and a lso that increases in achieve-
m e nt themes found in children's readers tend to precede increases in a
nation's economic production (MCCle ll and, 196Ia).
McClelland and others have done SO llle int erest ing resea rch relating child -
rearing techniques to nAcho For e xa mple, Winterbottom (1958) te sted boys
8 to 10 yea rs old for n Ach, and rela ted these da ta to th e ir upbringi ng.
Among other things, she found that Illothers oJ boys lo w in nAch oft e n
made their sons' decisions lor thcm and tended to restrict their behavior.
In contrast, the !1lothers of high nAch bo ys e x pected more independence
and self-re liance from their sons (e.g., make their own friends, do things
lor themselvcs) . These mothers a lso displa yed more of a te ndency to re-
ward their so ns for such behavior with physical affection than did the
mothers of boys with lo w nA cho
Studi es of fathers of high nAclJ boys (sec Birney, 1968) have found these
fath e rs to be emotiona ll y wanner toward these sons and to be more de-
manding of high achievement (though less directive of how the achieve -
ment is to be accomp li shed).
A major finding of McCl e ll and and other authors ha s been that high
nAch individual s prefer situations with a "midd lin g" probability of suc-
cess, seen in s uch situat io ns as the distance children prefer to stand from

Copyrighted Material
 Researc h Fi nrl ings 53

Ih l' la rgl'1 in a rin g -lOss ga m e (M cCle ll a nd , 1958), a nd coll ege s ubj ecls
choosin g geom e tri ca l p uzzll's w ilh diffl're n t deg rees of dilli cull Y (W e in er,
1970) .
Siudi es of n Ac h h ave of len bee n int e rt w in ed w ilh a differe nt, th o u g h
rel a le d , moti ve-w h a I has bee n ca ll ed th e fear offailure (FF) . Joh n A Ik in son
h as bl'e n m os l id e nlifi e d wi Th Ihi s bo d y o f resea rc h . Atk in so n a nd co -
w ork e rs (e .g., At kin son a nd Fea lh e r, 1966) h ave act ua ll y d l've lope d m a Th -
e m a li ca l lormul al' Ih a l cO lllbin l' n Ac h, FF, a n d th e in ce ntivl' va lu l' of Ih e
silU J li o n in pre diCi in g be h av ior . Alkin son h as fo und Ih a l s ubj ecls wilh
hi g h Il Ac h J nd lo w FF w ill g ra vira te IO w Jrd "easy" lasks. Thosl' w ilh lo w
n Ac h J nd hi g h FF w ill prde r diffi cull tas k s (pres um a bl y, th e hi gh FF s ub -
jecls ca n bl a m e fa ilure o n a diffi cult task o n th e las k il se lf).

I I
1 .. .1 Hosti I ity and Aggression

A m a jor fo cus o f ITsea rch w i I h I h e TAT h as been I h e m eas ure menl of

hoslili lY J nd aggress ion . For exa mpl e, Me ga rgel' ( 1967) ex plored Ihl' re lJ -
I ion s h ip bl' twee n hostil il y on Ih e TAT a nd d efe nsive in h ibil ion. Th l' h y -
pOlh es is was Ih a l d iffere n ces w oul d be fo un d be lw l'l' n inhibil e d a nd ullin-
hibit e d s ubj l'cis w h l' n in stru clion s s u ggested a host iil' res pon se , b ut w ould
not be prese nt w ithout sll ch s ugges ti o n . Less inhibit ed subj l'cts we re in -
d eed found to h ave hi g h e r h o st ilil Y scores th a n Ih e more inhibil l'd s ub-
je ct s, but o n ly for fe m a le s ubjl'cts. In a ddili o n , in str uc tioll s 10 g ive hostile
re SpOll Sl'S re sult e d in more hoslile stori es th a n did til l' n e ulrJI in struc-
tion s, J n d th l' l1l o re rh e agg ress ive pull o f th e ca rd , th e hig h er rill' hostilit y
score . These rl' s ul ts aga in a ppli e d oill y for fe m a le s ubj ects.
Sa nford e t a l. ( 1943) fo und a re la tio ns hip a mon g middle- class s ubj ects
be t wee ll hi g h agg ress ive n eed s JS secn on th e TAT w ith lo w o ve rt agg res -
sio n. Us in g J lower -class sa mp le, Mu sse n a nd Nay lor ( 1954 ) pre di cted th a t
hi g h fa nt asy agg ress io n o n Ih e TAT w oul d ind eed be pre di cli ve of o ve rt
agg ress ion. Thi s prl'di Ci ion was based on th e a uthors' ass umpli o n th a t ag -
g ress ion is less fre qu e lltl y puni sh ed in lo w e r- class se ttin gs. Us in g a delin -
qu e Ill popul a lion o[ tee n Jge rs a nd pre- tee n agers, Ih ey di d in deed find th a i
hi g h aggress iVl' n ess in TAT stori es was pre di ct ive of agg ress ive be h av ior in
th e rea l wo rld . Furth e r, those boys w ho w e re sh ow n less puni shm e nl press
pe rt a inin g to agg ress ive n eeds in th e ir siories w e re ll10 re lik e ly 10 s h o w
ove rt agg ress ion .
W e iss m a n ( 1964), in a rel a re d stlld y, co mpa red rour g roups or a dol es-
cenl S: agg ress ive ac tin g -oul subj ects in a n in sliluti o n , less agg ress ive ac t-
in g -oul s ubj ects in a n il1 stirution , hi gh- schoo l b o ys w ith no hi slOry o r ac\ -

Copyrighted Material
S4 A Pra ctical Guid e to th e TAT

ing out. alld high-school bo)'s with a history of acting out. The number of
aggressive TAT stories told was found to be a good predictor of acting-out
behavior, as was the appearance of aggressive stories \0 Ilonaggressive cards.
The best predictor oj ,lggrcssioll was foulld to be the reaction time oj the
su bjects.
Reznikoll and Oollin (1961) studied the relatiollship between clggressive
stories to the TAT and the EdwMds SociClI Dcsirability Scale. Thcse authors
found tha t high social desirahility (S.D.) subjccts werc more likel y to usc
covert than overt hostility .
.James and Mosher (1967) studied aggression in TAT stories with relcr-
e ilCL' to the stimulus pull llf the cards. Working with Bo)' Scouts, the)'
found that thematic aggression to cards high in such stimulus pull was
related to overt aggressive beh,wior, but this W,lS not the case lor cards lovv
in stilllulus puilloraggressioll. Addition cllly, thcscauthors Jound that there
was a signiJicant ncgative relation ship betwcen hostilit), guilt and aggres-
sive stories given to CMelS with low aggressivc pull. This study is important
ill that it suggests that. at least lor the Illeasurelllcnt oj hostility and
aggression potelltial. one would walll to use cards of high relevance to
aggression .
Hainer and Kaplan (1960) CtJlllparL'(i till' 'lbilit)" oj hoth the Rorschach
Test and the TAT to 1l"Il',lSUre ()\Trt ,lIld Ul\l'rt Illlstility. For IIH:' TAT, overt
alld covert hoslility wCl"e lound to hc Ilcg ,llively related to each ollH:'r. Ir
\Va, cOllcluded that the TAT might be more sellsitive thall the Rorschach
to the ove rt versus covert llature llf hostility.
In ,111 eMly study, Fishn ,1Ild l-lilHl\ (1951) dc,llt with psychiatric P,l-
ticilts ,1ml a normal control grllup . In tlli s study. o Ill' of si x cOlllparisons
reached significallcc, Ilamel y, suicidal sclli/ophrellics werc found to dis-
pia " Illore outward hostility thMI pMalloid subjeL"\s.
In a 1957 illvestigati()ll, Scodel alld Lipetz contrasted three groups 01
schil.ophrcnics on TAT hostilitv. TIll' thrce groups werc cOlllposed of non-
violent subjects, subjecls who had displa)Td external violence, and sui-
cidal subjects. No difkrcnces ill TAT h{)stility wne found.
Purcell (1956), in a very interesting study, investigated difkrt'nces ill
\'arious hostile ,1SI)l'cts of T;\ T stories of threc groups that differed in de-
gree of antisocial behavior. The ver)' antisocial subjects wert' f{)und to dis-
play Illore dircct and ulldisgui sed TAT hostility thall the least antisocial
subjccts.
Haskin (1958) studicd collcge studellts alld ps ychiatric patiellts ill tcrlllS
oft h ei r TAT realistic ilH,,,ressilJII clll d 1111 n:alist ic Ll,<I.qrcs.livlI. Rcal ist ic aggression
was defillcd elS socially ,lcccptahlc, ,lnd elll clppropriate Illcans of expres-
sion; unrc,llistic aggression W,lS dclincd as illclppropriatc or punitive ag-
gression, or aggrcssion turned ag,lin st the sell. This author l(lund Ihat the
normal studcnts showcd signilicalltly 1ll000e realistic aggressioIl, while the

Copyrighted Material
 Resea rc h Findings 55

patients displa yed signilicantly more unrcalistic aggression.

Haskell (1961) worked with hospitali zed schizophrenic patients. With
relerencl' to the TAT, Haskell found that social history of Jggression and
nurses ' ratings of aggression correlatcd significantly with TAT aggrl'ssion,
but therapist evaluation 01 Jggrl'ssion did not relate to TAT aggrcssion.
Megargel' Jnd Cook (1967) studied th e Holt zman Inkblot Tcchnique
and TAT protocols 0176 j u vcnile delinqucnt s, with lour TAT and live ink-
blot aggrcssivc contcnt scales utili zed . Eleven dirte rent criteria of OVl'rt
Jggrl'ss ion werc us ed. Both inkblot and TAT colltl'nt scales were IOUlld
to be related to certain cr ite ria . There was no indication thJt the inkblot
scales tapped a "del'per" aspect of aggression. The authors s ugges ted thJt
the highly ddl'll s ivl' nature of th e sample Ill ay have clouded tht' results
obtJineri.
In SUIll, while such a conclusion is somewhat controversial. the general
results indi cated that TAT aggression call, at least under certain circulll-
stJnces, predict o ve rt aggressioll.

J Scoring of Defense Mechanisms

Ph e be C ramer (1990) hJ S put for ward a well-detailed and s ubsequentl y

w l'lI- vJlidated 1l1,111llal for scoring ddl'nse Illechanisms on th e TAT. Tilrel'
types of defenses Me scored: Denial. Projection , and Identification . Denial
is del'llled to be till' most primitive of the three , witil Identilication till'
icJ s t primitive. E,K h is coded UI1 sever,ll le vels, ag<lill r<lllging froill thl'
more primitive to the Illo rt' sophisticated.
In a 1997 in vl's tigJtio ll, C rJlllcr described a study ill w hi c h c hildrcll
ra nging in Jge frolll ') to 15 showed a predicted progrl'SSiOll vvitil age from
till' Illost primitive ddc nsl' Illn:hJllism in her system through the most
sophistic,lted. [11 anothn study (Cramer, Blatl. & Ford, 1995) scorl'S ()I
inpatients on IllCdsures of psyc hologi cal impairmcnt imd ill,lturit y were
rclJtcd to C rallln 's TAT ddensl' scoring in a manner that largc ly va lidated
the d cvc lopml'nlJI ordn of the thrcl' TAT- score d dclcllSl's.
Hibbard l't ,li. (1 ')94) contrasted college studl'llt s with ,lCute psyc hiatric
pa ticnt s. In this study, the ps ychiatri c patients wne found to use the Illore
primiti ve ddt'nsl' Illl'Ch,1I1i s lllS ailli also, within l',lCh defen se Illl'chanislll ,
to use lowcr levcls significclntlv morc Olll'll than till' college stlldL'llts.
I'orcnclli , Thollla s, Hibbard, ,llld Cogan (199 8) 11,Wl' worked with stu-
dent s of a largc age rJllgc, from grade 2 through collegc Ireshnll'n. Thesc
allthms found that ,1S grcldl' le ve l increa sed, relati ve u st' of Ol'llial a Ill!
Projl'ctioll decrcJsed; as Illight be (' Xlx'ctcd , liSt' of Identification in c rl'asl'd.

Copyrighted Material
56 A Pract ical Guide to th e TAT

In a study that again supported the construct validity of Cramer's cit--

fense mechanism scoring system but that also suggested a complexity with
respect to gender continuity of defensive style over time, Cramer and Block
(1998) reevaluated the TAT defenses of subjects at Jge 23 who had previ-
ously been eva luJt ed while ill nursery school. In this study, it WJS lound
thaI there WJS continuity of defense USl' lor IllJIe jlJrticipJlllS, but not for
females. A vMiety of possible exp lanations lor this discrepancy were dis-
cussed. [t is nonetheless ITIllMkable that CrJlller was able 10 demonstrate
continuity of TAT-ml'JslII'ed defensive style over such a IMge Jmount of
time, even lor just the Illale subjects.
The studies discusscd represellt just J slllJ l1 pl'l'celltJge of those that have
consistcnt ly supported the conSTruct va lidit y of Cralller's TAT SCJies of de-
fense . These SCJles c1eMly represent a vcry promising Mea for future TAT
resea rch.

Interpersonal Object Relations

Westen Jnd co-workers have put 10rwJl'd ,1 detailed and wc ll-researched

scorillg systelll lor in terpersollJ I objcct rela t ions, t ha t is, for scmi ng the
IlJture of soc ial illteractions described in TATst()ries and the ways in which
illtcrpersollal rciatiolls arc illtl'rn ,lIized.
Westen, Lohe Si lk, Kerber, alld Goodrich (1989) have pllt forward a
Illanual for scoring what they helve rl'il'l'red to as Soc ial Cogniti()n
and Object Relations (SCORS) on the TAT. The tlll'OI'etical background lor
the scales is an interesting cOlllb ill ati()1l of social-cognitive, cognitive-
developnwntaL and psyciwanalytic approacill's. The int ent is to lIleasure
"the extent to vvhich the subject cleMly dilkrclltiates the perspectives 01
sc lf and others; sces the self 'liltl others ,15 hewing st,lble, enduring Illultidi-
Illcnsional dispositions; elild sees till' self ,11Hi othl'f's as psychological be-
illgs with cOlllplex Illotives ,lllli subjective expl'l'iellce" (Westen et ell., p.
29).
In el later development. Westell (19')5) dillcrcntiated between eight el-
elllents: complexity of reprcsellteltioll (If PL'Ojlle; clficctive quality of repre-
selltations; enlotionell in vest llletll in relationships; elllot ion ell invC'stlllent
in vellucs ,llld moral stelndards; lIndl'l'st,lllliillg of social celllsality; exper i-
ence and manageillent of elggressive impllises; sL'if-estl'Clll; elnd identity
and coherence of the sell.
In a 1995 stully, Hibbard, HilsL'n{'()th, Hibhc1l'd, and :"Jash related a Ror-
schach-based object represcntation scale and the Wt'sten TAT scales to
each other and a lso to measlIres of intelligcnce and psychopathology. In
this study, the results were found to support the cOllstruct validity of ob-

Copyrighted Material
 Research Findings 57

ject representations and an affective-but not a cognitive-structural-link-

age between object relations and pathology.
Those Westen scales that are more allective in nature (Afrect Tone [ATj
and Understanding of Social Causality jUSCj) have emerged quite favor-
ably Irom studies relating them to relevant criteria. Thus, Berends, Westen,
Leigh, and Silbert (1990) found Significant correlations of AT with a mea-
sure of social adjustlllelll and ego development. Bernstein and Perry (1995)
worked with the original lour Object Relations and Social Cognition (ORSC)
scales with four diagnost ic groups. These investigators found that anti-
social subjects had the lowest scores on the two affective scales (AT and
Capacity for Emotionallnvcstment and Moral Standards).
Porcerelli, Cogan, and Hibbard (1998) correlated both the cognitive and
the afrective scales of th e ORSC with personality disorder scales from the
Millon Clinical Multiaxiallnventory II (Millon, 1987). The cognitive scales
did not correlate with the Millon scales, but correlations were found with
the affective scales, the largest being with the Millon Antisocial Personal-
ity Disorder Scale.
It should be noted tha t Westen's scoring of object relations ha s been
shown to distinguish between borderline, major depressive, and normal
subjects (Westen, Lohr, Silk, Gold, & Kerber, 1990). The system has also
been shown to be useful with borderline adolescent subjects (Westen,
Ludolph, Block, Wixom, ET Wiss, 1991) and with girls who had bee n sexu-
ally abused (Nigg et a!.. 1991).
In sum, the system developed by Westen shows both good criterion-
related validity and good construct validity. It is, howevt'[, time consum-
ing, which at this point limit s its usefulness for clinical purposes.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
Diversity Issues in TAT Use
and Alternatives to the TAT

It is highly illlportant to pay attent ion to individual differences with regard

to culture, race, and ethnicity, as well as age, gender, health status, and
sexual orientation when using the TAT in psychological testing. As with
a ll psychological tests, the exallliner IllUst consider whether the TAT is an
appropriate i nst rUlllent for t he in tended population, and how i nterpreta-
tion of the results should be influ enced by cultural factors. This chapter
will discuss the appropriateness of using the TAT with different cultura l
groups, a lterna tive storytelling tests that have been developed for use with
various popUlations, and issues to consider in interpretation of results.
Retief (1987) provided a very brief review 01 the history of the cross-
cu ltural use of projective techniques. Hermann Rorschach used his test to
study different cultura l groups (Rorschach, 19211 1942). In 19 35, Binder
and Bleuler compa red the Rorschach responses of Eu ropea nand Moroc-
can subjects (cited in Butcher & Pancheri, 1976). In a summary of th e
cross-c ultura l usage of p rojective tests, the TAT emerged as the favorite
technique (Baran, 1970; cited in Retief. 1987). In 1983, Andor compi led a
bibliography of stud ies and found that 6 of the 32 studies done among
African Americans that were listed under "personality assessment" involved
adaptations of the TAT. I u sed the original TAT, and 9 used the Rorschach.
However, it is noted by f\etief that most of these stud ies did not account

59

Copyrighted Material
60 A Prac ti ca l Guide to th e TAT

for th e unfamiliarity of the materials to the s ubj ects in their inte rpre ta-
tions and did not tak e into account the subjects' cu ltural fram e of refer-
e nce. Th e refore, th e int e rpre tations likel y over-pa thologized the s ubjects.
Today it is wide ly recognized that cultural issue s must be considered in
order to maximi ze validity of te st results <lIld avoid mi slabel in g individual s
who are tes ted . The American Psychologi ca l Associ at ion 's Ethics Code
(American Psychological Association, 1992) emphasizes that examiners
are obligated to become knowledgeable about and be responsibl e about
test usage and interpretation with rega rd to individual dilferen ces. Th e
following two examp les of e thical codes make thi s responsibi lit y clear:

1.08 Human Differences

Wh e re differences of Jge. gcnder. rJce. etlll1icity. nJtional origin, religion.
sex ual orientation. disabi lit y. la nguage. or so cio cconom ic s tatus signifi can tl y
affect psychologists' work con ccrn ing particular indi vidu a ls or g roup s. psy-
c hologi s ts obtain th e training, ex perien ce, con s ultiltion. or superv ision nec-
essary to e nsure th e competence of their services. or th ey make appropriate
refe rral s . (p. 6)

2.04c Use of Assessment in General and with Special

Populations
Psychologi sts a tl e Jllpt10 id e ntify situillions in w hich pa rticular intervention s
or assessment technique s or Ilorm s mily not be applicable or ma y require
adjustment in a dministration or interpretation he cJ use of fJ ctors s u c h JS
indi vidu il ls' ge nder, ilge. ra ce, l'thnicity. n il tiollJI origin. reli g ion . sex ua l ori-
e ntation . di sa bilit y. lil n g uage. 01' socioeconomic sta tus. (p. 9)

Retief (1987) defined cu lture as a sys te m or m ea nings (a definition origi-

na ll y d e velope d by Max Weber), and stated that psychological tes ts are
examp les of m ea ning systems that a re based in the Wes tern cultures of
thos e who developed the test s. He ex plain e d, howeve r, that projective
tests may be less sensitive to "shifts in meaning" (p. 49) across cultures
than more structured tests, becau se they are more holistic and ph e nom-
e nologi ca lly based . Nevertheless, Retief argues that projective techniques
have to be re vise d and adapted for cross-cultura l applicat ion in order to
exe rci se some form of contro l ov e r shifts in m ea ning and that the validit y
of te sts depend s on "good te st construction m e thod s, the ConStTuCls cho-
se n and the signs and sym bol s u sed in the stimulus materi a l" (p. 49).

Copyrighted Material
 Diversity Issues in TAT Use and Alte rn atives to the TAT 61

[l Alternatives to the TAT

Age Diversity

Ea rl y in the hi sTory of the TAT, before iss ues of cross -c ultLlrJ lu sage were
commonly a ddressed , it WJS recogni zed that different versions of the tec h-
nique could be useful lor diflere nt population s, increas ing th e pot e ntial
for subjects' id e ntification with th e c hJracte rs. The diversity iss ue first ad-
dresse d was di ve rs it y in terms of age. Several of the original TAT cards
depi ct children (ca rd s 1, 7GF, 8BM) and severa l d e pict old e r a dult s (cards
613M. 713M). Alternatives were d eve loped 10 appeal more a nd eli cit more
re le va nt inlormJtion fwm individuals be longin g \0 these age groups. More
rece ntl y, alternative s tillluli have bee n d e veloped for use with different
c ultura l groups.

The CA T and the CA T-H

The idea that it is import a nt for s ubject s to be J ble to id e ntify with the
characters depicted in TAT picrures is not a n ew id eJ . Th e CAT is J tec h-
nique creJted b y Bellak a nd Bellak (1948) as a n alternJtive to th e TAT for
u se with c hildre n . Th e cha racte rs used in the pi ctures arc animals. JS it
WJS belie ve d that children could idelllify more readily with a nimals th a n
wit h people (BeliJ k & Abra illS , 1997). The CAT ca rds depict situ a t ions like ly
to elicit stories reveJ ling d y nami cs central for c hildren, such as keding
isslil's. sibling riva lry, a nd relation ships with parellts.
The CAT is eas ier to u se cross-culturally than th e TAT becau se the ani-
m a l charaCll'l's are re la ti ve ly ambiguous with rega rd to sex and c ulture .
SOllle of the furnitur e and objects, howe ver, are more c ulturall y specific.
Thl'l'e alT Indian (Chowdhury, 1960a ) and Indon es ian adaptations of the
CAT in which the furniture and some of th e animals arc changed to be
more culturally familiar.
Although thl'l'e is litera t ure to support th e idea th a t children more rea dil y
identify with animals th a n with pe ople , it has been lound that mall Y chil-
dren do res polld bell e r to human c haracter stimuli. Therefore, the CAT-H
(Be llak & Bellak, 1965) was d eveloped, a versioll of the CAT with human
figures depicting th e same scenes as th e CAT animals. For a rev iew of
studies comparing th e u se of animal and human c h ar,lc te r stimuli , sec
Bellak and Hurvich (\966); res ult s h ave bee n mix e d.

Copyrighted Material
62 A Practi ca l G uicie to th e TAT

The RATe

Th e RATC (McArthur & Roberts. j <)82) i ~ ,1 Illorc rece ntl y deve lopcd p ro-
jecti ve storyte lling technique lor ch ildrcll ililli ildoiesCCllts aged 6 to 15. It
has several aclva illilges o ver the CAT. il lc luciill g a sta nd ard ize d scor in g sys-
te m for quant ifyin g ildaptivc alld clini cal pl'lso ll a lit y dilllellsions and morc
mod e m pi ctur es. Validit y s tudic s h avc had quitc po si ti ve filldin gs
(Palomares. Crowley. Worchel. Olsoll, Fr Rae, I ()9 1).

The SA T and the GA T

Analogo us to th e developilleill ol th e CA T lor childre ll. the SAT (Be ll ak &

Bellak, 1973) was de ve loped with pictures sho wi ng o ld er indi vidu a ls in
situ at ion s in vo lvin g iss ues encou ntl'lTd by many elderly people. su ch as
illn ess a nd lon e lin ess. Thl' SAT cards can lw ust'i ul in understa ndin g how
iss ue s of agin g arc impact ing sllbjects. With older ad ult s. one Illa y a lso
choosc to lise the GAT (W olk & Wolk, 197 1) . The pi ct ures Ill ay be pe r-
ccived as more positi vc ly ton cd th iln the SAT.

Cultural Diversity

It has bccn ,lrgllcd that !'V \lIIT,lY 'S T f\T l,lrtIS il lT IWt ap propri ate luI' usc
with nO ll -W hite 1)()PlIl ,ltiollS. bl' C,lllSl' SOlliC stlldi es have reported th a t Illi-
Ilorit y g rollps res polld Ill'gcltivcly [() th e TAT (rIW lllpso ll b Bac hrach, 1(5 1).
ScvL'rill studies have showll th,lt Sllbjclls rc,lct n]()r,' positivel y to stimuli
show ing eharactns 01 thcir OWll r,lCl'. 13,liil' y ,lll<l Grce ll ( 1977) fOllnd thell
Alrical l Allll'ri cclll subjccts ril ln! ,1 Sl't 01 TAT ca n! s th at dcpictcd I3 lack
charanerc, 1l11 )JT positi vl'i\' th elll till' ()Iigillill TAT c,lrds. Alri cilll Allll' ri can
iclll,lie colil'ge stud cll ts gave longer sto rie'S a lld scorce! hi g her on Ilccd lor
,lcilicvclllell t w hc ll rl'sp()nding \I) nl,lCk . rclt lll'r till'll White, stimui lis char-
ilctl'r S (Cowa ll b- G() ldbe rg . 19(,/).
TholllPSOIl ( 1949) LTC,ltn! a set (11 picture stimlili s ubsti1l1ting HI,lCk l(lr
White l i g ur c~, o thl'J' w isc keeping till' St illiltii as Silllil M ,1S possible to
Mu rray's TAT lMds, ,1IH! lou IIII that till' ,l\ n,lgl' stm ), icllgth of the adul t
mall' Alri can Aill cric,l ll subjects IV,lS Sigililic(ll lll y grl' il ter th il ll ill response
to the origillill ulrds. Hc ill lcr p rl't l'd thi s a,> l' vid l' ll cl' that il1 e lllbn,> 01 mi-
IlOr it y grou ps illT bcttLT ahi<: 10 idl'lltily ilild c ilipa thi ze wit ll l llMilctl'rS
wilo MC ril l icl il y cOllg rlll'll! with till'lll ,>c lvl'S. HOlI'l'VtT, olhers h ,lVC criti -
cized 1hi s illtLTj1ITtiltioll ,1 Ill! hel\'(' Ilot bl'ell ,lbk to rl'pl iGlll' Tilo mpson's
lilldillgs (Korc hill , Mitc hell. h ,\ .lclt/olJ. 1') ')0) .
Dc plll a lld Kimbrough ( 198 2) lOll Ill! th ,lt Alric,l ll Aillcrican ch ildrl'l l I'l'-

Copyrighted Material
 Diversity Issu es in TAT Use and Alternatives to th e TAT 63

sponded with more positive themes to the Themes Concerning Blacks (TCB)
cards, which show Black figures, than to TAT cards. The children selected
mostly TCB cards as the cards they liked best, and were more likely to
choose TAT cards as ones they liked less. The TCB responses had mostly a
positive feeling-tone, but were not longer than the TAT responses (Triplell
(J Brunson, 1982). However, it should be noted that because there was no
comparison group of White children in either of these studies, it is un-
known whether the positive themes and card prefere nces are due to racial
cOllgruence of the subjects and stimuli, or are Illore silllply attributable to
something e lse about th e TCB stimuli as compared to the TAT.
Alternative techniqu es have bee n developed ill respon se to the argu-
mClll that Murray's TAT stimuli ma y not be optimal for lise with minority
subjects. Wherea s Murray's pictures present White characters, the new
stillluli typically represent more diverse populations, or populations of the
specific culture or race to be assessed using that test, and often are se t in
situations more familiar to non-White individuals. The main argument for
the development of new lest stimuli is that subjects respond more readily
and more validly when the y are maximall y able to identify with the stimulus
characters and the situational contexl.
It should be rell1emtwred, however. that the assumption that increased
similarity between subject and stimulus characters results in increased iden-
tification has not been empirically proven. Neither ha s the assumption
that greater identilication results in beller assessment results. One of the
few studies specifically in ves tigating the relationship betwee n similarity of
subjects cll1d card charact e rs and degree of projection did Ilot support the
utility of iIl cn.'a sed similarity. TATstories of 52 college students were scored
lor projection. defined as amount ur ra nt asy, allluunt or arfect, intensit y or
arlec!, and length. No Significant increase in projection as a result 01 match-
ing the sex of subjL'ct to the sex of stimulus figures was found (Katz. Russ.
5· OVL'l"holser. 1993). Although gender is a different variable than ract' or
culture. OIlL' should not simply aSSUll1e that similarity betwet'Il subjects
and stimulus characters a utomaticall y increases test utility.
It also rem a ins unproven whether more identification with stimulus char-
acters necessaril y facilitate s the usdulness and validity of the test result s.
Takcn to the extrcme, this logic would lead to the suggestion that the best
techniqu e would be to ask subjects to create a story with a lllirmr as cl
stimulus (Korchin. Mitchell, & Meltwfl 1950). It could also be argued
that if the charactL'l"s and settings are too familiar. the face validity of the
test will elicit more defenses and be less revealing of illlrapsychic conllic!.
However. accepting the assllmptions discussed above, alternative st imuli
to ,1'v1urray's TAT hav e been dcveloped that are intended to be of increased
usc with a variety of cultural groups. Several of the mort' promising ones
arc presented below.

Copyrighted Material
64 A Practi ca l G ui de to th e TAT

An Indian Modification of the TAT

Cho w dhur y ( 196 0b ) develop ed TAT stillluli lor use w ith Indi a n popul a -
tion s. The set is compose d o f 14 ca rd s: 12 adapt ed fro lll th e ori gin a l TAT
pi ctures, and 2 additional on es re pre sentin g th e ille s import a nt to Indi a n
c ulture not re prese nt ed in the ori gin a l TAT, th a t is, jo int fa mil y a nd reli-
giou s fa nt asy. Th e stillluli de pict Indi a n chara ct ers wea ring tradition a l In-
di a n appa re l in similar situ a tion s to the ori gin a l cards . For exa illple, in card
I a n Indi a n strin ged instruill e nt, a Ta npura, is substitut ed lor a violin.
Cho w dhm y admini ste red thl' 14 ca rd s to 260 indi vidu a ls, includin g Uppe r
Cas te Hindus , Lowe r Cas tl' Hindu s, and Mu slim s. Result s indi ca te th a t IT -
SPOIlS l'S we re revea lin g o i the subje cts' inner drives, w ishes, stresses, a nd
a n x ietie s, a nd th e res pon ses w ere found to Ill' con g ru e nt w ith Rorsc hac h
res ult s of th e subj ect s.

TEMAS

TEM AS (C osta Iltino e t a i. , 198 1) was de ve loped as a Illulli cult ura l apper-
cepti ve proj ective techni q ue lor usc w ith minorit y a lld IloIllllinorit y chil-
cir e n . It is a n ac ron ym lo r "Tc ll -M e -A-S tor y" in En gli s h , a nd m ea n s
"tlw m es" in Spa ni sh. Th e re a re tw o pa ra llel version s, each con sistin g of 23
ca rei s, includin g 9-ca rd short forill s. Th e minorit y versioll de pi cts urba n
e thni c minorit y ligures, c ultura l tll c ill es a nd sy mbol s, an d urba n scttings;
th e nonminorit y vers ion show s p re domin a llll y Whit e cha racte rs w ith id e n -
ti ca l th e m es a nd settings. Other dilfere ncl's be tw ee n tlw TE M AS and th e
TAT a rc th a t TE M AS has color pi ctures zll1d th e pi cture s a re less a mbi g u-
ou s.
A de tailed scorin g syste m was developed for TEMAS . Stori es ca n be scored
lor 18 Cogn iti ve Fun ct ion s (s uch as Reaction Tim e, Ima gin a tion , Eve nt
Omi ss ion s ), 9 Perso na lit y Fun ct ion s (in cl ud in g Aggrcss ioll, Self- Con ce pt.
a nd Rea lil Y Tes tin g), ,l nd 7 AIIl'c ti ve Fun ctioll s (e .g., Ha pp y, Fea rful ,
An g ry) . TEMA S was sta nd a rdi zed 011 64 2 Blac k, Whit e , a nd Hi spa ni c
childre n frolll Ncw York Cit y publi c sc hool s. Illtcrra ter reli a bilit y lor th e
Per son a Ii I Y Fun c t ion s ra n g e d I r 0 III 7 5 (Yo - 95 01<, in a sa m p Ie 0 I 2 0
nOllminorit y protocol s (C osta ntino, Ma lgad y, Cas ullo, & Cas tillo , 199 1).
Int c rn a l con siste ncy (lo r th e lon g form ) a mon g cards for spccili c scorin g
va ri abl es h ad a m edi a n va lu c oi .73 lor a Hi spa ni c sa mpl e a nd .62 for a
Black sa mp le of childre n.
Thi s tes t's usduln ess has bl' e n c mpi rica ll y supported . Costa ntino c t 21 1.
( 198 1) reported th a t bilin gua l exam in ers admini ste red six TAT ca rd s a nd
th e n six TEMA S ca rds to 76 Hi spa ni c childre n aged 0- 12 . It was fo und
th a t, OIl ave rage, child re n de mon stra ted grea ter verbal producti vit y (grea te r

Copyrighted Material
 D ive rsity Iss ues in TAT Use and A ltern ati ves to the TAT 65

numbe r o f w ords in th e stori es) in res pon se to TEMAS th a n to TAT ca rd s.

Th e e ffe ct of th e in creased produ ct iv it y w as g rea te r for g irl s th a n for bo ys.
Th ese res ults re m a in e d afte r con t rolling for th e e ffect of ve rba l a bilit y a nd
ra ppo rt a nd fa tig u e . Interestingl y, childre n we re more li ke ly to respond to
TEMAS in Spa ni sh (6 1%) a nd we re more lik e ly to res pon d to th e TAT in
Eng li sh (4 3%). Most nota bl y, 18°IrJ of th e sa mpl e used Engli sh for th e TAT,
th e n sw itche d to Spa ni sh for TEMA S. Thi s is p resented as ev id e n ce for th e
Hi spa ni c sample of childre n 's e nh a nced comfo rt with th e TEM AS, in that
th ey we re more a t ea se usin g th e ir e thni c la ng uage.
Interpret a tion of th e res ult s in t he Co sta mino c t a l. ( 198 1) stud y ca n be
qu es tion e d on seve ra l issues . To w ha t exte nt is w ord count a Illca nin g ful
indi ca tor of th e tes t 's w orth in a specifi c popul a tion ? Do es q ua n tit y impl y
qu a lit y of respon se inte rpre ta tion ? It should al so be co n sid e red th a t diffe r-
e n ces oth e r th a n c ul tura l re leva n ce, such as chrom a ti c pi ct ure s a nd more
stru ct ure d sce nes, m ay have ca used th e lon ge r res pon ses. Thompson a nd
Bachrac h ( 195 1) found th a t le ngth of res pon se was sig nifi ca ntl y grea te r to
chrom a ti c ca rd s th a n to ac hrom a ti c ca rd s, a nd th a t thi s pa tt e rn e m e rged
for Whit e and lor Blac k g roups of subj ects. Thi s is though t to be a fun ction
of in creased e motion a l tone a nd rea li ty brou g ht b y colore d pi ctures .
Anoth er limit a tion of th e Cos ta ntino e t a l. ( 198 1) stud y is the fa ilure to
cou n te rba la nce ord er of tes t a d min ist rat ion ; pe rh aps t he lo nger protoco ls
o f TEM AS we re brou g ht a bout b y th a t tes t be in g a dmini ste red second,
wh c n subj ects we re "wa rm e d u p."
Despit e th e limit a tion s of thi s stud y, th e va lidit y of TEMAS has bee n
s upported in seve ra l ways . TEMA S stori es of 210 Pue rto Ri can childre n
we n.' score d for specifi c person a lit y fun ction s th a t sig nifi ca ntl y pre di cted
th e childrc n 's score s on ego de ve lopm e nt , be h av ior ra tin gs, del ay of g ra ti-
fi ca tion , se lf- con ce p t o f co mpe te n ce, di srupti veness, a nd a gg ress ioJl a ft e r a
course o f psyc h o th e ra p y. TEM AS profiles pre di cted 6%-22% of th e va ri-
a nce in trca tm e nt out com e scores, ind e pen d e nt of pre tes t scores (Ma lgJ d y,
Co sta ntino, Ex Rog ie r. 1984). TEMA S was a lso found to acc ura te ly d is-
crimin a te be tw e e n clini ca l a nd n o nclini ca l g roups of lo w SES Hi spa ni c and
Afri GlIl Am e ri ca n child re n 89'Yo of th e tim e (C o sta ntino , M a lga d y, Rog ie r,
& Ts ui , 1988) .

APT
Th e Appe rce pti ve Pe rso na lit y Test (APT; Holm stro m , Silbe r. & Ka rp, 1990)
is a re la ti vel y n ew proj ecti ve story tech ni q u e th a t w as d e ve loped lor u se
with a dol esce llt a nd a dult subj eCTS of a n y racia l bac kg round. Th e APT is
compri sed of a n e ig h t-ca rd se t th a t is a dmini ste re d to a ll subj ects, in con-
trast to th e TAT a n d oth e r techniqu es in which the exa min e r chooses whi ch

Copyrighted Material
66 A Practical Guide to the TAT

cards are to be used. The benefits oj having a constant set of cards admin-
istered are that test results are mOlT t'asily compared with each other,
research is facilitated, and examiner bias is reduced. An effort was made to
create male and female APT characters oj differing ages and ethnicities.
They are depicted in comlllon, modern settings involving a range of po-
tential social and interpe rsonal themes.
A strong advantage of the APT is that it inclucies a single standard scor-
ing procedure. First. the eight cards are administered, with subjects writ-
ing down their stories. Following this administration, subjects refer to th e ir
stories while completing the APT questionnaire, which asks subjects to
answer six questions about each story. The questions ask about the rela-
tionships between characters, fee lin gs and act ion s of the characters, who
the hero is, the outcome of the story and adjectives describing the charac -
ters . The inform ation is coded by subjects from their own stories, thus
there is no interpretation on the part of the examiner (of co urse, tradi-
tional interpretation can also be done with the stories as well). Responses
are th e n compared to norms.
Overall, mean tes t-rete st reliability for APT scores was found to be .75 .
Evidence supporting the validit y of the APT includes relationships between
APT responses and MMP[ results, such as significant correlations between
APT indices of hostility and ps yc hopathology and hostility on the MMPL
and the MMPI depreSSion scail' and the APT score for unhappiness
(Holmstrom et al., [990) . Whl'll compared with the TAT, the APT stories
showed less aggression and less achievl'mellt imagery, but not significant ly
different story outcome ratings. To sUlllmcuize, the APT stimuli are more
re prese ntative and contemporary than those of many other apperceptive
techniques, and can be used in th e traditional manner as wel l as with a
reasonabl y psychometrica II y sou nd sco ri ng system. Th ese prelim ina ry re-
su lt s are encouraging.

Oraw-A-Person as Stimulus

French ( 1993) proposed an alternate storytclling technique lor use with

minority chi ldren. [t combines Draw-A-Person w ith the TAT, avoiding
potential biases in test stimuli. The ch ild subject is asked to draw a picture
01 him- or herself. At a second session, the ch ild is prese nted with the
picture, and asked to tell the examiner something about the person in the
drawing. Then the chi ld is asked to "Draw a picture of you and your fam-
il y," and questions are asked following the TAT format: "Tell me a story
about this family. What is happening in tile story? Who is the hero? What
are the people thinking and fee ling: What is the outcome of the story?"
French uses this technique with Hi spa nic, Mexican, and Am e rican Indian

Copyrighted Material
 Diversity Issues in TAT Use and Alternatives to th e TAT 67

children in the Southwest and states that this approach minimizes dis-
comfort to the child and requires less interpretation by the examiner, lim-
iting the opportunity for misinterpretation. However, the high face valid-
ity of the technique may increase the impact of social desirability on
responses.

Development of Alternative Stimuli

The influcnce of the test stimuli should not be underestimated. When story
responses to the Family of Man photo essay collection, published by the
Museum of Modern An, were compared with responses to Murray's TAT
pictures, it was found that the Family of Man pictures yielded responses
balanced between positive- and negative-roned stories, and higher energy
stories; whereas the TAT yielded more negatively toned stories, and lower
energy stories (Ritzier et a!., 1980). This study demonstrates the im-
portance of the role of stimuli lIsed in projecrive techniques, under-
scores the importance of conscientious test development, and reminds
examiners to consider the realistic aspects of the stimuli perception during
in terpreta t ion.
The common theme in the development of new stimuli for storytelling
assessment techniques is that the characters and the contexts should be
relevant to the subjects. For this reason, it could be argued that there should
be different sets of stimuli for different populations. If stimuli are tailored
to particular racial or cultural groups, great care should be taken to avoid
prejudicial intentions and building harmful stereotypes into the pictures.
For example, th e TAT-Z (Erasmus, 1975), an early adaptation of the TAT
for lise with African Americans, is criticized by Retief (1987) becallse it
was intended to measure attitudes toward White authority. The cards de-
pict situations that would likely provoke angry feelings in most minority
subjects. Interpretation oj the resulting stories could easily be biased.
Retief ( 1987) suggested that new tests should be developed with more
structured stimuli, design ed to assess specific areas of personality makeup,
such as aggression and need [or achievement. Constructs should be cho-
sen that have meaning across differe nt cultures and can be operationalized
in terms of observable behavior. Retief argued that tests that select focus
on specific areas, rather than include as many areas for interpretation as
possible wiliminilllize errors in interpretation. Formal scoring systems could
also reduce misinterpretation.
Sherwood (1957) offered detailed, specific guidelines for designing a set
of TAT cards for cross-cultural use. First. he has several suggestions to
maximize the lIsefulness of the pictures as projective stimuli:

Copyrighted Material
68 A Practical Guide to th e TA T

I. The pictorial images should strike a balance betwee n being realistic

e nough to allow subjects \0 id e ntify with sOll1e of the content and
being vague e nough to allow for a variety of inte rpreta tions of the
content.

2. Th e pictures should be Ielt SOll1l'1-vhJt illcoll1plete, so that imagination

is required of subjects ill their ,1ssociJtioIlS.

1. Stimuli should be densel y PJcked illto eJch picture, to Jllow associa-

tion s to a wide range of relJtion s hips, vJlues, attitudes, Jnd them es,
and to have a g reJter pos sibilit y 01 corresponding to the un consc iou s
content or th e subjects.

This IJst s uggestioll, to densely cOll1press stimuli into the pictures, is

colltrJrY to Ret ief's (1987) ITCOlllll1elldatioll thJt pictures should be more
selective Jnd fo c used to reduce errors in interpretation. Less structure would
mak e interpre tatioll more difficul!, but inCIT,lse the projective nJture of
the tJsk.
Sherwood (1957) suggested thJt the set of cMds as a whole should be
vM ied. He believed that contrast in the ViSU,ll impa c t or the stimuli h e lps
engage subjects and holds their interest throughout the assess ment. Addi-
tionJll y, variety helps the e xa miner ()btaill more represelltative inforlna-
tion a bout subjects and orkrs Ihl' opportunity to kJrtl about the subject's
reactions to dilferent situ,ltions. For eX<llllpil', the pictures should vMy in
te rll1s of eillotional lon e: sOll1e s hould be posit ivel y tOiled, sOll1e nega-
ti vel y lOned, and some should be more neutral. A criticism of Murra y's
TAT is that lhe m ajorit y or the cclrds Me Ilegativel y toned. A VJriety or
ba sic fa mil y re la t ion s h ips sh ould be represented, i n cludi ng subject-Illot her,
su bj e ct-father, alld subject-siblings. Other import a nt rel a tion s hips should
be depict e d as well, s uch as same-sex and opposite-se x peer relation s hips.
It is also llseiul to show relatiollships th 'lt Me less conventionJI and less
la miliar, to elicil more fantas y IllJtcrial. A range ill lhe number of chMac-
ters shown in different ca rds is h e lprul in determining the subject's ability
10 integrare objects.
Finally, Sherwood (1957) offered suggestiolls lor stimuli CieVclOPIllCllt
Ihar are spec ific to cross-cUIIUrJI u st' . II is believed thai projection will be
I1lJ x imali y effective if subjects feci comfortable and can identify with th e
characters in th e cards. Therefore, it is rccolllillended that th e hUlllan fig-
ures re prese nted in Ihe stimuli Jre recognizabl e JS belonging to th e subj ect's
own cullural group. Thi s includcs ,l ppropriate physical traits, clothing,
hairslyles, and gestures. It Illay also be des irable to include some charac-
lers outside the s ubject's imill e dial e cullure group who are a Significant

Copyrighted Material
 Diversity Issu es in TAT Use and Alternatives to th e TAT 69

part of the larger society in which the subject's group is emlwdded. Physi-
cal environments that are familiar to the subjects and implied int erper-
sona l relationships that are patterned after relationships commonly l(lund
in the cu ltun~ are also important in creating pictures that are cul tura ll y
appropriate.
It is proposed that the dlecriveness of the pictures as appropriate projec-
tive stimu li can be evaluated by lookin g at the length of e li cited responses;
the relevance of responses to till:' content areas the pictures arc intended
to tap; and the degree of fantasy the pictures generate, measured by the
number oj introduced material, varieties of responses in plot, and t he imagi-
native, creative quality of the responses (Sherwood, 19 57).
It should be mentioned that despite the soundness of Sherwood's (1957)
recommendations, unfortunately there seems to have been minimal ap-
plication of his principles. His paper has only been ralTly cited (Dana, \ 999).

1--1 Which Test to Use?

The question arises as to whether one should choose to use Murray's TAT
or to usc one of the alternative techniques, and if so, which olle' The
clearest advantages of using the original TAT is the examiner's prior expe-
rience with the technique, and the wea lth of published data on the tech-
nique. Norms published by Eron ( 1950, 1953) provide examiners with
information w ith which to compare subjects' responses. Examiners' own
exper iences, fol\owi ng many TAT ad mi n istrations, a Iso a !lord much da ta
about the conventiona lit y or originalit y of responses. This sum of informa-
tion is highl y va lu ab le, because va lid TAT interpretation relies on illter-
preting that which is uniquel y reflective of the indi vidua l being assessed.
For examp le, if the majority of subjects attribute viole nt behavior to a
character stimu lus , one would be less lik e ly to interpret such a response as
nl<:'aning somethi ng about an individual subj ect. In order to recognize popu-
la r and original TAT responses, an ongoing acculllulation of knowledge
about the asseSSlllent technique is needed. On the other h and, exploring
prolllising new techniques is th e only way to acculllu late a knowledge
base about them. Research must clearly be done for appropriate popula-
tion norms before the newer tests can be used with any confidence.
Whenever a test is selected for use , the bod y of research evaluating the
test's val idit y shou ld be considered. Allot"her less formal way to evaluate
the uses of a test is to use Sherwood's (1957) criteria, as discussed ill the
previous section, Oil a sample of subjects, looking in depth at the qualita-
tive and qualltitative features of responses by th e subjects.

Copyrighted Material
70 A Practica l Guide to the TAT

l.J Considering Individual Differences In

Assessment

The issu e of individual differen ces Illu st be considered, regardless of which

stor ytelling technique is u se d. There arc some ge neral considerations that
should be kept in mind in all kinds of tes ting, but perhaps particularl y
w hen using le ss structure d techniques, Jnd when assessing persons of dif-
ierent cultures than th e test's ClTJtorS or the populations on which the test
was norm e d. Although this c haptn hJS locused Oil differences in c ulture
and ract' as important factor s, indi v iliuJl s, uf cours e, Jlso difl e r in
economic statu s, religion, sexual orientJlion, gender, health statllS, and so
on. It is most importJnt thJt an eXJminer remembers that he or s h e is
te st ing an individual who h as bee n influ e nced in man y wa ys by the envi-
ronment becaust' of hi s or lwr mt'lllbership in va rious s ubgroups of soci-
ety. Carefully considering ho w such membersh ips m ay affect responses to
assessment, in addition to trying to underst a nd how personality or psy -
c hopathology contributes, is essential to valid int erpretation of res ults.
A s ugg ested structure lor formulating the rele va nce of cultural issues to
diagnosis is presented in Appendix I in the DSM-IV (4th cd.; American
Ps yc hiatri c Association , 1994). It is suggested that the cultural identit y of
the individual and the degree of involvem ent in th e original and host cul-
lures be considered. The culture's explanation m lK'rce ived ca use for an
individual's behavioral or allcnive disturbance should a lso be determined.
The examiner should also nOll' ho w the individual's cullure reiJtes to the
psyc hosoc ial e n v ironment and level 0/ functiuning-/or exa mple , social
and instrulllental supports. The DSM-IV includes a glossory of commonly
encountered culturally linked diJgnose s. That the DSM-IV dt'votes an ap -
pendi x to the issue 0/ c ulture should ill1press upon the read e r the currcnt
emphasis on addressing Ihl' iss ue 0/ culture in diJgnosis.
Maxill1ally understanding the person's background will reduce the risk
0/ overpa t hologizing. The ct h iCJI sta ndard s req u iri ng psyc hologists to ob-
tain appropriate training, experience , consultatioll, or s lIpnvisioll in how
individual diffe re nces impact Il' sting or to make appropriate rclerrals is
intended to address this point. Ethical standards Jlso require psychologists
to ca refully consider the appropriJteness 0/ norms /or th e individual being
tested. Exa miners should always cis k themselves: How similar is the indi-
v idual to the population on whicll the norm s arc based ") How might the
differences betwl'cn IIle individu a l a nd the nmm populalion impact inter-
pre tation 0/ the individual's re sponscs! This is true Ilot only in cases where
formal norms are used , but also w hl'1l lhl' popUlation to which th e indi -
vidual is being cO!llpJred is th e lotJI 0/ previou s s ubj ects the particular
examiner hJ S tested. Finally, var iables thJt are scored should be of impor-

Copyrighted Material
 Divers ity Iss ues in TAT Use and Alternatives to the TAT 71

tance to the culture of the individual being tested, preferably derived from
the structure and content of stories from a particular culture, rather than
automatically coming from Anglo-American sources (Dana, 1999).
Using culturally sensitive or culturally appropriate tests is not a suffi-
cient alternative to a culturally sensitive, knowledgeable examiner.
Administering the test with social etiquette appropriate to the subject's
culture is recommended (Dana, 1996) and may facilitat e rapport and valid
results . Relevant aspects of etiquette may include appropriate greetings,
eye contact, and body language . To furth e r avoid ove rpathologizing, it is
recommended that d e tails of the circumstances under which the test was
given be recorded and addressed, including instructions given and interac-
tions be tween the subject and the examiner. The influence of language
and translation problems should also be determined. In general, one would
rather "err on the side of health" when interpreting test responses rather
than overpathologi zing or mislabeling a subject. Always consider possible
alternative explanations for unusual respon ses. Cultural diffe rences should
be considered as a salient alternative explanation.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
The TAT in Psychotherapy

The TAT has a long asso cia tion with t h e psychotherapeutic endeavor. Combs
(1946) wrote o f the abundance of a utobiogra phi ca l m a teria l th a t is ty pi-
ca ll y co nt a in e d in TAT stori es, thu s providing th e therapist with importa nt
backg round inform a tion a bout test subj ects. In a later swdy , Hoffm an and
Kupe rm a n ( 1990) not ed how discllssioll of re pet iti ve TAT th e ml's in psy-
chotherapy m ay help in sin glin g out a hi stor y of trauma.
Ullmann (1957) found sign ifi ca nt corre la tion s be tween TAT scores of
psychi a tri c patient s on th e o ne ha nd , a nd hospita l statu s a nd gro up therapy
sca le pred ictions on the ot h er. In a 1960 st ud y, Fairweather et a l. u sed th e
TAT to assess th e effectiveness of psyc hoth e ra py modalities. These a uthors
found a signifi ca nt int eraction effect in that group th erapy a nd co ntrol
groups showed more positive TAT ch a nge for non psychotic th an for ps y-
choti c psych ia tri c subj ects while individu a l th erapy produced more posi-
tive TAT ch a nge for lon g-te rm psychotic indi vidu a ls.
The TAT ha s a lso been used fairly extensive ly in outcome studi es in
co nn ect ion with psychotherapy resea rch (e.g., Coch e & Sillitti, 1983;
Dymond, 19 54; Fran k & Gund e rson, 199 0; Goldman & Gree nbl a tt , 19 55).
One line of invest iga tion with relevance to psychoth era p y is th e stud y
of what the TAT m ay assess in terms of th e "leve ls" or depth of personality
reac hed by different measures. Thus, Stone a nd Dellis (1960) found th a t
the TAT reached lowe r levels than an int e lli ge n ce test a nd a se nt ence
comp let ion test, but not as low as the Rorschach or the Draw-A-Person

73

Copyrighted Material
74 A Prac ti ca l G uide to the TAT

Tes t. In a som e wh a t re la te d stud y, Th e incr (1 9 62) found m o re acce pta bl e

n eed s ex pressed on a n in compit'te se nt e n ce tes t, with le ss a cce pta ble n eed s
ex pressed o n th e TAT (t he less structured meas ure ).
Th e TAT has al so been sugges ted as a u seful a djunct in marita l th e rap y
(Araoz, 197 2 ), a s useful in se leCling pe opit' lor group p syc hoth e rap y
(U llm a nn, 19 57 ), a nd al so as e lfective in qui ckl y cla rif yin g p syc hod y na mi c
iss u es in ve ry brief psychoth e rap y (Be ll a k, Abra m s, &. Acke rmann- En gel,
1992 ). Thi s la n e r use 01 th e TAT is ce rt a inl y q uit e rel evant to th e prese nt
tim e - a nd co st- con sciou s m e llla l h ea lth clim a te . Hol zbe rg ( 19 6 3 ) s ugges ted
usin g th e TAT to a ll o w pa ti e llls to practi ce "a d a ptive reg ress ion " in a sa le
a nd conlTolled situati o n. Arono w e t a l. (1 994 ) ha w used a Con se n su s TAT
in conjun CT ion with th e Con se n s u s Rorsc hac h to h e lp clarily coupl e d y-
n a mi cs . It mi g ht be u se ful to re ca ll th a t Morga n a nd Murray (1 93 5) , wh e n
first promul ga tin g th e TAT, recomm e nd e d its u se in cOlln ection with bri l' l
psychot he rap y.
Hoffm a n a nd Kuperm a n (1 99 0), in a rath e r crea ti ve stud y, prese nted a
silLl a tion in whi ch tw o co-th e ra pist s wrote their o w n TAT stori es to the
sam e ca rd s used b y a 13-yea r-old m a ll' subj ect. On e of til e th era pi sts e m-
ph as ized m a la dapt ive q ua lit ies of t h e boy's stori es wh il e th e ot he r thera -
pi st e mph aS ized h ea lth y as peCTS of the stori es. A joint di scu ss ion with th e
s ubj ect w as th e n he ld in whi ch th e bo y w as found to g ra vit a te to th e
h ea lthi e r a spects. Th e TAT was thu s u se d in thi s crea ti ve fas hion as a n
aCT ua l th e rape uti c tool. Thi s ec hoes a very ea rl y s ugges tion by Rosen zwe ig
( 194 8 ) in which th e subj ect coul d be c ncouraged to m a ke hi s or h er o w n
in tcrpreta tion s of TAT stories.
In our ex pe ri e n ce (exp ressed el sewh e re , Arono w e t a I. , 1994) proj ect ive
techniqu es ca n serve four prin cipa l lun ction s in th e psyc hoth e ra pe uti c
e nd eavo r:

I. A roa d m a p 01 d y na mi cs, confli cts, ego stre ngth s a nd wea kn esses, so-
cia l as pects of functionin g, a nd so Oil prior to th e on se t o f thera p y. Thi s
is, or course, the more tra dition a l use to w hi ch th e TAT a nd o th e r pro-
jecti ve techniqu es have bee n put in conn ecti o n w ith p sychoth e ra p y .

2. An assessment of prog ress, e ither durin g t he course or th e ra p y or a t th e

ve ry e nd . Th e la tte r ca n be parti c ul arly lI seful if th e re is a "before"
m eas u re to prov id e contras t.

3. A tec hniqu e to clarify bloc kages tll a t m ay o cc ur in th e course o f psy -

choth e ra p y th a t mi g ht otherwi se be impe n e tra bl e.

4 . An actu a l tool th a t ca n be lI sed lor in sight a nd chan ge in psyc hoth e ra p y

Copyrighted Material
 The TAT ill Psychotherapy 75

that occurs when th e therapi st sha res Th e int erpre ta tion of responses
with th e subj ect. Thi s last use of projective Tec hniqu es is, of co urse, th e
most demanding in te rm s of clini ca l skill a nd timing .

Th e first u se of th e TAT a nd oth er proj ecTi ve techniqu es is fa r from n ew.

We ha ve Tried to summ a ri ze such u se of th e techniqu e, particularly in
chap ters 3,5, and 6. Th e second use of th e TAT is exemplified in pa rti cul a r
in protocol # I , prese nte d in thi s chap te r. The subj ect was a college stud e nt
who was admini stere d th e TAT a nd oth er proj eCT ive a nd nonproj ect ive
techniqu es bo th before a nd afte r a co urse of psychothera py . The co ntras ts
see n in th e TAT sto ri es a re in str uctive in term s of the ch a n ges that oc-
curred in th e subj ect in th e int er im .
The third use noted-involving the id e ntifi ca tion of blockages in psy -
choth e ra py and the subseq ue nT brea kdown of th e blockages-is prese nt ed
in protocol # 2 in thi s chapt er. We wrote o f a simil ar li se of th e Rorsc ha ch
in s uch a cont ex t in our fortn e r vo lum e (A ronow et a I. , 1994 ) . It h as been
our experience t ha t this third Li se of projective techniques ofte n m e rges
with th e fourth sin ce it is the sha rin g of projective int e rpre ta tion s th a t
t ypi ca lI y brea ks the log ja m s.
The la lt er two L1ses of t he TAT a nd ot h e r proj ective tec h n iq Li es, repre-
sent something of a departure Irom th e tra diTion a l view of such tec hniques
as "tests." Nonet h e less, th e bl LI rrin g of bou nd a ri es betwee n th e eva l ua tion
a nd th e th e rape uti c process has a lon g history a nd h as rece ntl y becom e a
mLi ch m o re main strea m view in psychology.
The view of eva lu at ion as havi ng th e a bilit y to merge with and co ntrib-
ut e to the psychotherap y process ca n be sa id to date back a t least to the
writings of Jung (1 96 ]) , w ho w rot e about th e trea tm e nt of a sc hi zop hre ni c
woman in th e ea rl y 19005 . He indi ca te d th a t th e woman was give n feed-
back a bout association tes t perform a n ce and then quickly improved to the
point where she was a bl e to be di sch a rged from th e hospit a l. J un g lelt th a t
th e assess m e nt process enabled th e woman to tell h e r "secret stor y," which
t hu s began the psychotherapeutic process ror h er. Jun g IIIU S not e d Ih a t it
is difficult to di sce rn exactl y w h ere th e assess m e nt process e nd s a nd the
psyc hotherapy process begins.
In a 1960 a rticl e, Harrowe r sugges ted discussing sO lll e or th e pa ti e nt s'
proj ect ive tes t res ponses with th e m , a proced ure sh e ca ll ed "projective
coun sel in g." Thi s was clearly a break from th e lllore traditional a pproac h
as exe mplifi e d by Klop fer a nd Ke ll ey ( 1946), who warned or th e pot e ntia l
da m age th a t ca n be done by th e sha rin g of proj ective int e rpretat ion s with
cli e nts.
Over th e years a numbe r of o th e r a uthors report ed on th e posiTive co n-
seq uen ces of the sh a ring of clinical inform a tion a nd proj ecti ve a nd other

Copyrighted Material
76 A Practical Guide to the TAT

test data and interpretations with patients. These studies have included
the works of Appelbaum (1990); Aronow and Reznikojf (1971); Craddick
(1972, 1975); Fischer (1970, 1972); Gass and Brown (1992); Roth, Wolford,
and Meisel (1980); and Stein, Furedy, Simonton, and Neuller (1979).
Finn and Tonsager (1992) published a rather unique study in this re-
spect in that it constituted a strictly empirical study of the eflects of MMPI
test feedback. These authors based their feedback on their own "co ll abora-
tive model" of the process they developed. It was found in this study that
subjects given feedback reported a significant decrease in stress and an
increase in self -esteem. Interestingly, these positive effects of the feedback
were found to have increased two weeks aller the feedback was rendered.

[J Protocol # 1

The following are before a nd after psychot hera py TAT protocols from a
19- year-old college freshman, which two o[ the current authors had pre-
viously published (Aronow & Reznikoll 1971).
The client had presented at the university counseling center with symp-
toms of radical personality change, alienation from people, and growing
feelings of unreality. The cli ent came from a large family in which both
parents were alcoholics, with the fatller quite verbally and physically abu-
sive toward him. He was tested at the onset of therapy, and again after
seven months of once-per-week psychotherapy with the first author. Only
selected TAT stories are presented.

First Testing

Card 38M

When the police arrived they had to arrest the poor soul. He was to be
tried for suicide. The D.A. was running lor governor and needed a co nvi c-
tion so they were going to hold this guy for murder in the first degree. The
scene was in the courtroom: "They've just put the corpse on the stand. He
refused to talk and didn't request an attorney. He's been on a hunger
strike, but you bleeding hearts beller not feel sorry for him. He's a mur-
derer. We knew that he was planning to kill himself for SOIlle time now.
So it was contemplated and premeditated. (Pointing to the body) "Deny
that! I dare you! Silence proves your guil1." The D.A. smiles at the jury:
"Sure, he was depressed, but it' s our right to be depressed. Would any oj

Copyrighted Material
 The TAT in Psychotherapy 77

you have denied George Washington at Valley Forge his right 10 be de-
pressed? O[ course not! Did he shool himself? No. Can we lei this murder-
ous villain go out of here a free corpse 10 corrupt o ur soil? No." It was a ll
very effective and the jury brought in the verdict of "Guilty." The man was
sentenced to life in the state pen, but they let him go for good behavior.
Summary: A man who comm itted su icide is tried for murder and con-
v icted.

Card BBM

The linl e prince of Eston ia stood by watching the doctors operate to save
the life of a royal guardsman. "Certainly screams a lot, doesn't he'?" the
boy sa id. "He's not made of tough st uff, I guess." The doctor, having lis-
tened to this for the last hour, gripped the knife. He thought to himself:
"Let's have a look to see what yo u're made of. fresh punk." Then he sighed
and conti nu ed his work. The man holding the light was sharing in the
thoughts of the doctor. He too was a guard and knew it cou ld easi ly have
been him on the table. Being a guard to this cruel and unpopular prince
was no easy task. The man on the table asked the doctor: "My chances, my
chances ... " "Poor," came the slow reply. The little prince sneered: "You
don't deserve to speak, I a lmost was killed because of you." The dying
guard mustered hi s la st strength and rose from the table. "Give me that
knik. doctor." "What are you go ing to do?" Before the answer came, the
prince la y dead.
Summary: A dying guardsman murders an insensitive prince.

Card 9BM

In a depression, few men have jobs and these fe llows are no except ion.
Their spiri l to work had been robbed, so they returned to nature. They left
their homes and families in search of something. Who knows? They would
find it down th e road. They quickly spent their "fortunes" and found them-
se lve s hungr y. Five hungry men can be a problem. They knew they had to
eat or starve to death. They finally arrived at a so lution and if you look at
how many men there are in the picture you' ll know. Snake eyes don't
a lwa ys come up, but they sure did this time.
Summary: Hungry men during a depression eat one of their fellows.

Card 13MF

He knew sh e loved him. For over a year they had been planning to get
married. They had never slept together before, but this rime they would.

Copyrighted Material
78 A Practi ca l Guide to th e TAT

As he lay there in bed with h er. sh e said: "I lo ve yo u ." And h e knew it was
tr u e . He thou ght for a lon g mOl11ent. He t urn e d to her a nd slowly h e choked
her. As she died she sa id , "I lo ve yo u. " " I know, and you a lways wil l. " He
ca ll ed th e police and now stands over his love . He had h er love now and
cou ld never lose it. ("Kind of maudlin.")
Summary: Lovers have sex for the first time. and he murders her so h e
ca n n e ver lose her love.

Second Testi ng

Card 38M

Toy guns, a ll in fun, th e poor bo y shot him se lf. His head li es on th e bed, hi s
mother bore him to the bed. For hi s twelfth birthd ay, h e wanted a g un . His
mother bought him one, it wasn't real. "I w ish th is was a real gun," h e' d
often say. One day, h e got his wish and shO! hi mselL Moral: Don't wish
too hard for what yo u want, yo u might get it.
Summary: A boy w ishes for a gun, gets it. and is shot by it.

Card 88M
"Th is barn wasn't a lways an oJlera ting room," th e boy wh ispe red. "Once
there were cows and horses in here. Do you remember, fath e r?" The bo y's
father li es un the table. Moment s ago he had be e n shot accidenta ll y while
hunting. Doctor Sc hre id er. a veterinarian, was fortunately next door and
had come to h e lp . Now illook ed bad. The boy bit hi s lip nervous ly. "Father
w ill li ve, won't h e? I'm s ure the cows don't mind the noise." Hi s father
di e d ju st then. "I saw an old hoot owl in here. We'll have to chase hi m out,
he' s frightening the calves." The doctor t ried to te ll the boy, "Son, yo ur
father is d ea d." Th e boy w inced for a mom e nt, just a fl eeting second, and
contin u ed, "r don't think we' ll have rats aga in th is year. do you, fat h er?"
(I was kind to him thi s time.)
Summary: A father d ies in surgery by a ve terin arian after an accident.

Card 98M

He had just come upon th e scelle. Three bodi es lay in the clearing. He took
ou t hi s pad. "T hat makes seven, e ight a nd nin e. Nin e more we've found
today." He had an easy job as Offic ia l Calcu lato r of Corp i (plural of corpses)
for th e Un ion of Friend ly States. He enjoyed fo llowin g th e army to count
the dead, somehow it remind ed him of go ldfi sh in a bowl. He went on

Copyrighted Material
 The TAT in Psychotherapy 79

aways. Suddenly h e sme lled the familiar gas. "Over here," someone ye ll ed.
He became di zzy and co ll a psed. An officia l walked up to him. "A nd th at
makes 10."
Summary: A "body counter" in a war becomes one of th e casua lties .

Card 13MF

The sme ll of gas overwhelmed him as h e opened th e door. There on th e

bed lay the girl that he would have married. "W h y?" This was th e plagu-
ing question. We homo sap iens secretly rejoice in our guilt and flatter
ourse lves as the ca use of catastroph e. Openly we pound our chests and cry
"Mea culpa" wh ile we marvel at o ur strength. He was no different. A gleam
came to his eye as h e thou ght o f the reputation he had earned. ("Women
kill themse lves ove r Ron.") There la y the note. He opened it. "Dearest. I
co uldn 't go on livin g this li e. Forgive me, John." His face flu shed at thi s
humili ation. "Lousy bitch, " he murmured, and stormed o ut.
Summary: A man feels proud of his fiancee's suicid e, but then learns he
was betrayed.

Interpretation

In th e first test ing (before therapy) a number of themes are appa re nt. First.
there is a grand iose and removed-From-reality quality to some of the sto -
ries (card 38M, ca rd 88M). Further, there appears to be a strong conflict
with and hostility toward male a uthorit y (same cards). It is a lso unclear
with whom t h e client identifies in the story to S8M, not a healthy sign .
Also o n card SEM, there is grandios ity ("a prin ce") and the fee lin gs of low
se lf- wort h the gra ndiosity covers up (prince of what was then a non-
ex istent co untry). Th e sto ri es to all the cards are creative, but bizarre. Fin-
ishing it otl the story to card 13MF demonstrates an almost total lack of
trllst or abi lity to handl e intimate re lationships .
In th e second test in g (after seven months of psychot h erapy) unhealthy
trends are sti ll present. Thus, a ll stories st ill have an unhappy resolution.
The story to card 98M is sti ll somewhat bizarre (though perhaps not so bad
as canniba li sm). There is st ill anger at male a uthority (card SEM-fathe r
being trea ted by ve terinarian , fat h er'S death, comment of "I don't think
we'll have rats aga in " after fathe r'S death).
Some im provements, though, are worth noting. As ju st ment ion ed,
the stories have a less extreme and less bizarre quality. In addition, some
tenderness toward a father fi gure is expressed (card S8M). Perhaps most
impon ant, story th emes a re tess distanced from rea lity and gra ndiose,
now involvin g dramas between parents and a son (card 38M, ca rd 88M).

Copyrighted Material
80 A Practical Guide to the TAT

The client's clinical picture is consistent with the TAT changes, involv-
in g improvement in symptomatology but a continued need for psycho-
therapy.

Protocol # 2

The followin g is a Consensus TAT record of a professional couple in their

thirties, Mr. and Mrs. M., who were being seen in marriage co unse ling .
The presenting problems involved a difliculty in hi s being ab le to comm u-
nicate feelings, "para lys is" in his career. and her subt le derogation of him,
as well as the primary presenting problem-his unwillin gness to have chil-
dren a nd her in sistence on it (which in a way a lso might be conceptua li zed
as a paralysis on hi s part). He had kept putting her off on the issue of
having chi ldren for financial and other practical reasons, but now sh e re-
fused to wait any lon ger. Mr. M. a lso experie nced a loss of interest in sex,
w hi ch may have been related to the issue of having children.
Five cards of the TAT were cOllsensus-adm ini stered to the subjects be-
cause of the therapist's sense th at the counse ling of three mOllths duration
had become bogged down and that there was some logjam in the counse l-
in g, the nature of which was not readily apparent. Cards L 38M, 4, 68M,
and 78M were consensus-administered to the cou pl e-that is, the TAT
was only administered to them together in a session, without indi vidu a l
adm ini stratio ns preceding it. We have noted e lsew he re that adm ini sterin g
conse n sus projective techniques in this fa sh ion is quite practical and time-
effect ive (Aro n ow et a l., 1994).

Card 1

Mr. M.: 11 look s lik e the boy is trying to decide whether he wants to play
the violin.

Mrs, M,: His parents probably told him to practice, but h e wants to go out
to play with his friends. 1 think he'l l decide to practice.

Mr. M.: Yeah-he decides to play the violin, but he's not happy.

Card 38M

Mrs. M, : It looks as though someone is very depressed. Is that a knife on

the floor?

Copyrighted Material
 The TAT in Psychotherapy 81

Mr. M.: It look s lik e a guy who doesn't know what to do. Should he kill
hilllsell? He's 10m. Maybe his girlfriend just broke up with him.

Mrs. M.: l think that this person, with time, recovers. Nothing drastic hap-
pens-it will a ll end up okay.

Mr. M.: I'll go with that story.

Card 4

Mrs. M.: It looks lik e he 's turning away- he doesn't want

to talk to her.
Maybe he's having an affair and she wants to confront him.
They're both angry.

Mr. M.: I don't see that. I think that so m ething is bothering him and he
JUSt wants to be left alone.

Mrs. M.: Maybe we could just say that she has something sh e wants to
talk to him abo ut and he doesn't want to li sten .

Mr. M.: Yeah, I co uld go with that.

Card 6BM

Mr. M.: It's a guy and his mother-he just told her some bad news. Maybe
the father ju st had a h eart attack and died. They both look very
sad.

Mrs. M.: They both look stunned . There's a lot to be sa id , and st uff to be
done-but right now th ey' re both paralyzed. But they'll get over
it with the passage of time .

Mr. M.: Sounds okay to me .

Card 7BM

Mrs. M.: It look s lik e a father tr ying to talk to hi s son-give advice-the

son is listenin g.

Mr. M.: (After a lon g pause) . I don't see that. It looks more lik e the older
guy is just selfish and thi s kid is go ing to suffer. He hates him. He
JU St wants him to go away.

Mrs. M.: I see it differently-they look like a father and son talking .

Copyrighted Material
82 A Practical Guide to the TAT

Mr. M.: Well, I do. (Mr. M. seems ag it ated and the y do not reach consen-
s us. )

Interpretation

Certa in themes a re evident in this TAT protocol. First, Mrs. M. seems most
interested in their reaching a consensus and in stories reaching a "happy"
resolution. Her desire to reach co nsensus w ith the husband is most evi-
dent Oil card 4, and sh e eve n seeks to do so on ca rd 78M, thou gh here
w ithou t sllccess. Other th emes evideIH in clude Mr. M.'s unhappiness (card
I. card 4, card 78M), the wife's expression of the cur rent paralysis in th e
relat ion ship (card 38M), Mrs. M.'s desire to cOJllmunicate and the hu sba nd 's
reluctance to do so. Overall, an interest in g record, butl10thing really new.
Following this sess iol1 , however, the husband reques ted an individu a l
sessiol1. In this sess ion , he revealed something that he had not spoken 01
when hi s individu a l hi story was taken-namely, that as a littl e boy he had
been sexua ll y abused on two occasions by two different men. He h ad never
spoken of t hi s to anyone. In s ubsequeIH individual sessions, he was ab le to
relate this to doubts about hi s masculine identity, distrust of others, a nd
after some time h e a lso spoke of a fear that because this had happened to
him he might in turn sexua ll y ab use his own chi ldren. While these issues
might h ave come out later in the therapy, th e TAT procedure clearly facili-
tated the broaching of this major area w ithout wh ic h the counse lin g lik e ly
would have stalled and wou ld have ended unsuccessfully. Individual psy -
chotherapy for the hu sba nd was then added as an adjun ct to the marital
sess ioll s with faster progress thell being made.

Copyrighted Material
I ntegrati ng the TAT into a
Test Report

This chapter wi ll sUlllma ri ze how the information obtained through the

TAT can, a long with mat e rial from other psychologica l tests, be organ ize d
and written into an effect ive test report. First. an examp le of an outline of
a report w ill be d escribed, a long with pot en ti a l sources of information fo r
each section of the report . Th en, recommendations for enhancing the ef-
fect iveness and readability of reports w ill be discu ssed . The chapter e nds
with a brief discu ss ion of computer-generated reports.
Writing a psychological re port is a difficult task. It requires the examiner
to make sense of a great deal of information (some o f which may see m
con tradictory). find a way to coherent ly organize the data, s u mmarize the
important points, and communicate the resuits. A good report is one that
helps th e read er get a fe e l for what it is lik e to be w ith th e su bj ect and how
th e subject experiences the world. This is a comp lex task, as human ex p e -
rience and interaction is obvious ly no s imp le matter.
Deve loping a strategy for orga ni zing th e materi a l to be written up is of
grea t ass istance to the w riter. The fo ll owin g is an exa mple of an outlin e
with which to systemat ica ll y arrange the material in to an effective report.
Th is outline includ es a tremendous amount of in format ion , not a ll of wh ich
n eeds to be addressed in anyone test report. On th e other hand, there
may be ot h er fruitful topics to includ e in psycholog ica l reports that are not

83

Copyrighted Material
84 A Practical Gu ide to the TAT

covered here. This sample outline is int ended as an example on ly . The

sty le of the report and the information to be included will undoubtedly
vary by the setti ng in which it is wr itten and by the purpose for which it
wi ll be used.

------,
~
I
Outline of a Psychological Report

I. Demographic Data

In a heading, include the name of subj ect, name of examiner. date(s) of

examination, date of birth.

II. Tests Administered

List a ll the tests adm ini stered in the current assessme nt battery. If app li-
cable, cite the reference 0/ the scoring system(s) emp loyed.

III. Referral Question and Brief Background Information

State who referred the subject lor eva lu ation, and the reason for referral.
Often directly quoting the referral source or the questio n to be answered is
most effective. Also include, without going int o extensive detail, a state-
men t regarding the su bject 's ed ueat ion, occu pa tion, 111 a rita I status, ll1edi-
cations and dosages, treatment history, past traumatic events, and any
other special circulllstances th at warrant further exp loration and may im-
pact on test interpretation.

IV. Behavioral Observations

The exam in er should summarize his or her clini ca l observations of the

subject's behavior during assessment. Was there anything unusua l or strik-
ing about the subj ect's appearance? To what extent was the subject coop-
erative a nd attentive? Was his or her behavior variable? What affects were
expressed? What was the subject's attitude toward the test materials
and the examiner? Was anything noteworthy regard in g the subject's body
language?

Copyrighted Material
 Integrating the TAT into a Test Report 85

This section 11<.'lps the subject of the report "come to life" for the
reader, as well as providing a context for interpretation of test material.
Generally, this section should focus on demeanor, ve rbalizations outside
of formal test responses, and general behavior. Interpretation of these ob-
servations should be made in conjunction with test results in the next
section.

v. Interpretation of Test Findings

This is the main section of the report. Here the writer will present the
results of the psychological assessment and attempt to flesh out hypoth-
eses about their meaning. The interpretation section is best organized by
areas of the subject's functioning, as opposed to being organized by test.
For example, all information pertaining to the subject's achievement mo-
t ivation shou ld be presellled together, combining fi ndings from t he va ri-
(Jus tests given. This adds to the presentation of a meaningful, coherent
picture of the subject. The writer is encouraged to integrate material from
different tests and make conclusions about each area of functioning. An-
other significant advantage of this type of organization is that it empha-
sizes the point that the report is about a person, not about assessment
instruments. The report should focus on the individual tested, rather than
the test material. When mentioned, the test materia l should only be used
as supporting evidence. For example, it is more effective to state, "Mr. D.
appears to have angry feelings, as reflected in the arguments in his TAT
stories," than, "the TAT stories included many arguments, showing a lot of
anger." The former is person-focused, the latter test-focused.
The number of areas one could potentially discuss in this part of the
report is infinite. The following provide examples of several areas to ad-
dress; however, the referral question shou ld ideally determine what needs
to be included and what is emphasized in any psychological report.

A. Intellect/Cognitive Functioning
What is the examiner's best estimate of the subject's ability level? If formal
cognitive assessment was performed, results shou ld be presented here. A
profil e of strengths and weaknesses should be described, if available. If no
tests with normative comparisons were administered, intelligence can be
roughly estimated as below average, average range, or above average based
on vocabulary used during assessment and educationa l attainment.
What is the subject's level of ambition or asp iration? Information re-
garding this area can often be obtained, for examp le, by looking at re-

Copyrighted Material
86 A Practical Gu ide to th e TAT

sponses to TAT cards I and 2, th e perce nt age of whole respon ses on the
Rorsch ach , em ph as is on h eads on fi gure drawings, and observations of the
subj ect's diligence in working on the assessment tasks in gene ral. The de-
gree of cons istency among the subj ect's a pparent int e lli ge n ce, amb iti o n
le ve l, and occupation m ay be noteworthy.
In this sect ion , th e exam iner may a lso com m ent on th e s ubj ect's
cogn it ive sty le, or strategy lor approac hin g tasks. Th is is prim ar il y revealed
by the process by which the subj ect creates th e sto ri es, rathe r than the
content. Fo r examp le, a re the stori es logicaJ7 Are th ey particularly con -
cre te or abst ract? Are th ey we ll organized or h aphazard? Does the subject
loc u s on details or the total picture? Inform at ion rega rdin g cogn it ive style
sho uld be integrated w ith evidence from other tes ts, s uch as the locat ions
u sed most often on the Rorschach, planning ab ilit y on the Bend er Visual-
Motor Gesta lt Test, and sty le of a ttemptin g tasks on formal in te lli gence
tes ts.

B. Affect

The predominant affects exper ie n ced a nd expressed by th e subject sh o uld

be described. For examp le, does th e subj ect seem sad, bored, content, pen-
sive? Where does the su bject li e on the co ntinuurn between e motion a ll y
lab il e and affect ive ly flat? Sources of information regarding the subj ect's
affect can be obtained frolll th e exam in er's clinica l obse rvat io n s a n d from
projective material. On the TAT stor ies, the exam in er sh o uld look a t th e
emot ion s most frequently dernonstra ted by the TAT characters , and possi-
bly wha t triggers various affect ive responses. The a ppropri ateness of the
affects to the situ ations being described should be cons id ered . Degree oj
emot ion a l reactivity can be seen by response to potentially more st imul at-
ing TAT cards, such as 13BM. The exam in er may a lso cons id er facial ex -
pression on figure drawings, use of co lor on the Rorschach, and score on
Scale 2 of the MMPI-2 , w hi ch is associated w ith depression.

C. Self-Regard
How the subj ect feels about him- or herself is an area th a t ha s ramifica-
tions [o r diagnosis and treatment planning. Looking at how the cent ra l
characters in the TAT stories are depicted will often a llow the examiner to
make a statement abo ut the subject's se lf- es teem an d degree of se lf-
criticism. For exa mpl e, a re the c haracters competent? How do they react
to making mistakes? Do thin gs work out for th e m ? How do o th e r charac -
ters view t h em? To corrobora te this informat ion the exam in er can, for
examp le, a lso look to the size a nd pl aceme nt of fi gure drawings and, per-

Copyrighted Material
 Integratin g th e TAT into a Test Report 87

h a ps most importa ntl y, th e subj ect's comm e nts about hi s or her own p e r-
fonn a n ce durin g testin g.

D. Object Relationships

Th e ri ch es t in format ion prov id e d b y t h e TAT rega rd s to t h e subj ect's re la-

tion ship s w ith others. Inform a tion fwm th e TAT m ay be suppl e m e nt ed
w ith th e exa min e r 's ob se rva tion s of th e s ubj ect 's re la tedn e ss durin g
tes tin g a nd all"itud e to w ard th e exa mine r as a n exa mple of a n a u thorit y
figur e. Rel a tion ship s w ith diffe rent types of fi g ures, s uch as pe ers a nd pa r-
e lli S, a nd a llitud es towa rd those re la tion ships should be d escrib ed .
For exa mple , th e subj ect 's rel a tion shi p w ith th e mother ca n be inferre d
by int erpre tin g res pon ses to old e r fem a le li g ures on th e TAT, su ch as in
ca rd s 2, 5, 6 BM , a nd 7G F. Respon ses to ca rd s th a t d e pi ct old e r m a le s, su ch
as 6G F a nd 78M , ca n revea l so m e thin g a bout th e subj ect's re la tion ship
w ith th e la th e r. Inte rpre ta tion s ca n be ch ecke d aga in st Se nt e nce Comple-
tion Tes t respo n ses ta ppin g fee lin gs to wa rd m oth e r a nd lather, a nd po ss i-
bl y b y res pon ses to wh a t has bee n la be led th e n1llther card (ca rd VII ) a nd
th e fa th er ca rd (ca rd IV ) on th e Rorsch ac h.
Pa tt e rn s a nd pe rce ptio ns of re la ti o n ship s w ith pee rs of th e sa me a nd
opposit e sex should be comm e nt e d on (ca rd s 9 BM , 9G F, 4 , a nd 13MF,
respecti ve ly) . Do es the subj ect see m to be act ive or pass ive w ith oth ers'
Do th e s ubj ect 's so cia l skill s see m a dequ a te? Wh a t a re th e domin o nt otti-
tud es to wa rd rel a tion ships in ge n e rol? Are th ey d es ired or ovoid ed ? Are
th ey see n a s hav ing positive or n ega ti ve e ffects on th e s ubj ect? Wh ot d e -
gree 0/ d e pe nd e n cy in re la tioll ship s is ex pre ssed ? A re dilfi c ul tie s resol ved
b y oth e rs or th e sel l? Wh a t a re th e reactioll s to wa rd rel a tion ship s e ndin g'
Wh a t a re th e topi cs of th e confli cts? How im porl ollt a re re lotion ship s to
the subj ect'
Deg ree of intro ve rsion o r e xtro ve rsion a nd com fon in so ciol situ otion s
ca n a lso be eva lu a ted b y lookin g a t th e subj ec t's sco re on Sca le 0 (S o cia l
Introvers ion ) of th e MMPI -2, whil e Sca le 6 (Paranoi o) ca n prov id e som e
in sigh t into th e subj ect's trll st in int erpe rson a l rela tion ships (B ut ch e r, 199 0 ).

E. Diagnostic Aspects

In thi s se cti o n , th e exa min er should s umm a ri ze inform a tion a bout th e

s ubje ct th a t ha s di ag llosti c impli ca tion s. Inform a ti o n sh o uld be integ rote d
from va riou s te sts a nd severa l sources of in form a tion . Wh a t a rc th e Jreas
of th e s ubje ct' s conflict s a nd a n xieti es? Wh at a re th e prim ory de fe n se s or
co pin g m ec ha ni sm s lI sed to d ea l w ith a n x ie ti es a nd co nfli cts a nd ho w s u c-
cess ful a re these stra tegies? A sta te m e nt may be ma de abo ut th e s ubje ct's

Copyrighted Material
88 A Pra cti ca l Guide to the TAT

ties to rea lity, based on how realistic the stories are a nd how accurately
the visual stimuli are perceived.
Additional evidence from th e Rorschach is very helpful h e re. What is
the subject's degree of control o ver hi s or her impulses! What is the subject's
leve l of maturity ? How mllch insight does the subject have into his or her
own personality and conflicts? MMPI-2 scores on Scales 1 (Hypochondria-
sis), 2 (Depression), ) (Hysteria), 4 (Psychopathic Dev iate), 6 (Paranoia), 7
(Psychasthenia), and 8 (SchilOphrenia) arc also va lu able sources of cor-
roborative evidence, panicularl y when interpreted as a prolile (see Butcher,
19 9 0, for an introduction to profile interpretatioll).
Even more thall ill other Me<lS of the psychological report, one should
take great care ill the d iagllOstic section not to make statements that go
beyond the purposes of the tests used or e xcee d the inlorrnatioll obt,lined
Irolll the elata. All diagnostic inlormJtion should be back e d lip b y other
sources of data including other tests, behavior observation s, and bJckground
informatioll, Jnd shou ld be consistent with the subject's clJ y -to-d ay level
ollunction i ng.
Depending on the rclelTJI question and the setting in which th e report
is written, the exa miner mJl' choose to oller a diagno stic impression
or outline a dilTere ntial diJgnosis. For e X(l mpic, this mJ Y be more appro-
priate in J hospital settillg, where the ps yc hological assessment will be
directl y used in treatment plJnning, thJn in J school setting, where confi-
dellliJ lit y of the report will likel y be sOll1ewhJt limited.

F. Strengths
Every psychologica I report shou ld spea k to the su bject '5 srrt'ngt hs. The
eXJllliner should in corporate pos itive JSI1l'cts of test findings throughout
the report, but mJY also c hoose to briefl y sUll1marize such cJpacities Jt the
cOlllpletion 01 the interpretation section. This helps to temper the COIll-
Illonplace andunfortunJte tendency to patllOlogi ze th e subject. Exa mples
of strengths to highlight here includ e intelligen ct' level, aspiration level,
leve l of contro l over impulses, personalit y chMacteristics, in sight, and tie s
to reality. The eXJminer call J lso idelltily circumstances und e r which the
subject's lunctioning seelllS to be mJ x imized . C larifying the s ubject's
strengths is generally helpful in treatl11ent plJnning.

VI. Summary

A bri e f s ummary of th e main points of the ps yc hological assessment find-

ings should appear at the end of th e report. As in the int e rpretation sec-

Copyrighted Material
 Integrating the TAT into a Test Report 89

tion, the summary should focus on the indi vidual tested, not the tests
themselves. New material should clearly not be introduced at this point;
only information disclosed earlier shou ld be included. In the summary,
the referral question, index scores from standardized tests, and th e most
salient psychodynamic findings shou ld be restated. The writer should keep
in mind that this may be the only section read by a busy professional;
therefore, it should outline a ll of the most important points and offer a
balanced view of the subject.

VII. Recommendations

The examiner shou ld carefu ll y consider th e test findings and oller recom-
mendJtions regJrding the refelTJI question. Addit ion a ll y, the examiner
lllay suggest further JSSeSslllent of problem areas. Illlpli cations for treJt-
lllent plJnning can be of/ered, including what type of therapy may be
most appropriate for the s ubj ect, or how the subject's individual strengths
CJn be used to work on his or her areas oj weakness. Specifi c. prJcticJI
suggestions are lllOst VJl uJblc.

I I Additional Suggestions for Effective Report

Writing

The following JIT sugge~l ion s Illal will enllance till' efIeClivt'nl'ss of till'
psychological report. They primarily reflect general issues to keep in mind
throughout the process oj int erpretJt ion oj test datJ, orgJnization of J
report, and actua l report wri tin g. Many of these points have been raised
e lsewhere (Aronow, Reznikoll &. MorelJnd, 1994; Tallent, 1993; Teglasi,
1992). Addressing the following issues of organization, VJ li d it y. and com-
l1lunicJtion sJtisfacror il y will lik ely increase the usefulness of th e report
Jnd rcnder it eJs ier to digest by the reader.

Organization

Take the time to organize the material for the report before writing it. A
detailed outline is a tremendous asset in that it helps the writer to sec
relationships among the different domains of the subject's functioning.
Contradictions in the data may emerge, and can be reconciled at this point.
"Exp lanatory hypotheses" shou ld be formulated based on the interpretive

Copyrighted Material
90 A Prac ti ca l Guide to th e TAT

analyses. Th ese ex plain the reasons for the subject's feelings, re lationships,
and conllicts, and foster understanding of the plTse nting problems (Teglasi.
1992). One should try to clarify the findings and create an integrate d ,
complete picture of the individual subject. A string of statements that are
not re lated to each other should be avoided. While organizing the report ,
the writer decides which interpretations to include and exclude; evaluates
how much e mphasis to place on th e m, ba sed on th e ir relative impor-
tance; and synthesizes the findings into a coherent summary of the person
tes ted .

Maximizing Validity

There are seve ral aspects of report writing that inlluence the va lidit y of the
end product. It is important to remembe r to integrat e findings with the
s ubject' s history, background information, and life evenls. Th e te st report
should not appear to have been written in a vacuum, but rath e r in th e
context of an individual's life. Consider a lt ernat ive exp lanations for th e
s ubject's responses and behavior. In cluding the subject's perspective helps
in crease understanding of th e indi vidua l (Teg la si, (992). Rem e mbe r to
includ e the subject's areas of strength, not only patho logy .
A difficult aspect of report writing that pertains to the va lidit y of the
re port is th e confidence with which interpretive statements, diagnostic
impressions, and recom mendat ions a re made. La nguage chosen shou ld
appropriate ly rerI ect th e level of certainty of till' exa miner in making state -
ments about the s ubject. For ex ample , the writer should choose carefu ll y
among phrases such as, "it lllay be thaI," "it appears thac" "ev id ence sug-
gests thaI," "it is quite certain thaI," or "there is strong indication that."
The choice should be base d on the ava il abil it y of supporting data, princi-
pally tes t material, but other information JS we ll. Ove rinterpretation of
data and unwarrant ed authoritative statemenTS reflect irresponsibl e use of
the test materi a ls and the eXJm in er's role. It can be appropriate to offer
speculat iolls, but they should a lways be labeled as such.
Caution shou ld a lso be taken not to err on the opposite ext reme, ex-
press ing too littl e confidence ill one's findings. Writers who hedge too Illuch
undermine their own work by making it appeJr that th e report is purely
spec ulative and baSically of no usc at all. Evaluat in g on e's own level of
c e rtainty when pr ese nting interpretation s and opinions is one
of th e most difficult aspects of report writing for th e novice, and even for
th e more experienced psycho logist. Feedback from supervisors should
be helpful in s triking an Jppropriatc balance betw ee n over- and
u nderconfidence .

Copyrighted Material
 Integrating the TAT into a Test Report 91

Optimize Communication

A psychological test report that is logically presented and easily read and
undersrood, will obviously have the greatest impact. One of the issues
affecting the readability of the report is whether to, and, if so, how to
include raw data and technical terms. The following guidelines will help
the report flow with minimal interruption. It is recommended that the
individual tested should always be the major focus with raw data from the
test material. such as quotes and examples, primarily used to support in-
terpretations and hypotheses. This material should not be the central topic
of discussion. If tests were formally scored, scores can be reported in a
separate section, either before the interpretation of the results, or in an
appendix. Technical terms should usually be avoided.
The writer should keep in mind the setting in which the report is writ-
ten and the audience for whom the report is wrilten. Are the potential
readers familiar with psychological assessment instruments and psycho-
logical terms? Will the report be available only to professionals, or to the
subject. or to the family of the subject? These questions will guide word
choice in many instances. Specific technical data, such as scores and ratios,
should only be cited when the report is written in a learning context.
Another common issue that arises in report writing has to do with the
appropriate length for psychological reports. Obviously, there is no hard
and fast rule regarding report length. Acceptable length commonly varies
with the working culture of the setting for which the report is written.
More important than length are good organization, focus, and relevance.
However, complaints by readers that reports are too long clearly outnulll-
ber resentments about brevity (Tallent, 1993). Reports that are too long
run the risk of not being read, only having the summary section read, or,
at minimulll, not being read carefully. Important findings can be diluted
by being immersed in too much relatively trivial or tangential material.
This risk can be reduced by carefully tailoring the report to the referral
question, and only adding other findings that are particularly striking.
Avoiding wordiness is advised (see Williams, 1989, for excellent instruc-
tion in clear. concise writing).
Finally, reports should always be carefully proofread for errors in spell-
ing, syntax, and gramma r. These kinds of mistakes take away from the
professionalism of the report and can make the content seem unreliable as
well. One should proofread beyond using spell-check and grammar-check
programs of word processing programs.

Copyrighted Material
92 A Practi ca l Guide to th e TA T

Computer-Generated Reports

It is becomin g more commoll to u se comput e rs to a utom a te va riou s as -

pe cts o f psycholog ica l assess m e nt. While comput e rs initi a ll y w e re used for
th e more stra ig htforward tas ks of a dmini stration a nd scoring, th ey la te r
bega n to be u sed for th e more clini ca l tas ks of int e rpre ta tion a nd re port
w ri tin g. Th e first comput er ized int e rpre ta tion of tes ts bega n a t th e M ayo
Clini c, for th e MMPI (Rom e, Mataya, Pea rson , Sw e nson , & Bra nni ck, 1965).
A comput e ri zed inte rpre ta tion sys te m lor a p roj ecti ve tes t, th e Rorsc hac h ,
was d e ve loped by Piotro ws ki ( 1964 ). Ex n er ( 1974 ) a lso d e ve lop e d a com-
pu te ri ze d inte rp re ta tion sys te m for th e Rorsc ha ch based on hi s COlllprl'-
h e n sive Sys te m .
The prese nt cha pter w ould be re mi ss if it d id not bri e fl y address com -
put e r-ge n e ra te d psyc hologica l re port s, a lthou g h , a t thi s tim e, we a re un-
awa re of a n y progra m s th a t int e rpre t th e TAT or w rit e re po rt s in cludin g
TAT ma teri a l. C urre n t sta ndard s sta te that fin a l res pon sibilit y fo r th e qu a l-
it y a nd va lidit y of the re port s lies w ith prac tition e rs w ho use s uc h re ports
(A m erica n Psyc holog ica l Asso cia tion , 1966 ); thcrdore, it is import a m for
teste rs a nd con s umers of psyc holog ica l assess m e nt se rv ices to be aware of
th e popular controve rsie s in thi s a rea. Iss ues th a t commonl y a ri se in con-
sid e ra tion of comput er-ge nera ted re port s includ e wh e th e r computers "d e -
hum a ni ze " t he assessm e nt process, e thi cal impli GHion s, qu a lifi cation s fo r
use of Th ese re port s, a nd till' va lidit y 01 th e re port s (see Fo w ler, 1985, for a
d isc u ss ion of eac h o lth ese iss u es).
Mo st com puter -ge n e ra ted re port s are e ith er: (a) d escription s 01 o bt J in e d
scores, (b ) mode led a lter the jud g n1l' ntJI pro cess 01 ex pe rt tes t int e rpre t-
ers, or (c) based on sta ti sti ca l pre d iction (B ut che r, Kell e r, & Bacon , 1985) .
Th e descripti ve re port s a re bJs icJ ll y s ummari es th a t do not strJ Y la r Iro m
th e tes t d ata . Th ey save tim e lor the l'xJ !l1in e r w hile minimi zin g a more
subj ect ive int erplT tJ ti ve pro cess; ho w e ver, their simpli cit y m ay n o t be
suffi cie nt for a n swe rin g l1lore cOIllple x rd crra l qu es tio ns . Co mputer t"(' -
ports th a t atte mpt to mimi c hi g h -qu a lit y interpre ta tion s of sk ill e d clini-
cian s ca n be potentiall y very u sd ul; ho wever, thi s ass um es th a t th e m e th-
od s ca n be a d e qu a tel y tra nsla ted into a comput er prog ra m (Ho fer & Gree n,
1985). It is import a nt to kno w w hi ch ty pe of inte rpre ta tion -cl ini ca l
or act u a ri a l- is u se d w h e n se lectin g a comput e ri ze d sys te m of re port
w ritin g.
Whil e th e a d va ntages of comput e r- ge n e ra ted re ports a re not ew orth y
(e ffi cie n cy, pote nti a l for hi g h qu a lit y, av oid a nce of indi vidu a l biases 01
exam ine r ), th e re a re di sa d va nt ages of w h ich use rs of these prog ra m s should
be awa re . De lega tin g a dmini stration to a compu te r d e p rives th e exa min er
of importa nt o bserva ti o n s of th e s ubj ect 's be hav ior th a t ca n pro v id e infor-

Copyrighted Material
 Integratin g th e TAT into a Test Report 93

m a tion regardin g hi s or he r re lated n ess, a tte ntion , motivat ion , a nd se lf-

stJt e m e nt s. Attention should be paid to th e differences ca used b y va riou s
mod es or tes t J dmini stration , s uch as anxiety in subjects not famili a r with
computers (Hofer & G ree n , 1985).
There a re dange rs of co mput e r-ge nerated re po rts that ste lll fwm the
rel at ive eJse of aVJ il a bilit y of the progra ill s. While th ey should not be used
by unquJlili ed perso n s, there is no c1eJr poli cy d e fining minilllum q ua lifi-
catio n s. It has been purport e d that th e re ports should onl y be used by
those who would be otherwise qu a lilied to int e rpre t test dat a-so th a t he
or sh e CJn critica ll y l'valu J te th e a ppropriat e ne ss of th e report s for th e
individuJI client-taking into consid erat ion norm s, bac kgro und informa-
tion , Jnd new resea rch (Holer & G ree n , 1985) .
Seve ra l cOllsiderJtion s Me re levant to choos in g to u se a cOlllput e r-Js-
sisted testing sys tem . The use r should consider th e cred e ntials of th e system's
Juthor, the popul a tion on which the sys te m was d eve lope d , and scholarly
rev iews of th e sys te m, a nd th e n should co ndu ct brief tri a ls using th e sys-
te m on subjects well kno w n to the use r (Moreland, 1992 ). More land CJU-
tion s that cOlllputer-assisted test interpreta tion s a re not good a t pred ictin g
rare e ve nt s, a nd are not adept at int e rpre ting unu s ua l c lini ca l profiles.
Clinicians u sing these progra ms should also be critical of interpre ta tion s
based on scores th a t a re nea r c utoff scores . In ge n e ra l, we a dvocate the
view th a t compute r-ge n e rated test inte rpretati o n s m ay be an e ffi cient test -
ing tool in the hand s of a sk ill ed clinician, if used carefull y a nd critically.
However, validity studi es a re sore ly lacking at this point.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
Sample Protocols

r.-: Protocol # 1

Th e firs t s ubjeCl is a 15- yca r-old w hite m a le (B ill J .) w ho was re icrred lor
psyc holog ica l testin g in conn ection w ith d ecision s t h a t n ee de d to be m a d e
a bout hi s dia g nosis a nd Il1 cd iC:llion. He h a d bee n in p syc h o thera py off a nd
o n for Ill a n y ycars, be in g trea te d fo r d e press ion . Rece ntl y th e re ha d bee n
sOlll e ac tin g out of a n ger in a violent way in hi s fa mil y a nd a lso w ith fri e nd s.
Hi s school g ra d es h a d a lso de teriora te d in th e pas t yea r. Hi s prese nt thera-
pi s t s u spe ct e d a po ss ible u nd e rl y in g psyc hoti c d iso rd er in a ddition to d e -
pre ss ion , w hi c h was th e precipit at in g fac tor for th e prese nt tes tin g. Th l'
p,l ti e nl was a dmini s tered the TAT as pa rt o f a full ball ery of tes ts, inc/ud -
i n g t h e Rorsch ac h Tec h n iq u e, t h e Fig ure Dra w i ng Tes t. a nd ot h ers .

Card 1

Th e kid look s lik e hi s v io lin brok e, and he 's sa d o ve r it - h e's torturin g

him self by look in g a t th e v io lin. I g u ess h e droppe d it. a nd h e's ll1 a d a t
him se lL He's lookin g a t it so th a t he ca n puni s h him se lf, to rture him se lf for
d ro ppin g it. (Ho w d oes it w ork out ? ) He's not goin g to ge t a ne w v iolin .

95

Copyrighted Material
96 A Practi cal Guide to th e TAT

He's afraid that he'll drop it again. He had a great talent, but now he'll
never play it again.
Summary: A very talented boy drops his violin, wants to torture himself
for this, and never plays again.

Card 2

This looks like a young wom a n and her mother. It looks li ke the mother is
getting in the way of the young woman. The young woman does n't want
the mother to get into her life anymore. There's a se rvant in the back-
ground. The mother think s that the girl and him will fall in love. The
mother doesn't want it to happen. The young girl hates the mother, but
she doesn't want to show it. She's going somewhere with he r books. Sh e's
going off to do her own thing, not what th e mother told her to do. The
mother knows what she is doing, she enjoys making her daughter mad.
She's sitting back and smiling. (How does it work out?) They'll always
hate each other. When she moves out. she'll neve r like her mother or see
much of h e r mother.
Summary: A mot her enjoys blocking her da ughter's asp iration, the da ugh-
ter moves out, and th ey always hate eac h other.

Card 3BM

Thi s looks lik e a woman crying on her bed. It look s lik e the woman is
married to a guy who is a busing he r. She ca n't divorce him and she does n 't
know what to do . She's afra id she'll be with him the rest of her life. which
she probably will.
Summary: A crying woman married to an abusive Illan is afraid to leave
him.

Card 6BM

This guy looks lik e he's angered-he knows that he did something wrong
to his mother-he 's depressed that he did it a nd sorry but he does n ' t want
to say anything . The woman never saw h e r son act this way-it's a sur-
prise to her. He feels bad but he won't apologize. He doesn't want to give
in. He won ' t apologi ze to his mom but she knows that h e's apo logetic at
the moment.

Copyrighted Material
 Sample Protocols 97

Summary: A man did somet hin g wrong to his mother but doesn't want
to a pologize .

Card 7BM

These two guys are scu lll-th ey're involved in some illegal act. They're
ju st whispering something, to do somet hing-"We' ll do somet hin g illegal,
and get a lot of money." The guy at the bottom doesn ' t wa nt to do it, he
looks rebellious but he knows that they'll kill him if he doesn't. The old
guy looks lik e he's been doin g it a ll hi s life . He knows th e yo un ge r gu y will
get in trou ble, but he doesn't care.
Summary: Two crimina ls are planning a crim e, and the older one doesn ' t
ca re if the yo un ger one gets in troubl e .

Card 13B

This kid li ves in a poor hom e-the lam ily doesn't want him in th e ho use.
He wants to go some place where he can think things over. When he gets
money, hi s pare nts take it away fwm him. He'll be rich and famous as an
adu lt and they'll want help and he won 't help th em . He ha s friends so
that's how he gets by thi s period of hi s life.
Summary: Parents don ' t want to help a poor child and w he n he becomes
success ful he doesn't help them.

Card 13MF

This g uy looks lik e he j ust killed his w ife-no, he wa lk ed into th e room

and saw hi s wife dead . He's about to ca ll the police. His life wi ll be messed
u p from then on because of this tragic thing that happened to him. (How
does it work out?) He'll be depressed for th e rest of his li te-h e' ll live like
a hermit.
Summary: A man finds his wife dead and never recovers from it.

Card16

There are two yo ung kids arguing, it looks like they' re about to get into a
hu ge light. The kids will beat the crap out of each other. Probably o n e will

Copyrighted Material
98 A Practi ca l Guide to th e TAT

die, and his family w ill get rl'vcnge a nd kill the other onl' and thcn evc ry -
thing w ill be even.
Summary: Two chi ldren fight and onc d ies, th c n the family gets reve nge.

Interpretation

In this pati e nt' s TAT sllnil's, ce rt ain themes repea t themselves. The stories
depict sit u a ti ons o f fai lure (not ab ly card I ); conflict w ith a lmost everyone,
but particu la rl y with au thorit y figures; a nd a de press ive, pessimistic, hope-
less out look regarding the future.
At one po in t anger is see n as d irected in wa rd (card I) and at anothe r
point th e patie nt is able to change a story in which the male protagonist is
vio lent to a story in which he is not (I3MF). In one ca rd , some tenderne ss
toward the mother fig ure is ex pre sse d (card 6BM). Remarks on card I
("torturin g himself") suggest a directing of a nger inward. Lack of confi-
dence in th e self is a lso pronoun ce d (card I ). The very strong and some-
what perseverative v iew of others as highly nega tive toward him suggests
that proj ection is being used. A genera l view olthe parents as malevolent
is apparent (cards 2, 138). Peers a re seen in more positive term s (ca rd
138) .
It should be note d tha t in other tests (notably the Rorsch ac h ) admi ni s-
tered to thi s pat ie n t extens ive use of projection is see n as well as genera ll y
poor ego -function ing consistent w ith psychosis . The gcnera l diagnostic
impress ion is one of Schizophrenia, Paranoid Type .

Ii
L-: Protocol # 21

The following test record was obtained Iroll1 a 76 -year-o ld woman who
volun teered as a tes t subject, thu s g ivin g us a test reco rd of a sen ior to
eva lu ate. She expressed appreciatio n for the company o f the exa miner. It
was necessa ry on seve ral occa sio ns to remind her of the basic qu es tion s to
be considered in constru ct in g a story and reassure h e r that there were no
cor rect answers. She appeared to have some minor difficulty with visua l
activi ty that may have in[\u e nced th e detail of her responses.

I Man), thank s are exp ressed to Lisa Tischler, M.A .. ()r F() rdhalll Un ive rsi ty lo r providing
protocol It 2 .

Copyrighted Material
 Samp le Protocols 99

Card 1

I don't know what this object is. He's concentrating on this object. He
seems to be concentrating very hard on it, maybe figuring out what it is.
He has free time on hi s ha nds. He's ju st sittin g am usin g himself. He's ab-
sorbed with it. He may see somet hin g that I don't see. He's relaxed, he's
thinking. He may figure out what it is, but I don't know what it is. But he
look s like h e 's looki ng at somet hin g h e und erstands. If h e's bright he'll
fi gure it out.
(Add itiona l reading of directions at this point.)
Summary: Someone is lookin g at someth in g, patiently trying to figure it
out.

Card 2

This takes place on a farm. Farmer with a horse, seed in g the ground. This
must be the you n g daughter with sch ool books. His wife is watching him.
Horse to h e lp with seed in g. She may be goin g to schoo l because sh e has
books. No t 12 o r 13, 19 or upper teens. The more mature woman cou ld be
mom relaxing up aga inst a tree. Fie ld looks lik e a hard days work, it loo ks
well done. He did the field and accompli shed what h e set o ut to do in
making th e ground [ully p lowed.
Summary: A farm scene with a family go in g abo ut their business.

Card 3BM

Looks li ke a very depressed fema le . Sh e may be mental, or ju st depressed.

She doesn't look sick, sh e looks lik e she's hurting. Whether sh e' ll get help,
and someo n e w ill make her fee l good-I don't know. She's resting with
h e r head on t h e bench a nd she looks unhappy. Maybe she had a h ard day,
she doesn't loo k sick or abused . Maybe abused, b ut she doesn't show her
lace so I don't know w h at led up to it. I h ope someth in g good happens to
her. If I co uld see her face, I may know, and read into her. I don't know
the outcome.
Summary: A depressed fema le is hurting and look in g unh appy.

Copyrighted Material
100 A Practi ca l Guide to th e TAT

Card 3GF

The male or female look s very unhappy. Som e thing awful must have hap-
pened to her. She's weeping and stooped over. Not abu sed, ju st an un-
happy individual. Ma ybe sh e had an argument but she's not beat e n.
Whether going back into the hou se to smoot h over what happened ....
Decid ed she's go ing back in. Don't know if go ing in or out. Goes in and
sllloothes it over. They mak e up and have a good even ing .
Summary: An unh appy woman is weeping th e n goes back in and makes
up.

Card 4

These two are a male and a female in an argument. He's angry at h er and
she's trying to pacify him . He won 't give an inch . She may wind up win-
ning him ove r because sh e's lookin g at him e nd earingly. Sh e wants har-
mony in the relationship and is sorry about what happened. Sh e will try
harder to win him back . [ think sh e' ll ge t him back. He isn ' t that angry,
and sh e's look in g at hi m endearin gly. She'll get him back .
Summary: A man and woman have an argument and she wins him over
w ith end earing look s.

Card 6BM

This looks lik e it could be mom and son in some deep conve rsa tion . Both
look ve ry unhappy though h e's lookin g out th e w indow. He's unhappy,
hi s eyes are downca st. They cou ld be discu ss in g li fes tyles. Maybe she doesn't
lik e hi s friends, or hi s job, or his wile . Anything. He look s unhappy . We
hope that they w ill work it out, but h e's very unhapp y right now. He'll
m ake up with hi s mom a nd it will be lo ve a nd bliss again.
Summary: A mother doesn't lik e her son's li lestyle, but th ey mak e up.

Card 7BM

Two men, don't represe nt any thin g. Not dad a nd son, maybe e mployee
and e mployer-very absorbed and di sc uss in g somet hin g of great impor-
tance. Very se riou s. Will win the case. Co uld be attorneys.
Summary: Two m e n discuss som e thin g important.

Copyrighted Material
 Sample Protocols 101

Card 88M

Thi s looks like war. Gun here and surgeon and operation, and assistant,
and this dressed fellow. So maybe it's not a war scene. Operation on some-
one. Th e re 's a gun in the picture . Thi s is m aybe a bullet wound. They are
working ea rnestly. Th e gentleman on the table is half covered, and the
guy is with a knife culting into him, but the gentleman here is mislea ding.
If the g uy h e re wasn't here, it would be a war sce ne . You see the gun here.
I don't know, th e pati e nt will live.
Summary: Someone is being op e ra ted on, and survives .

Card 13MF

He's got cloth es on, so it 's not a sex ual thing. She's half dressed in bed.
Ma ybe he abused he r, h e's holding hi s eyes. Don't know if h e will change
his mind , be a ni ce g uy and make love to h e r. He looks sorry. He's covcring
hi s eyes and fa ce . So h e could have abused her, or hurt h e r. No indication s
of what he will do . Ma ybe sh e's a prostitute. He see ms ashamed. He looks
like he's going to leave.
Summary: A man hUrl S a woman and is ashamed and sorry.

Interpretation

The ge neral impress ion is oll e of ell1otional functioning that is within the
normal range. Thi s cli e nt does approJch environmental situations with
caution and un ce rtainty, fee lin g that she mu st ex pend considerable effort
a nd con ce ntration on inte rpre ting them objectively a nd correctl y (card I) .
She characteristically appears to sea rc h for incon siste nci es and illogi ca li-
ties in her perceptions to be confid e nt that she has judge d social interac-
tions accurately (cards 88 M, 13MF). She st rongly identifies with the role
of an effective peacemaker in he r deJ lings with mal es, whom she ex pe ri-
ences as typically st ubborn ; at tim es, irrationally a ngry; and as havin g ra th e r
conflicted a busive procli vities (cards 38 M, 3GF, 13MF).
As re fl ected in the cli e nt 's tend ency to assign h a ppy e ndings to many of
he r stories, deni a l and avoidance a re central defen ses in dealing with her
occasionally overwhelming dysphoric emotions (card 38M). She feels th a t
seek in g h e lp for h e r negative feelings might be appropriate and that "some-
one might mak e h e r fee l good."
He r conception of the famil y is a ba Sically traditional one (card 2). Mother-
child contacts are seen as sometimes friction lad e n , resulting from a critical

Copyrighted Material
102 A Practical Gu ide to th e TAT

ma te rn a l view of an offspring's lifes tyle. In her vicw, howe ve r, such dis-

agreements can be successf ull y resolved with a resultant positi ve relation-
ship (ca rd 6BM) .
At the prese nt tilllc , thi s client reels ra ther un ce rl ain in dealing w ith
enviro nment a l delllands. She typiulily e nd eavors to co unt e r nega tiv e
emotion s by denying a nd distancing he rse llirolll th e lll. He r lon gt illle sell-
im age is th at of a n e llecr ive cO ll ci li a tor, pa rti cul a rl y in her interact ion s
w ith angry, potentially a bu sive males. He r description o f th e figure in card
I as hav ing "free time o n hi s ha llli s" is lik e ly a se lf-proj ect ion .

Protocol # 3

Fo llo w ing is a TEMAS protocol of a 5 - yea r-old Hispa n ic (Puerto Ri ca 11)

maic w ho had been brought to a melltal hea lth clinic by hi s Illoth e r with
co mpl c1i nt s of agg ress ive ne ss a nd h yperact ivit y. He is th e younges t of three
childre n, having Illo ved to the mainl and w ith hi s la lllil y w hen he was 3.
He li ves w ith hi s pare nt s and hi s siblin gs. The Illoth er sta tes th a t he has
agg ress ive outbursts a nd injures ililll se ll by scra tchin g hi s lace a nd arlllS;
he is a lso described as initi a till g physical lights with hi s 8-yea r-old sister
during w hi ch he pull s her hair.
The client is ill kindcrgc1nell a illi a ppea rs III have a speech dilficulty
sin ce h e is un able to express him se lf fluelltl y even in Spa ni s h. The
Spa ni sh-speaking exallliner ha d e1illicult), understallding what he was say-
in g at tilll es; at those tilllcs, th e cl it' nt reacted with illlpa tien ce a nd annoy-
anct'. The ad ministration was in Spa lli sh .

Card lOB

(Boy w ith mOlle y an d a pigg" bank, im ag illillg a bi cycle ill a shop window
a nd buying ict' cream) .
Thl' boy lound th l' a nilllal (pig, w hi ch in the card is a piggy bank). He
wa nt s to sel l it. He feels sad becallse hl' lound Ih e a nimal. Here he is bu y-
ill g a n ice crearn w ith 11ll' JIloll ey. Hc lik es ice crl'a lll. Loo k, he re he is
I()okin g a t a bi cycle c1nd he is sa d because he lVa nt s 10 buy it. but he can' l.
That's it !
Summary: A boy lind s ,1n allilllai. \Vclilts to huy things, clnd is sad w ilcn
he can' t.

Copyrighted Material
 Samp le Protoco ls 103

Card 11

(A woman with g rocery bags is be in g h e lped by a boy and a girl. Another

woman is protecting h e rself from childre n stea ling her groce ri es).
Th e kids stole sOlllething. Here' s a cane. These other ones did the sa me
thing-look . Th ey want to go in to the house (both gro ups of chi ld ren), but
th e ladi es don't want to go in beca u se they already were there . The y a l-
ready wen t in to stea l (th e lad ies) . Look-they took milk. [ don't know
h ow th ey are reding. [ do n 't know w hat is going to happen to th e m .
Summary: Peop le are stea lin g things (chaotic sto ry).

Card 17B

(A boy w ho is stud yin g drea ms about gett in g an "A" fro m the teac her, or
ge ttin g an "F").
He is looking at a book (speak ing about th e boy siltin g a t a des k) and h e
is a lso lookin g he re (po inting to the boy who h ad a n F on th e pape r). He is
very sad becau se of the man. This one h ere (the boy who had an A on th e
paper) is a lso sa d. [don 't know why . The boy is sad becau se he h as a lot of
home work . [ have a lot of hom ework in sc hoo l. That's it.
Summary: A boy is sad (chaotic story).

Card 19B

(A boy in a window pictures him se lf be in g saved by a firem<l11 a nd by

Superman) .
Th e kid is sad because thi s one is fl yin g and he ca n 't. Look at the fire-
man . He is going up the ladd e r to h e lp him down beca use o f the fire. He is
go in g to ge t burned. Look at th e fire . I don 't know how it happened.
Summary: A boy is sa d beca u se he can't fly, wh il e a [ire man is tr yin g to
h e lp him.

Card 20

(A kid in bed dream s of a scene w ith a river, a horse, and a cas tl e).
[ don't want to do anymore! Th e kid took off hi s clothes. The horse is
jumping and wa n ts to go up to th e house. The boy is thinkin g about the

Copyrighted Material
104 A Practical Guide to the TAT

horse because he wants to ride it. I don't k now what he is feeling. This is
his horse and he wants to rid e ir. Look at th e Illountains.
Summary: A boy takes of! hi s clot h es and he wams to ride his horse.

Card 21

(A chi ld dreams of two nlOnsters~one eating something, the other threat-

en in g).
He (the ch ild ) is scared because th e Illonster is bad. This one is eating but
is a lso bad . Look, this one is throwing fire. The monster is bad. He wants to
throw fire to him (po intin g to the boy in the bed) because he is a bad
monster. The boy is dreaming a nd he is going to get food from this one
(po intin g to the dragon who is eat in g). The boy is scared of the monsters.
[ don't know what e lse.
Summary: A boy is afra id of a Illonster throwing fire and wants food
from a nother monster.

Interpretation

The dominant impression of this young boy's stories is of the children in

them who are consisten ll y sad, helpless, or who behave aggress ive ly. In
fact, in cards lOB, 17B, and 19B the actua l feeling of "sadness" is one of
the first t hi ngs ment ion ed in the story. On card 17B, the ch ild is sad re-
gard less of his facial express ion. An underlying depression is suggested .
The theme of aggression is a lso prom in ent in this cli ent's stor ies. The
aggression may be expressed by the story's main character (card 11) or
may be in fli cted on the main characte r (ca rel 2 1) . This is lik e ly related to
the home environment. [n thi s connect io n, it should be noted that both
monsters are described as "bad" on card 2 1, int ent on hurting the ch ild .
Impulsivity and impat ience are a lso suggested b y the ch ild 's highly verba l
express ion o f not wa ntin g to con tinu e.

iJ Protocol # 4

The following is not a comp lete TAT test protocol. b u t only the response to
card 14 by a female co ll ege student who was a lso a talented writer and
who, tragically, comlllitted su icid e subsequent to th e test adm inistration.

Copyrighted Material
 Sall1p le Protocols 105

Card 14

Now I am free. The darkness of my room h as liberated me to the darkness

outside. a bright black indeed in comparison w ith the shadow that cloud s
the objects I live amongst daily. This time of night is what I walk through
the motions of schoo l for. each lon g morning and afternoon . Now that the
dormitory has ceased it s racket of shout in g. Toothbrushing. and a lgebra.
and the teac h ers relaxed their roles as caretakers. I can leave th e in stitu-
tional wa ll s and ha ll s for th e regions beyond that never dreamt of eitlwr
stru cture. Only the windows I love in thi s ma ze of a building. for Iell in g
me out to th e str uctureless sky. And yet I feel it is not quite stru ctureless.
I feel shapes. configurations. forms without description. exist in g and mov-
in g in modes wholly incomprehensible to th e eart h- see in g mind. Then
that earth dims out. its patterns reduced to the irrelevant. its noise barely
felt. All importance and a ll actual existence is here. in watching and specu-
la tin g wordlessly on the depths above. in wa iting for and a llll ost working
for a further w indow. through which to see w ith a totally new concept of
perception the actua lit y that now mists beyond my comprehension . I work
for it. I struggle to find th e new paths to send my mind down. but they
remain strange to me. Perhaps a ll this effort is u seless here. perhaps my
hum an existence pre clu des true knowledge of what I cannot grasp yet.
Surely if it were possible. someone in a ll the reels of time played out would
have found it and left some word. Bur what I've read of those who claim
to have achieved union with the infinite or other mystical experience of
th at nature means nothing to what J see-a lm ost see-feel dimly out be-
yond. The only beyond that living men know nothing of. th at no tales
return from and no book describes. that is not bound by instinctive ratio-
nality and needs for preservation. is death. That may be the transition.
where human habits th at here block my sight may be cast off with human
individuality and separateness. and actual cOlllmunion of all occur. If not.
well. I won't know. as I now know what's for supper and feel glad or disap-
pointed. for that mental faculty too will be gone. All gone. Ieaving-per-
haps-just the co re. the essence of existence and reality. It's a good enough
gamble . And this window is high enough.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
 REFERENCES

AMOIl, N. S. ( 1967). Some pl'rso ll alit y dilkrcllcl's betwe en asth ill ati cs, allergic all d Ilormal
children. JOll rl/al oI Clillical Psyclw l ogy, 23, 336-340.
Allll'J'icall Psyc hi at ri c Associa tion. ( 1994). Di,l.'llI<Jsfic alld Sf,lfisficalll1£1l1l1 al of llimfal dis<Jrders
(4 1h cd.) . Washillgtoll, DC: Au tl wr.
Americall Psyc h o log ica l Associatioll. ( 19661. Interim stalldard s for autom atc d test scorillg
alld illlerplTtatioll practi ccs . Alllericall P.'),cll ol<J.'I isf, 22, I 141.
Allll'ricall Ps yc hol og ica l Associatioll. (1992). Et hi cal principles lor psyc hologists alld COliL- 01
collduct. A lllt'I'icall PSYc//(J/" ,'lisf, 47, I 597- 16 1 I .
A lld ersoll,.I. W. ( 1999). Hem y A. Murray alllit he creatioll of th e Thl'lllati c A pperceptioll
Test. III L. Ceiser 0 M. I. Ste ill (Eds . ), E I'OC,lfil '~ illla!/I'S (PP. 21-38). Was h illgtoll, DC:
AlllCr icJI1 Psycho logici'd AssociJliol1 .
A lldor, L. E. ( 1983). Psycllological alld soci,,/t'.'Jic,11 sflldics of fil l' Black p<'ople of Aji-ica, sO llfll oI fll e
5, llIara /960-/975 - AII (/III1Vf,lf<,d selecf biblio.'lrapln '. Johallllcsb urg, So ut h Af rica: Na-
tiollal Ill sti tutl' for Perso lill c i Research.
ApPl'l baullI, S. A . ( 1990). The re latiollship hl'tWl'l'll aSSeSSll\l' llt all d ps yc hot herapy. JOllmal
oI Persollalify A.lwsslllmf, 54, 791-80 I .
AraoJ, I). L. ( 1972) . The TIll'III.ltic A pperCepli()ll Te SI ill m ari tal th erapy. JOIIl'llal ofCollfml -
pvrary Ps\'cll vf ll cral'.I', 5, 4 1-48.
Arollo w, E., o· Re7.niko fL M. ( 197 1). Applicalioll of projecti ve tests to psych otherapy: A case
stud y. )0111'11<11 of Pas<lIhllif)' Assesslllmf, 35,379- 393 .
A roIlO W, E., ROllikoff, M., 5· Morl'lalld, 1<. ( 1994). Til e Rorsclhlcll feclllliqlle . Nel'dhalll Hei ghts,
MA: AIIY Il &. Bacoll.
Atk ill SOIl, .I. W., E,. Feat her, N. T. (Eds.). (196(, ). A fll <"'I)' ofacllin 'clllcllf lI/ ofil 'llfioll. New York:
Wiley.
Bailey, B. E., FJ Crl'CIl, J. ( 1977). Black thl' llIatic apperccptioll test st imulu s Ill al er iai. ),"11'-
11£11 of' PC/'wllalify AsscsSlllmf, 41, 25-30.
B.lty, M. A. c' D re ger, R. M. ( 1975). A colnparisoll of three llIet hods to rccord TAT protocol s.
) Ollnhll ,'I Ciillical Psycllv/t'.'IV, 3 1, 348.
Bl' llak, L., c Abrams, D. M. ( 1997). Til l' TAT, CAT, alld 5AT ill cli llicaillsc (6t h cd. ). Bostoll:
A lI YII &. BaCll Il.
Ikllak L., Abra m s, D. M., & Ackl'l'llIallll -Ellgel, R. ( 1992) . Halldbook oI illffllSil'l' brief a ll d
elll er'Jf'lIc,l' psycl/(Jfllera/,y. Larc 11l1l O1l1, NY: c. p.s.
Bcll"k, L., & I3c ll ak , S. S. ( 1948). Tile CA T. LcrlilillOlll, N Y: c. p.s.
Ikllak, L., & Ik ll ak , S. S. ( 1965). Til e CA T- H: A 1IIIIIIall lIIodificafio ll . Larc ltl1101l1, NY: c. PS
Bellak, L., & Bc ll ak , S. S. (1973). Tile5AT. Larclll ll ollt, NY: c.p.s.
Bdl.lk, L., o· i-lurv iclt , M . ( 1966). A hUlllall IllodiJ'i ca tioll o f t ill' Childn' Il 's AppcrcL')\ioll
Tcst. ) oll mal of ProjeCfil'e Tecilll iLlll es, 30, 228- 242.

107

Copyrighted Material
108 Refe re n ces

Berends, A., Wes ten , D., Leigh , J.. &. Si lber!. D. ( 1990). Ass l'ssin g allec t-t ol1l' 01 rel,1tion ship
pJrJd ig lll s frolll TAT J nd i tller vil'l'v dJ tJ. Ps),cllo"'.'1ic<l1 AssesslllclIl , 2, 329-332.
Ikrllste in, E., FJ' Pe rr y, J. C. ( 1995). A TAT <lll<llysis tl/"'/>i<'C I rl'lali,l/ls ill Bordalille, Alllisoci<ll,
Se/lizvlypal, alld Bipolar 1/ diso rdas. Unpublishl'd 1ll,1nu snipt , Bos ton U ni versit y .
Bine!. A. & Henri. V. ( 1896) . L1 psycho logie individuelk. Allllee Psycllolo.'1iqlle, 2,4 11 - 465.
Birney, R. c., ( 1968) . Rl'sea r ch Oil the ,1chil'Vl' llll'nt Illoti v e. III E. F. Borgalla h· W. W.
Laillbert (E d s.), Halldbook ofpcr.'Olidlil.\' Illc"'T <llld rcsc<lrc/I. Chi cago: Rand McNally.
Blulll, G. S. ( 1950). Tile Black.\' piClllres : M,'ll ll al ""im/l'llcliollS. New Yo rk : Psycho logical (01'-
p()rJt i()Jl .

Butcher, J . N . ( 1990). MMPI-2 ill pS),.-ilo"','lic"lll'Ctllll/('III . Nl'W Yo rk: Oxford U ll ivL'rsity Press .
Butcher, J. N ., Keller, L. S., E,. Baco n , S. F. ( 1985). Cu rre nt de velopillent s alHI futulT direc-
tions in cOlllp uteri zl'd person a li ty ,1SSl'SSlllL'll!. ./,l/mlill oIColIsllllill,'1 ,Hid Clillical Ps)'cll"l-
"9-", 53, 803-8 15.
Butche r, .I . N., h Panciwri, P. ( 1976). A 1'<1l1d/>,,,,k oflT,)Ss' lI ,lIi,l/lal MMPI resedrcll . Mi lllll'apO-
lis, MN: U ni ve rsit y of Mi n neso ta Pre ss .
Canter, M. 13., Bc nn et!. 13. E.. JOI1l'S, S E, F,. Nag\" T. F. ( 1994). Etllics Ivr psre/I"/v.'!isl':
A collllllelll<1r), 0111111' APA elllies c,,,le. Wash ington , DC: A illeri ca n Psyc hol ogical Associa-
tioll.
Chowdhury, U. ( 1960a). All 11I,liall ,ul<1I'lali,)fJ o(llie Cilildrl'II ',\ AI'I'e!'ccplioll Tesl. De l hi, I ndia:
Ma nasaya n.
CholVdhury, U. ( 1960 b ). A n Indi an nltldificatioll of the Theilla ti c A ppc rc eption Tl'st. Ti,e
)"111'11<110( Social PsycliolojY, 51. 245- 263.
(oche, E., 5 Sillilli , J. A. ( 1983) . The Theillatic Ap perce ption Tes t ill all Out CO llll' Ill easure in
psychot h erapy resea rc h. Psrcllolllaap)" Tlleor)" Researcll alld Praclice, 20,4 1-46 .
COlllbs, A. ( 1946). The use 0 1 personal experil'ncl' in Thl'nlatic Apperception Test story
plots. )olll'llal oIClillical Psycllolo,".!', 2,357-363.
(ost,1nti lltl, G., Ma lga d y, R. G., C1sl illo, M. M., h· Cas tillo, A. ( 199 1). C ro ss-c ultur,1 1 stan-
dardiza ti o n 01 T EMAS in three l-ii sp,1nic suh culture s. Hisl'allic )"lIl'IIal ""Bell<1l'iural Sci-
m ces, 13, 48-62.
Costdntin o , G., Ma lgady, R. G., Rogk r, L. H .. h- Tsui, E. C. (I (88). Discrilllin ant analysis of
clinical ou tpati e nt s and public school children hI' T EMAS : A Theill ati c A ppncep tion
Test lor Hispa ni cs and B lack s. )ollrllal tl/'Pl'rS,l/ I"IiI,l' Assessillml, 52, 670-678.
(os tantin o, G., Ma lga d y, R. G., b Va/.<]IIl'I., C. ( 198 1). A coillpa ri son or th e Mu rray-TAT ,l nd
a Il ew T h clllat i c A ppncept io n Te st lor u rha n II ispa n ic c h ildren. Hisp,lIIic )ullrll"l oj
Behm'ivra I Scielices, 3, 29 1-300.
Cowan, G .. 5 · Goldberg, F . .I. ( 1967). Nl'l'd achil'\Tl llL'nt as ,1 function of th e race and sex of
figures o f se lect ed T AT cdrds. ) ollrllalt1{Pers,'"alilr Lllld S"cial Psyclwlu,'l.1', 5, 245-249.
CrJdd ick, R. A . ( 1972). HUlllani sti c ,1SSl'SSnlL'llt: A r ep l y to Brown. i'sychulhcrapy: Th eory,
Resmrcll alld Practice, 9, 107- 1 10.
Cra dd ick, R. A . ( 1975) . Sharin g onesl' ll ill the assessille nt procedure . Prt1{essiolhll Psrello"'-'/)',
6, 279- 282 .
(rallll'r, P. ( 1987). The de ve lo pllll'nt 0 1 dl'icnse IllL' chani sllls. )"lIrllLlI v( Persollalil)" 55, 597-
614.
Cralll l'l', P. ( 1990). The dCl'eioplllL'llI "j dermse lIlee/ILIllisIIIS: TileolY, researcll, alld assessillml. N ew
York: Sp ring er · Ve rl ag.
Cr anlt'r, P., B lall , S. J., & Ford , R. Q. ( 1988) D l'ien sl' Ill ec hani sill s in the an acl itic and
introject i vl' person alit y configurat io n. )"lInll1l l'j COlisl/llill,q Lllld Clillical Psycho"'.'I.\', 56,
6 10-6 16.
Cralllel', P., 5· Block, J. ( 1998). Preschool antl'ce dl'nt s of ekfense llleCil dnislll u se in you ng
ad ults: A lon gi tudin al stud y . )ol/rllal vI Persollolil.l' "lid Svcial Psyclwlof/Y, 74, 159- 169.
Dana, R. H. ( 1985). Th ema ti c Apperception Test In C. S. Newilla rk (Ed,), Major ps),cll vlv,qical
asseSSllleli1 illslrllll1cl1ls (pp. 89- 134). New ton , MA: A ll y n 5· BaClll1.

Copyrighted Material
 Refere nces 109

Dana, R. H. (1996). The Tlll'lllatic Apperception Test (TAT) . In C. S. NewlllJJ"k (Ed.1. Maj,"-
psvc/IO/O,'lica/asscsslllt'lI/ illSlnllllellls (2nd ed., pp. 166-205) . Needhalll Heights, MA: Allyn
& Bacon.
Dan,l, R. H. ( 1999). Cross-c ultural / Illulticultural use of the Thelll ati c A pperception Test. In
M. Geiser & M. Stein (Eds.), EI'ocalil't' illlages. Washington, DC: Aml'rica n Psychological
Assoc iJliuIl.
Davi ds, A .. & Rosenblatt. D. (1958). Use of the TAT in assess mcnt of ,llicnation. JOllma/ 0{
Proja/il'" Ta/lll ill llCS, 22, 14 5- 152.
Dcplu, 0 .. & Killlbrough, C. ( 1982). Feeling-tolll' and ca rd prderences of Black clellll'ntJrY
childrcn for the TCB and TAT. JOllma/ oINoll-Whilt' COllcems, 10, 50- 56.
Doug la s, C. ( 1993). TrallS/att' the darkllt'ss: Tht' Ii(e oIChristialla Mor"all. New York: Simon iT
Sc hust er.
Dymond, R. F. ( 1954). A djustlllent changes ovcr therapy frolll Thclllatic Apperccption Test
ratings. In C. R. Rogers & R. F. DYlllond (ELis.), Psychotherapyal1d persolla/itye/wll,"C (Pl'.
76- 84). Chi cago: University of Ch icago Press.
Er,lSlIllIS, P. F. (1975). TAT- Z cala/O.'lllC llO. 1676. Pretoria, Human Sciences Research Council.
Eron, L. D. ( 1950). A norlll ati ve stud y of the Thelllatic Apperce ption Test. Psye/lO/o,qiUl/ MOllO-
,,,mphs, 64(9, WIHlk No . ., 15).
[ron, L. D. (195.,). Responses of wOlllcn to the Theillatic Apperccpt ion Test. JOllma/ or
COllSll/lill,q Psych%,")', 17, 269-282.
Ex ncr, .1. E.. .lr. (1974). The Rorschach: A cOlllprehellSil'c systelll (Vol. I). Ncw York: Wiky.
F,lirwe,lther, G .. Simon , R .. Gc hhard , M., Weingarten, E .. Holland , .1., Sande rs, R., Stone,
G .. 5· Reahl. .1. ( 1960) . Relative effectiveness or psychotherapeutic prograllls: A
lIlulticriteria cOlllpJrison of four prograills lor three dillerent patient groups. PS.l'cho/O.'IY
MOllo.'lraphs, 74( 5).
Finn, S. E., CI Tonsager, M. E. ( 1992) . Thnapeutic dfcCls of providing MMPI-2 te st Iced back
to colkge student s awaiting therap y . PSYc/IO/o,qical Assesslllellt, 4,278- 287.
Fis chn, C. T. ( 1970). The testee as co-eva luator. JOllma/ 0{ COllllse/ing PSYc!IO/O.'/y, 17, 70- 76.
Fischer, C. T. ( 1972). Paradigm ch ange s which allow sharing of res ult s. Professiolla/ Psycho/-
o.'/y, 3, 365-369.
Fishn, S. P, Hind s, E. (1951). The org,lnilation of hostility controls in variou s pnsonalit y
structurcs. GClldie P;),e/w/t',qiml MOllo.'1raplis, 44, 3-68.
Fowln, R. D. ( 198 5). L'llHhllMks in cOlllputer-assisted psychological aSSCSS llll'llt. ./oll/"lla/ "'"
COllSll/lill,q lIlld Ciilliw/ PSYc!I(,h'.'IY, 53, 748- 759.
FrailI-;, A. F., <,. Gunderson, .J. G. (1990). The role of the therapeutic alliance in the treat-
ment of sc ili zo phrelli a: Rl'lationship to course and outcoille. Archivesv/Gcllaa/ Psycliia -
11'.1', 47, 228- 236.
Frcn ch, L. A. ( 199 3). Adapting projecti ve tests for Illinority children. Psycli%giw//?eporls, 72,
15- 18.
Gass, C. S., &- B ro w n, M. C. (1992). Ne urops ycho log ica l test Iced back to patients with brain
dys function. Psyc/w/o!1ica/ AssessllIml, 4, 272-277.
Gol dfried , M., & Zax, M. ( 196 5). The stilllulus va lu e of the TAT. ./oll/"lla/ oI Projectil'c Tce/I-
llii/lles, 29, 46-57.
Goldm,ln, R .. &. G reenbl att. M. ( 19 55). Changes in Thcmatic Apperce ption Test stories par -
alleli ng changes in clinical status of sch izophreni c patients. JOllrna/ of Nervolls ami Mm-
la/ Diseases, 121,243-2 49.
Hafnl'r, A. J. , & Kapl an, A. M. (1960). Ho stilit y COlllcnt anal ys is of th e Rorschach ,lnd TAT.
JOllmll/ v/Projeclil'e Teclilliqlles, 24, 137- 14 3.
Harrison, H. (1965). Thematic apperceptive methods. In B. Wolman (Ed.), Halldbook oI clilli-
cal psych% ,qy (PP, 562-620), New York: McGraw Hill.
Harrower, M. ( 1960). Projective co ull se ling-A psychotherapeutic t ec hniqu e. In M. I-Iar-
roWl'J" (Ed,), Crealive varia/iom ill Ihe projective leclilliqlles. Springfield, Il: Thomas.

Copyrighted Material
11 0 References

I-I a rtlllan, A. H. ( 1970). A basic TAT SCI . ."'llmal 4 Persollalily AssesSl/ICf{I, 34, ,91 - 396.
Haskell. R . .J.. Jr. (1961). RclaliollShip bCl we cll ,1ggrcssivc bch,wior a nd ps yc hoiogicalicsis .
.Jollr/wl of Projeclil'f' TecilII il{lIes, 25, 411 - 440.
H ,l S ~ill, P. R. ( 1958). A sllIdy of Iil e rci,TliollSllip belll'eCf{ realislic ,lIld IIl1realislic a.'l.qITss ioll , reti-
allCt' all calegorica l allillldes, ,lIId COlIslrllctin:lless '" adjllslillell/. Unpublishcd doctoral di s-
scrtalioll, Wcslcrn Rescrvc Un i vl'rs il),.
Hibba rd, S., Farmcr, L., Wclls, c., DiFillipo, E., BM r y . W., Korman, R., &. Simll, P. ( 1994).
Valid,ll ion 01 Crallln's deicn sc IIll'chanislll IIl,lI\ual lor Ihe TAT . .JO II rIIal 4 Pasoll,IIiIV
Assfsslllml, 63, 197- 210.
HibbMd, S., !-iilscnrolh, IV \'.I., Hibbard, .I. K., fi N,lS h, M. R. ( 199 5) A va lidil Y s\lld y 01 IWO
projeClivc objeCl ITPITscllialions Illl'aSllrl'S. PS.\'CII,,/".'lical Asses) lllelll , 7, 432- 439.
Hokr, 1' . .J.. & G reen , 13. F. ( 1985). TIll' cil,llknge 01 COllllll'll'ncc illHlne,llivil y in COIllIHIl-
crizt'd ps yc hologi ca l I('sl ing . .J"llrllal t>f CtlllSllllill.'1 alld Clilli(al Psycilo/'J.'1Y, 53, 826- 838.
1-lolfln ,111 , S., I'r KupermJn, N. (1990). Indircci lI'Calnll'lll 01 Ir,1LIlllal ic psyc hol og ical expni-
t'nccs: The use 01 TAT c,l rd s. Alllericall.Jollrllal <'f Psytilolilt.'rtlpJ'. 44. /07- /1 5.
!-iolnlS! rolli , R. W., Silber, D. L b Karl' , S. A . ( 199 0 ). DcvcloplllClli 01 thc Ap percc ptivl'
Pnsonalit y Test. Jtlllrll'll of Persollalil.\' Assessillml, 54, 2')2- 264.
Hol zberg, J. (1963). ProjeClivl' techniques and rcsisl ,ln lT 10 change in ps yc hoilH:'rap y ,1S
viewed I h rough a cOlllnllllli ca l ions Illodcl. ."'llrl/al tlr Pn>j,YliI 't' Tedllli'IIIt'S, 2 7, 430- 4') 5.
Hutt , M. L. ( 1980). Tile Mii'lii.'Jall Piclllre Tesl - R,'I'iseti: Mallllal. Ne w Yor~: Grulll' &. Stratton .
.I alll l' s, P. Ii.. Er Mosher, D. L. ( 1967). Thclllalic ilggressio n , hostilil y-g uilt. and ilggressi ve
bchavior . .Jollnlal tlj'Projet'lil'e Tecillliqlles alld I'crs,'lIalit\' AssCsSlllt'Ill, 3 1( 1),61 - 67 .
.lung, C. G. (1961) Melllories, dredills, dlld nj7t'diolls (A . .Ialie, Ed.). Nc w York: Pantheon.
I< ailn , M. (1984). Thc usefliiness 01 till' TAT blan~ c,l rd ill clinical practice. Ps.1'clltllll erilp.1' ill
Primlc Praclice, 2, 43- 50.
I<aron , 13. P. ( 19811. The Tilcillatic A ppnception Tesl III A. I. Rabin (E d.), AssesslllfIIl lI 'ilil
I'r,>jeclil'c Icelillil/llt's (PI'. i-\')- 120) Nell' York: Sp ri nger.
1<,1t/, H. E., Russ , S. W., &. Ovcr hol ser, .1. C. ! 1991) . Sl'X dilll' ITnCl's, Sl'X roics, and projcction
on Ihe TAT: M ,l l ciling qilllUILIs 10 C',lll1inl'l,' gcnder. JOllmdl of Pastlllillil.l' Assess illelll,
60. 18 6- 19 I.
I<lopier, B., b· Kcllc y, D. M. ( 194(, ). Til, ' I?,lrsclw(/I Icci/lli'IIIC. YOI1~crs, N Y: World gook Con l-
pJn \, .
I<orchin, S. J., Mi lCilcll, H. E., ii· Me llwl!, .I. (I ')501. i\ critic,ll l'\',lll1,ltio n 01 Ihc TiltJllllNlil
Thclllalic Apperccp lioll Tcs\. J,lllmdi "f Prtl}ectil'l' T('Clllliqlles, 14,445-45 1.
Lello w it7., .I. fr Frasl'r. A. W. ( 1980). ASs l' sslll elli 01 ,1chic'n'lllclll Jnd po w n nW l i vatioll tJI
BI,KKs alld WiliICS, lI Si llg a fllac~ ,1 11(1 Wilill' TAT, lVi lil Black ,1I1d Whi lc adlllini stra-
tors. Jtlllnlal of Applied P.'.I'(iltlit,.'].\'. 6 5. 685-6 t)6.
Lubin, B., Larsen, R. M., &. Mal<lr<l!.Io, .I. D. ( 1984). P,ll\lTn S 01 psychological Icst lIsagc ill
Ihc Uni ted Stalc,;: 19,5- 1982. Allleric-all PSI't1It,I".'1isl, 3'1,45 1- 4')4.
i'vl alg,ldy, R. C ., Cost,ln lillo, C .. fJ RtJgln, L. H. ( 1984). Dl'\Tlopllll'llt 01 a Thcllhllic Apper-
ccption Tc st (TE lv lAS) lor urba ll Hi ' p,lnic childrcn. Jilllmal tlI C"ll5 l1llill.'J alld Clillical
Psycilulv.'IY, 52, 986-99 6.
MeAn hllr. D. S., b Rohcns, C. E. ( 19i-\2). R"i>als Apl'erct'pli"1l TeSI I"l'
Cliildrell: A 1I1,llIlIal. Los
Angeles: Wcstern Psychological Sc nicc s.
McCIcIl,lnd, D. C. (1958). Ri s ~ 1,1 king in childrcn w ilh high and low Ill'l'd lor ,lChic vCllll'lI\.
In.l. W. A I~in son (Ed.), Mtllil'es in/'llI/tlSI', ,IClitlll, alld .",(icl.\'. PrinCl'ton, NJ: viln N osl 1',1 nd.
McClelialld, D. C. (196 1,1) . Tile tl cliit'I'inq ., ,'cicl\'. Ncw Yor~: V,l ll Nostra nd.
McCIeIlJI1(1, D. C. ( 1961 b) Ellcourilgillg l'XCClielln'. DtlcddlllS, '10, 711 -724.
McCle ll and, D. C. (1965). Achicvclllcni ,l l1d 1'lllrCl'l'l'lll'urship: A longilllciill al si lid y . Jtlllr-
11111 ur
Persolla lily illld Stlciill I'S.\'clltl it l .'JI', I , 38 9- , 9 I.
McCll'lIand, D. C. ( 1995). Achievl' IIIL'lll IlHliiv,llioll il l rl'l,llioll to ilchil' Vl'llIl'nl-l'clatcd rc-
c,lll, pl'rIOl'lllallCC a nd Ul'illl' 11m\', ,1 IllJl'kcr associ,lted lVi lh rclc',lsC 01 vasopressin.

Copyrighted Material
 Reie rences 111

M"timti<'l/ llIld EIIIOtiol/, 19, 59-76 .

McCklland, D. C, A ti-cin son , .1. W ., Clar k, R. A., & lo we ll, E. l. ( 195,). The ,Iciliel'elllen t
IIlotin'. New York : A ppleton- Ccntu r y-Crofts.
McClelland, D. C, \(ocStlll'\" , R., &. Weinberger, J. (1989). How d o se l\ -all ribut ed ilnd im-
plicit motives diller? Ps\'cil"it'.<liml RL'\'iew, 96, 690-702.
McClellillld, D. C, &. Pi lon, D. A. ( 1983) . Sources 0\ adul t Illoti ves ill pallcrns 0\ parelli
behavior in ea rl y ch ildlwud. ) ollrl/ol of Persol/ality al/d Social PSycIllllo,<JY, 44, 564-574.
I\ik Ga ugh, .1. l. ( 1990). Signi\i c,ln ce and remembrance: T he role 0\ neuromod ul ato r y sys-
tems. Psycilo/').'1icol SCiCIICl', I. 15-25 .
Meg,lrgee, E. I. ( 1967). Host i lit v on the TAT as a lunCli o n 0\ delen sive inhibition and sti,\\l, -
Iu s situ ation. ),1111'/1£11 of Projectil'c Tec/lIIiques, 3 1. 73-79.
MegMgec, E. I. fJ" Coo k , P. E. ( 1967). The rel at ion of T AT a nd in kb lot aggre ss i ve COlli elli
sc,lil'S w ith each othn and wi th crite ri a o r overt aggress ion in juven il c delinqucllts.
JOllrl/ol ofProjcctil'C Tecill/i'llIeS ol/d Persollality Assesslllell/, 31, 48- 60.
Mi lloll , T. ( 1987). Mil/ilia I for tile MCM I-lJ (2nd cd.). Min ncapo li s, MN: Na tion al Computer
Syst clll s.
MO ITbnd , 1<. l. ( 1992). Computer-a ssisted psyc hological asscsslllcnt. In M. ZeitinCl" fj . R.
Most (E d s.), PS),cIlOloHicoltestill.'J: AI/ iI/side l'iew (pp. ,43-376) . Pa lo A lto, CA : Con su lt -
ing Psyc hologi sts Pre ss .
I\'\orga n , C. D., &. Murra y, H. A . ( 1935) . A mcthod for in ves ti gati ng \ant as ie s: The Them,ltil"
Appc rce ption Test. Arcilil'es of Nell rologiml Psyciliatry, 34, 289- 306.
Morg,lIl, W . G. ( 1995) . O ri gin and hi sto r y of the The lll ,l ti c Ap perception Test im ages. ) ollr-
1/01 of PaWl/alit)' Asses.llllel//, 65, 237- 254.
MUIT,l Y, H. A. ( 1943). Tile Til elllatic Apperceptiol/ Tes t: Plates and IIwIIlIal. Ca ll1bridge, MA:
Ht1rvt1rd U ni v ersit y Press .
Mursteill, B. I. ( 1959) . A con ccp t ua l Illodcl 0\ p roje ctive tc chniqu cs applied to stilllulu s
va riation s w ith them ati c techni ques . )011/"11<11 of GlIISllltil/.'! Psycholo.'!)" 23,3-14.
Murstl'in , B. I. ( 196.,). Til eo l), olld researcil ill projectil'e techlliqlles. New York: W ile y .
Murs tein , H. \. ( 1972). N Ol"ln,l ti w wr it ten TAT responses lor a college sa mpil'. j,'l/rnal of
Pasollality ASSeS.llllellt, 36, 109- 147.
Mussen, P., fj. Naylor, I-\. ( 1954). The rela t ion ships between o ve rt ,1 nd lentasy aggressio n.
,"'url/al o(AbllO fi/l a/ 'II/d Soci.11 PS\'Ch,,/O.'!Y, 49,235-240.
Nigg, L Silk , K. , Wes ten , D., Lnhr, N .. Go ld , l.. Goodrich ,S .. I'r Oga ta, S. ( 199 1). Object
rqllT sl' nt ation s ill th e carll' I\\elllories 01 sex uall y ab used bord erlin e pa ti ents. A/l/ericall
.Iolf rl/al 0( Psydliatry. 148, 864-869.
Obrwl. J. E. &. Ho li ck, C. A . ( 1986). Til ematic approaches to pel'so na lit y aSSCSS lllL' llI wit h
c h ildrl'n a n d ado le sce llts. In H. M. Kllnlf (Ed.), The aSSeSSIIIl'lIt oJ child alld adolesc<'llt
pawllality (PI'. 183- 198). New Yo,.!.;: G uillo rd.
Palomares, R. 5 ., Cro wley, S. l.. Wo rci1t'1. F. F., Olson, T. 1< ., & Rac, W. A . ( 199 1). The laCl ur
JllJ l y ti c structure 01 til e Rnbert s Appercep tion Test lor Children : A cO l\\pari son of till'
stalld ,lrd i zJt ioll sa l\\ ple wi th a sa mple of chron ica ll y ill children . JOllrl/ol of Persollality
ASSCSSIIIl'lIt, 56, 4 14-425.
Piotrowski, C. ( 1950) . A Il ew eva lu at ioll 01 the Thl' t\\ Jtic Ap percep tion Te st. Psychoollalvtic
/?el 'ie\\', 37, 10 1- 127.
PiotrolVsJ.;i, C, & K e ll er, J. W. ( 1984) . Psychod iagnos ti c testing in APA-a ppro ved clinical
psyc holog y progral\\ s. Professiollal Psycholo!l)!: /?esearch lIlId Practice, 3, 450-456.
Piotrowski, Z. A. ( 1964) A digi tal compu tCl" ,1dmi ni stratioll in inkblot test ddt,l. PS.l'chialric
Ql/arterlv, 38, 1- 26.
POI-cLTl'lIi , .1. 1-1 ., Coga n , R. & Hibbard, S. ( 1998). Cogni ti w and J llectiVl' representations 01
I'eopil' ,111(1 MCM I- II persona lit y psychopatholog y . JOlfrl/al o( Persollality Assess/l/CIII, 70,
535 - 540 .
Pu rcl'rell i, J. H ., Thollla s, 5 .. H ibba rd,S .. & Cogan, R. ( 1998). Dc\e n se Il\ ec hani slll s develop-

Copyrighted Material
11 2 Refe re n ces

m ent in children, adoiescents, and latc ad olesce nt s. J,'l/mal of Persollalily ASSCSSIIICIII. 7/,
4 11 -420.
PurcclL K. (1956). The T A T and J nti social beh av ior J"l/mal ofCvllSl/lling Psycholo.'/}'. 20, 449-
456.
Rapaport, D. , G ill. M. M., & Sc ha fe r. R. (1961'). Dia;llIoslic I'sychoiogicaill'slillg . New York:
Inter nation al U ni vers ities Press .
Retief. A. l. ( 191'7). Theill ati c apperccp tion tc stin g acro ss cultures: Tes ts of se ieu ion vers us
tcst s 01 inclu sion. SOIlIIt Afri((l/1 J"llmal of PSVd IOlo.'lY, 17,47-55.
RCZllikoll M. , &. Dollin, A. ( 196 1). SOCi,ll dcsir,lbilit y a lllithc t y pe of hostilit y expresscd on
th e TAT. JOl/mal of Ciillical Psyc1ltl/o.'i)'. 17, 3 I 5- 3 I 7 .
Ritzier, B. A .. Shark ey, K. J.. 5· Chud y, .1. F. (1980). A C!llllprchcnsive proj cc ti ve al ternative
10 th e TAT. JOllr1wl of PerSOli alii)' ASSCSSIIICIII, 44,351'- 362.
ROlllc. H. P.. Ma t aya, P., Pcarson, J. S.. Swcn so n , A. Z .. & B rannick , T. ( 1965). A utolll atic
personality assess ill ent. In R. W. St,KY fl· B. Waxillan (E cl s.), COlllpulers ill biollledical
research (Vol. I , pp. 505-524). Nc'w York: AC,llielll ic Press.
Rors cha ch. H . ( 1942). PsyclltJdia.'lIl,'slics (5 th ed. , P. LClll).; ,lU & 13. Kron c nberg, Trans.). Berlll',
Sw it zerland: Verlag Hans Huber. (Original w ork publi sh cd 192 1).
Rosenwald, G. C. ( 1968) . Thc Thematic Ap percep tion Tes t. In A. l. Rabin (E d. ). Prvjeclive
leclr11iques ill persol1alily assesS IIl I'I1I : A lIIodem ilTlrodl/clitlll (pp . 172-22 1). New Yor).;:
Sp rin ge r.
Rose n zwe ig, S. H. ( 194 8). The Theill ati c A ppncept i'"l Test in di,lgnosis and therapy . .},lllr-
lral vf Persollalily, 16,437--444.
Rossini. E. D., & Morelli, R . .J. ( 1997). Them atic A ppcrcC') lIion Test (T AT) interpretat ion :
Pract ice recolllillend atio ns lrom a su r vey 01 clinical psychology doctora l prog r,l m s ac -
lTed it ed b y lhe Ame ri ca n Psychological Assoc iation . Professiollal Psycirolo.'1.V: Researclr
arId PraClicl', 28, 393- 398 .
Rot h , L. 1-1., Wo lford , .J.. & MciseL A ( 191'0). Pat ient ,Kress to rccord s: Tonic or to x in ?
Alllaictlll JOl/mal of Psydlialrl', 137, 592-59(,.
Sa n lord , R. N ., et al. ( 1943). Pirysi'/lIe, pawllalily al/(I sc/ltl/arslrip . Washington, DC: Soci et y
lor Rescarch in Child Developmcnt
Schaler, R. ( 1954). Psyciwal1alylicilllerpre/alivlI ill/?,'rsc/wclr leslillg. New York: G nllll' f,. Strallon .
Scodcl. A. &. Lipetz, M. E. ( 1957). TAT host ilit y a nd psychopatholog y . JOllmal or Projeclil'e
Tecillliqucs, 2 1, 16 1- 165.
Sherwood, E. T. (1957). On the designing 01 T AT picturc s, w ith special refe ren ce to a sc t fo r
,I n A fri ca n Pl'Opie assilllil ,lti ng Wcstcrn culture Tire J"ll/'lwl or Social Psyclrolo,/y, 45,
16 1- 190 .
Shncid ma n , E. S. ( 1952). Tire Ma ke-A- Pic/llrc Slory Tesi. New Yor ).;: Psychologica l Corpora-
tion.
So lolllon, l. L.. &. Starr, B. D . (1968). School Al'pcrcepliclll Ml'llrod (SAM). New York: Sprin ge r.
Span gler, W. D. (1992). Va lidit y of qucstionnaire and TAT mca surcs of nccd for ac hie vc-
m ent : T wo Ill eta-a nal yses . Psydwlv,qical Bllllelill , 11 2, 140- 154.
Stein , E. J , Furc d y, R. L., SinlOnton , M . .J.. & Nc uller. C. H. ( 1979). Patient access to mcdical
r ccords on a psychiatric inpatient unit. A11Ierimll JVl/ rTlal vI' Psychialry, 136, 327-332.
Stein , M. l. ( 198 1). Tire Themalic AppI'I'Ceplioll Tesl (2 nd cd.). Sprin g li eld, IL: Thomas.
SlO n e, 1-1., & De lli s, N . (1960). A n exploratory in ves ti ga tion illlo th e leve ls h ypothesis. JVI/I'-
11£11 of Projeclive Tcci1niqlles, 24, 333- 340.
Tallent. N. (1993). PsycilOlv.'Iiml reporl wrilil1,q (2 nd cd.) Eng le wood Clills, NJ: Prentice-Ha ll.
Teg la si, H. ( 1992). Clinical use vfslory/elling. Bosto n : A ll y n & Bocon .
Ter r y, D. ( 1952) . T hc use 01 a rat in g sca le 01 levcl of re spon se in TAT stories. JOllrl1al of
Abl10rmal Social Psychology, 47, 507-5 1 I.
TheineI', E. ( 1962). Expe riment al n eed s arc cxprcsscd by proj ec ti ve tcchniqu es. JVllrTlal vf
Projeclive Techniques, 26, 354-363.

Copyrighted Material
 References 11 3

Tlwmpsoll, C E. ( 1949), The Tlwmpson modification of the T h em at ic Apperce ption Tesl.

JOllnla l of Projective Techlliqlles, 17, 469- 478.
Thompson, C E., &. Bachrach, A. J. ( 195 1). Thc usc of co lor in the Thematic A pperception
Test. JVllm£11 oI Prvjectil'c Tee/llliqlll's, 15, 173- 184.
Tompkins, S. ( 1947). The Thematic Apperceptioll Test: The theory ,111d leellllhillc of illtaprelatioll.
New Yor).;: Grunc &. Stratton.
Triplet!. S., & Brun son, P. (1982). TCI3 and TAT response chara clerist ics in Blac k males and
lc\ll a lcs: A rcplicalion. J,111mal VI NOli-White COllcems, 10,73- 77.
Ullmann, L. ( 1957). Selection of ncurops yc hi atric patients for grou p psychotherapy. JOllma/
"" COIISllltill.'! PsycJIVIOfi)'. 2 I, 277-280 .
Watkins, C. E., Ca mb c ll. V. L.. N ic bcrdin g, R., & Hallmark, R. ( 1995). Contcmporary prac-
tice of ps)'clwlogic,ll aSSl'SSllll'nl b y clinica l psyc hologislS. ProIessiollal Psych()logy: Re-
searell alld Praclice, 26, 54-60.
We iner, 13. ( 1970). New conccptiolls in th c stud y of ac hi cve m cnl Illotivalion. In B. A. Mahcr
(Ed.), Prof/ress ill experilllC111alpasollality rt'searcll (Vol. 5). Ncw York: Acadcm ic Prcss .
Wciss).;op l, E. A. ( 1950). A lranscc ndcn cc ind ex as a proposcd measure in thc TAT. JOllmal
oI Psvcllvl(),<IY, 29, 379-390.
We isskopf-.Jociso n , E. A. &. Fostn, H. C ( 1962). A n expcrillle ili al stud y of st imuitls var ia-
tioll upon projeCiion. JOllrnal oI Projative Tee/I 11 hi lies, 26, 366- 37 0.
Wc isslllan, S. ( 1964). SOllle indi ca tors of aCi in g OUl beha v ior frolll lh c TIll'matic Appnce p-
tion Tesl. JOllmal of Projectil't' Teclilliqlles, 28, 366-375.
Wcslcn, D. (199 1). C lini ca l asscss ill ent of objeCi relations u sin g thc TAT. JOllrna/ o{Pasollol-
ity AssesSIII('IJt, 56, 5()-74.
of S''''iill CO!/lIiti()1I i11ld Object Relati()/Is Sm le: Q-S()rt jt)/' I'I'!Uective
Westl'n, D. (1995). Rel'isi,)11
slories (SCORS-Q). U npubli shcd m an u scripl. Dcpa rtm ent o f Psyc hiatr y, Caillbridge Hos-
pital ,lnd Harva rd Mcdical Schoo l, Ca mbridge, MA.
Westcn, D .. Klepsn, J., Rulfins, S. A .. Sil verma n , M .. Liilon, N .. &. 1300'kalllp, J. ( 199 1).
O bj ccl relations in ch ildhood a nd adolesccnce: The lkvc lopm enl of wor).; in g represen-
tal ion s. JOllnral <1 COIISll ltill.'! I1wl Clillim l Psychology, 59, 400-409.
Weslen, D .. Loin, N .. Si lJ.;, K. R., Gold, L.. & Kerber, K. ( 1990). Object rel ations J nd soc ia l
cog llitioll ill bord n lilles, Illajor dcpressive s and Ilorilla ls: A ThclllZltir Appercep tioll
TCSl ana lys is. Psycilt,lof/ical ASSCSS111C11t, 2, 355-364.
Wcstcn, D., Lohr, N., Si lk , K .. Kerber, 1< .. & Goodrich , S. ( 1989). Objecl relaiiollS <11ld social
c".'/1litioll TAT set,,-ill!/ 111,7111/(/1 (4t h ed .). U npubli shed m<lll\ISnip!. Universi l y of Michi-
gJIl, Ann Arbor.

Weste n , D .. Ludolph, p, Block, M . .J.. Wixolll, J .. & Wiss, F. C. ( 199 1). Developmcntal
hi sto r y and objccl r elalion s in psychi atrica ll y dislurbed adolesccn l gi rl s. A111eriCt111 JOllr-
Iwl <1 Psycllialry, 148, 14 19- 1420.
W illi allls, J. M. ( I 989) SIyl(': Te/llessolls il/ clarily al/d g/'{/ce I I Ol h ed.) . BOSlon: Sco t!. FOI'(.'snlan .
Wintcrbotto m , M. R. ( 1958). The relation of need for achi eve illent lo it'arning expe ricn ccs
in independence and IllJ stery . In .I. W. A l).;in so n (Ed.), MvtiVt's ill jillltasy, actiol/ , (/Ild
-',)CidV. Prin c(,lOll, N.I: Van Nostrand.
Wolk, R. I .. & Wolk, R. 13. ( 197 1). Malllla/: Gaolliolo.'limi Appcrcepliol/ 7esi. New York: HUlllan
Sc ien cc Press.
Worchel, F. F .. &. Duprce, .I. L. ( 1990). Projective slOrYle llin g techniqucs. In C. R. Rcy nold s
&. R. W. Kaillpha us (E d s. ), Hal/dbook <1 psychological alld t'dllcational asseSsl11C11t oI clrildrerr:
Pasollality, behavior, <11ld cOll lexl (PI'. 70-88). Ncw York: Gu ilford .
Zubin, .I. ( 1949). Personality re sea rch and psychopatllology as relatcd In clinical prJctice .
./c'llr1wl 4 Abnormal alld S()cial Psydwlogy, 44, 14-2 1.
Zubin, J .. Emn, L. 0 .. &. Schu m er, F. (1965). An t'xperilllClltal appmadl 10 projeclivl' techniq1les.
New York: Wiley.

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material
 INDEX

AMon, N. S" 14 Bac hrach , A . .J., 62, 65

Abralll s, D. M" 3,7, II , 15, 18,34,6 1,74 Bacon, S. F" 92
Ach ie ve lll e nt them es, 34 Ba ile y, B. E., 62
Ackl'l"lll dnn -Engic , R., 74 BMan, 59
Alice\. 86 Baty, M. A" 9
a lk ct tone seaics, 57 Be h av ior di sord er thetll es, 35
African -AIlll' ri ca ll s. See C ultura l diversity Be ll ak, L., 3, 7, I I , 15, 18, 34, 6 1-62, 74
Age divers it y, 6 1-62 Be ll ak, S. S., 6 1- 62
Ch ildre n 's Appercep tion Test. 6 1 Be lon gi n gm'ss th e mes, 34
Geroillo logi ca l Appe rcep ti o n Test, 3, 62 Bender Visu a l-Motor Ges ta lt Tes\. 86
Roberts Apperce ption Tes t for Children , Bennett, B. E., 29
3, 62 Bere nd s, A" 57
Sl' llior Ap pnception Tech n iqlll'. 3, 62 Bernste in , E" 57
Agg rcss i()ll Binet. A" 2
tTsl'arl"ll findin gs, 53-55 Birn ey, R. C, 52
thl'tlll'S, 41,43,45-46,41>-49 BI,lCky Pictures, 3
Amcr ican Psychiatric Ass ll " 19, 29, 60, 70, Bla nk ca rd s, 46
92 problem s wi th , 78
Anderso n , J. W" 2 Blatt , S. J., 55
Anuor, L. E., 59 Block, .I ., 56
Ap pelba ulll , S. A., 76 Block, M. J., 57
Apperception tcc hnique s Blockages, 74- 75
hi story or. 1- 3 Blulll, G. S" 3
Appcrce pti ve Pnsonali ty Tes t. 66 Bock lin ,4 1
Araoz, D. L. , 74 Bolick, C A" 2
AtTJS of int erpreta tion , 17-23 Borderlin e pe rsonalit y tlleasures, 56- 57
story co nt en \. 18-2 1 13011icelli , S .. I
sto ry st ru cture , 21-23 Bran ni ck, T .. 92
test be ha vior observa tioll s, 23- 25 Bro w n , M. C, 76
Aronow, E., vii , 25, 74-76, 80, 89 Brunson, P., 63
Arriva l of a siblin g thetlle s, 38, 97 Burg la r\, th e tll cs, 102- 10 3
As piratio n thetlll's, 34, 39, 45--46 But cher, J. M., 59, 87- 88, 92
l'xam pk , 96
Asscsslllen t. S<'I! Int erpre tat ion Cambe ll , V. L" 2
Atkin son,.I. W" 14,5 1, 53 Canter, M. 13 .. 29

115

Copyrighted Material
116 Index

Capacil y lor Elllolionalln vl'Sl lll e nl se,lles, ')7 ])ra w-A- I'nson lesl, 66- 67
Cards Hispanic. 64-65, 67- 68
blanK, 7-8. 46 IlL'Cd lor Jcllievelllell!, 52-53
cMd I , 34, 80, 86, 95- 96, 98- 99 lesli ll g w illl TAT, 12
cMd 2, 34, 86-87, 96, 99 ex,ll11pic 01 TEMAS li se, 102- 104
cal'd 313M, 35,76- 78,80- 81. 96 , 99 Ciliidren's APPl'rCq llioll Tes1. ix, 3,6 1
ca rd ,GF, 35,99-100 ( ho w dllm\" U., 61, 64
eard4, 15- 16, 36,8 1,87, 100 Chlldy, J. F., 3, 67
eMd 5, 3(, elMk. R. A, 14,5 1
card 6BM, 37,8 1,87,96, 100 CochL', [ ., 73
card 6GF, ,7, 87 Cogall, R., 55, 57
cal'll 713M, 38. 8 1-82, 87, 97, I ()() Colors, 43
card 7GF, ,8, 87 COlllbs. A., 73
card 813M, 39,77-78, 100- 101 COllllllllll icalion ,9 1
card 8GF, 1') C()lllpeli lioll IhcIllL'S, 36,40,46-47
card 9BM, 40, 77-79, 87 C()lllpUIL'r -gL'neraled rcports, 92- 93
c,lrd 9G F, 40, 87 COIlSI,l llliIlO, G., 3, 64-65
card 10.4 1 COlllelllplalion IhL'lllL', 45
card 1013, 102, 104 COlllex!, 28
cMd I I , 41. 102- 104 Co()k, P. E., 55
card 12BG, 43 C()W,lll. C., 62
cMd 12F, 42 Craddick. R. A., 76
cMd 12M, 42 Crallll'l', P., 55-56
card 1313,44, 97 Cr()\\'icy, S. J..., 62
card I 3G, 44 ( ttilllra l d ivers il Y, 59-7 1, 62-67
card 13MF, 43,77-79,87,97, 101 Alrican-A lll e rica ll s, 62-65
card 14,45, 10 5 Ap perccpl i ve Persollalil y Tes!, 6(,
card 15,45 L' x,llll pk ()I TEMAS, 102- 104
cMd 16, 4() , 97 l-ii SP,lll ic A ml'ri ca ll s, 64-68
card 1713, 10 3-104 Illdiall p()plllali()ns, 64
cMd 17BM, 46 SL' ll Sili vi l ), I(), 29
card 17GF, 47 TAT ,1 1Il'1'n,1Ii vcs, 6 1-69
card 18BM, 47 TEN1AS, 64-65
ca rd 18GF,48 (mim il ), 111 L'IlIl'S. 36,40,45,47
ca rd 19,48
card 1913, 10 3- 104 Da VillC i, I..l'o I hHci 0, I
cMd 20, 49 ])all,l, R.!-I., 14, 19,24,29,69,7 1
ca rd 21, 104 Dalillg Ihellle s, 49
clloosing, 6-8 D,lt llllil'l', 1-1.,46
minoril y li se, 67-69 ])avids, A., 14
1ll0s1 u selul, 34 Dealilihellles, 42, 45, 102
psycllologisls ranK, 7 child, 35, 48
slilllulu s CilaraCl l'ri sli cs, 3 1- 49 ex,ll 11pics, 77-79
Tilellles Co nccrnin g Blacks, 63 pMell!, 39
Cas lillo, A., 64 partner, 43, 45 , 97
Cas ullo, M. M., 64 Ddense Illecha niSill s
Childllood Ihellles, 44 scor in g, 55- 56
Children Dellis, N ., 73
Alrica n- AIlll'r ica n , 65 Den ia I, 55- 56
CATICAT-H lise, 61 Dcplu, 0., 63
developmcillal si al US, 29 Depressive Iheille s, 35, 45, 99- 100

Copyrighted Material
 Index 117

c xa mples. 77, 80- 8 1 Fi g urc Draw in g Tcs\, 95

Illl'a SUIT. 56-57 Finn , S. E., 76
seidl' , 88 Firsl impress io n s, 28-29
Dcscripli vc Ih c IllCS. 16 Fisc h er, C. T .. 7 6
Dcs irc Ihcml's, 34 Fi sher, S" 54
Dia.1/l<lstic allil StatisTical Mal/llal- IV, 19. 70 Ford , R. Q ., 55
Diagnosli c aspcCl s. 87- 88. 98 Fordh a lll U ni versil Y, 98
c xa mp le, 16 Fost l'r, H. C" 32
Di Vl' rsil y iss ucs, 59-7 1 Fo w ler, R. D" 92
agc, 6 1-62 Fr,lnk , A . F., 73
a ll l' rIlali vc slimuli , 67- 69 Fras er, A . W" 12
CA T. 61 Frcn ch , L. A" 66- 67
CA T- H,6 1 Fured y, R. L" 76
choosin g a Ics \, 69- 70
( UhUr,ll di vc rsil Y, 29. 62-67 Gass, C. S" 7 6
GA T, 62 GC IllTJ li zin g, 28
indi v idll al dilfcrc llCc s. 7 0- 7 1 Ge ronlol og ical A ppe rccplion Tcs \, 3, 62
r,Kial impli c,l lion s. 12 Gill, M. M. , 7, 9- 12, 20 , 22-25
RA TC, 62 Gold , L. , 57
SA T,62 Goldberg, F. G., 62
TAT a iI Cril ali vl's, 6 1- 6 9 Goldfri c d , M" 32 , 34
Dollin. A" 13, 54 Goldlll an , R" 73
Oou gl(l s, C ., 2 Gooclri ch , S" 56
Dra w - A -PnSOll Il'S \, 66- 67 G rcc n , B. F., 9 2-93
Dregn . R. M " 9 Grcc n , J., 62
D rug abu sc Ihcllll's. 35 G reenbla l\, M " 73
Dnln\.;cllllL'SS Ihelllc s. 47 Guih Ihc lllcs. 43
Duprec, .1. L. , 13 Gund erso n . .1. G" 73
DYlllolld. R. F., 73
Hainer. A . J., 14,5 4
E O)ll()1l1i cs Hallill ark . R" 2
acili cvCllll' ll\ nced . 52 Hdrri so n, R" 3
prcss urc Ihcllle. 49 Har ro w er. M. , 75
Ed w iJrd s Soci al Desirabilil Y Sca le. 54 Hartlll an , A . H., 7
Er,l slnu s, P. F., 67 Ha r va rd Psyc hological Clini c 2- 3
Eron . L. D" 1,6, 14. 16- 17.3 1- 32,34-43 . Ha s\';cll , R. J" Jr. , 55
45 - 49. 6 9 Has kin , P. R" 54
Esca pe Irolll peril Ih c m cs . 4 0- 4 1 Hcavy d y n a mi c loadin g, 26
Ex hau slion IhclllL', 40 Henri , V" 2
Ex hibilion Ihcm cs. 46- 47 Hibbard , J. K ., 56
Ex ncr, .1. E., Jr .. 92 Hibba rd , S" 55-57
Hil se nro lh , M . .1 " 56
FaC! s 01 lik Ihc lll c. 38 Hi Jl(is, E., 54
Fairwcather. G., 73 Hi spani c-A meri ca n s. Sct' Cullural di versil Y
Fall/il)' of Mall coniCS\, 67 H iSl o r y
" Falh c r card s." 37-38 apperccPlion l ec hniqucs, 1- 3
l' xa mple. 8 1-82 subj eC! 's, 27, 84
Fca r I hClllc s, 41, 104 I-lobo th eme, 4 0
I,lilurc, 34 Holer, P. L 92- 93
Fcalher, N . T" 53 Hoffman ,S ., 73- 74
Fccdbac k , 2 7 Holmstrom , R. W., 66

Copyrighted Material
118 Index

Holtzman Inkb lot Teci1l1ique. 55 Kaplan. A. iV\. . 14. 54

Hoi /berg. J .. 74 i<al'!ln. B. P.. 15. 17.21.10
HOlllosexual ideation. 46 I<Jrp. S. A .. 66
Hostility 1<,1t/. H. E.. 7. (,)
antisocial behavior. 54 Keller . .I. W .. 2
juvenile lklinquents. 55 Kcller. L. S .. 92
research lindings. 53-55 Kclley. D. M .. 75
sch izoph re ni cs. 54- 55 I<erber. 1< .. 56- 57
Hurvich. M .. 3.6 1 Kimbrough. 6:>
Hutl. M. L. . 3 I<lepser. 1.. 14
Hypnotism themes. 42 I<loplcr. 13 .. 75
Hypochondriasis sca le. 88 KoestnCl'. R .• 5 I
Hys teria sca le . 88 I<orchin. S . .1.. 61
l<upertl1<1n. N .. 73- 74
Idclllilication. 55-56
Idiographic int e rpreta ti o n. 16-17 Larscn. R. M .. 2
Illness thelllcs. 42. 45 Lclkowitl. J. 12
child. 15. 48 Leigh . .J.. 57
pJrenl. 39 Lincoln. A .. 44
partncr. 43. 35 Lipetl.. i\'l. E.. 54
Indian populations. See ( ullllr,ll di versity Lohr. N .. 56-57
Inkblot tests. 2 Lone li ness themes. 43- 44. 49
l11easuring hostil it y. 54- 55 Lmvell. E. l.. 14. 5 I
Inquiry stage. 11 - 12 Lubin. 13 .• 2
Instructions. 8- 9 Ludolph. P.. 57
Intellect/cognit ive funct ioning. 85- 86
Interpersona l ohject rel a tions Ivl,lc hin c recordi ng. 9- 1 I
reportillg. 87 M,lin thcllles tcchnique. 15- 16
research finding s. 56- 57 cards. 34- 49
Interpretation. 13-30 M<lkc-A-Picturc Story Tesl. .,
areas or. 17- 23 Malc!lcillaic' rcl a tion s. 36.40-4 1. 100- 101
cautions. 25 -3 0 l·xaillpil's. 8 I . 96
cons idering indi vidual dilTercnces. 70- 7 I Malgady. R. G .. 3. 64-65
examp lc s. 16.79-80.82.98. 101 - 102. Marriage th cme". 37
104 Mat,lr,lZzo . .1. D .. 2
idiographic. 16-17 Mat,lYil. P.. 92
Illain themes techn ique. 15- 16 MJtl'l'i,lls. 5-6
method or. 29-30 M<lyO Clinie. 92
11Olllorhet ic. 1(,- 17 McArth u r. D. S .. 1.62
reporting. 85 McCll'lIand. D. C .. 3. 14 . 5 1-52
scoring systell1s. 14- 15 McGaugh. J. l.. 52
tcst behavior obscrvations. 23-25 McgJrgcl..'. E. I. , 53, 55
theory. 13- 14 Meisel. A .. 76
Meltwlr. .J.. 63
J,lIllCS. P. B .. 54 Menuhin. Y .. 34
Jealousy thellles. 40 Metmpol it Jn MUSl'UIll 01 Art . 39
Jolin. A .. 42 Michigan Pictu res Test-Rev ised. 3
Jones. S. E .. 29 Millon Acio lesce nt Person al it y II1Vcntmy-2.
Jung. C. G .. 75 ix
Millon AntisociJI PcrSO ll,llit y Disordn Scale.
Kahn. M .. 7-8 57

Copyrighted Material
 In dex 119

Milloll C lillic,l l MlIl li ']xi,ll Illw'lllO ry II , 57 dC,llil, 39

Milloll, T ., 57 (iL-lll,1lld, 34, 37
Milllll'sol,l MlIll i,1xi ,l l Pnsoll,1l il \, Ivelllor\" di s,1ppo iIlIIll CllI , 42
ix, 86-88, 92 illill'ss, 39
VS. A PT, 66 prcssurc , 34-38,42,48, 80, 97, 100
Milche ll , 1-1. E .. 63 Sliccor, 38, 42, 48
Ivlo r,l l SI,llHLlrd s sca le s. 57 P,1r1 ller Ihl'lll CS
Morel,1lld , K .. ix, 2'5. 74-75, 80 , 89, 93 L'llillCllllllelll, 4 1. 4(" 4,';
M ore lli , R. .1. , ix dl',llh, 43 . 45, 97
Morg,1 l1 , C. D .. 2-3, 34- 37,42, 4'5,47,7 4 d ep,1r1L1re. 36,4 1
Mmg,lll, W . G., 34-49 iIIIlCSS, 43. 45
Moshn, D . L., '54 1l1lrlllr,1IlCl', 36,4 1
"Mo liln cMd s," 36- 38.42.48,8 1. 87, 9(), prcssu re, 35-36
100 Sliccor, 36
iV\ot Il c r- d<ll lglllcr i 1l1 l'r(lCl iOl1 s, ~8. 42 Pe,Hsoll , J. 5 .. 92
l'xa III I'll'. <)(, Perry, .1 . c., 57
MlilTa y, 1-1. A ., 2, (), 8 , 14,44,62-64,67-(,9, Pi lOll, D. A .. 52
74 Piolro ws h;i, c., 2. 2,';
Mll rsll' ill , Il . I , 3, 1 3.32 Piolro ws ki , Z. A .. 92
MIISSl'll, i' .. '53 Porcerel li . .1. 1-1 .• 5 5, 57
Press ure Ihc llll'S
Nagy, T. F., 2') PcHCIlI ,11 ,l4-3,';, 42, 80, 9 7 . Ion
Nas h , M . R .. 56 pariller, 35-36
N,lylor, 1-1 .. 53 Projcclioll
Need lor ,Khin'ellll'llI , !l1L'a~ l1rillg , 5'1 - 5()
bi()logic,l l COITl'l,lll'S, 5 1- 52 Il'sier's. 26
chi ld - rc<, rillg, 52 VS. llollprojcCli oll, 26
l'l'OIlO !ll ic, 1)2 PSYI. :h,lst hclliJ sc,-l k . RS
rl's l'MCil lilldillgs, '5 1-53 Psycll!l log ic,l l rcporl s, 83- 93
Nl'l llkr, C. H .. 7 6 COlllllllln-gelll'r,1 ICd, 92-9 3
Nil'i1L' rdill g. 1<.. 2 Ill J .x illl i/ill g v,llidil \" <)0
N igg. ,I ., c:,7 nplillli z ill g ( )llIllllllli Gl tioll, 9 1
N()lllOlil l'lil illlnp!"el,1 lioli. I ()- 17 orgJlli z{llioll . 89- ()O
Olill i lH', H4- f\9
s llg gl's tinll ~, 89- 91
Ps)'ChOP<l thi c d C\ 'j,'ll' s(l k , 8f)
Oi>r/ll\' .I . E .. 2 Ps n 'l\() Illn,1 I' \'
Ornl pal iOIl ,11 r() lllTril I I1l'lIIl'S, :;4, ,8- 39, 4') proloco ls, 76- 82
Oedipal l·Oll ll illS. 39. 48 TA T li se ill , 73-,';2
Olsoll. T. K. , (,2 Purccll, 1<., ')4
Ordill a ry ,1 l'1 iv il y 111L'IIlL'S, 46-47
OI'l:rlwlsn, .1. L .. 7. (' 3 R,lL'. W 1\ .. 62
R,lP,1POrl , D., 7, ()- 12 , 2(), 22 - 25
P,llolll,1rl' S. R. S .. ()2 R,lPPOri, (,
1\1 I1d1('r;. P. , c;() Rccordillg rcs poll sl'S, ()- I I
l\lrtll1o;., Rcligi oll Ihl'IIll'S, 42. 4'>
scaic, ~K Rl'lIIilliscl'llCC IhcIlICS , ,<),45
Illl'llIl'S, 40, 47 RClllorSl' lill'IlIC S, 43
1'.1 ITllI ,1 I Ihl'llIeS Resc,lrch lilldill gs, 5 1-57
rOIll'lTII,3() Jggrl'ss ioll, 5 )~5l)
COllll'I IIiIlCllI , 4() defcilsc IIIccilJllis lll S scorill g, 55-56

Copyrighted Material
120 Ind ex

hosti li ty. 53-55 Silhnt. D .. 57

in te rpersonal object re lat ioll s. 56-57 Si lk. K. R.. 56-57
Ilccd lor ach ieveillellt. 5 1-53 Silli lli . .J. A .. 73
Rc til'l. A . I.. 2, 59. 60. 67-68 Silllo nt oll. M . .I .. 76
Ret ire lll t' nt tlw lll<'. 4 0 Sill ister e n co llnter thcl1lcs. 49
Remikorl. M., ix. 13. 25. 54. 74-76. KO. K9 SOC i,l l Cogll iti on ,1mi Object Rclat ions scales.
Ritzier. B. A .. 3. 67 56
Robnts Appercc ptioll Tcs t lor C h ildrcn . 3. SO lolll,ln , I. L.. 3
62 SOI lt lll'rIl Mississippi TAT.
Robc rt s. G. E .. 3. 62 Spa ll g lcr . W. D .. 5 1
Rogier, L. H .. 65 SPCCi,ll poplrl ,lt ions, 60
Romt' . 1-1. P .. 92 StMr. Il . D .. 3
Rorschach COlllprc hcn sivc Sys telll, 92 Stcin . E . .J.. 76
Rorschach Tcst. v i. K6- 86. 9') Stcin . tv\. I. . 22. 28
colltras tcd to TAT. 2 S tilllllili s c ha racter ist ics. 3 1- 49
cross-c ult u ra l stud y. 59- ()O StoIlC, 1-1 .. 73
hostility Illeasure. 54 Sto ry cOlltl' nt. 18-2 1
intcrpersona l objed rclatioll s IlH· as u rc. co n ce ptioll or th c cnv irolllllcnt. 20
56-57 Ilero. 18- 19
Rorschach. 1-1 .. 59 object rclatio n s. 20
Roscllblat t. D .. 14 (1IIt«1I11l', 20-2 1
Roscll wa ld. G. C, 7. 9. I I . 17 Story str uclllrl' . 2 1- 23
Roscnzwcig. S. 1-1 .. 74 Sliccor th c lllc s
Ro ss ini . E. D .. ix pMl·nt. 38. 42. 48
Rot h . L. fl. . 76 partlln. 36
Russ. S. W .. 7. 63 Sllic ida lth clllcs, 35.43.45.47
n,ll11 p ll's. 76- 77. 104- 105
Sad Iless, 3 1-32. 102- 103 SIIpnlh1turai thCllll'S, 4K
S,l nlord. R. N .. 53 SWl'11so n . A. Z.. 92
Sc h akr. R .. 7 , 9- 12. 19-20. 22- 2')
Sc h i70ph IT II ia Tallellt. N .. 89, 9 1
pa ranoid t ype. 98 Teg lasi. 1-1 .. 89- 90
scalc. 88 Tcll-Ml' -A-S tor y. 3
Schoo l Appercc ption Method. l· X,l I1IPk. 102- 104
SCh Ullll'r. F., I. 6. 14 SJhl 11i sh-1 Llllg ll ogC, 64- 65
Scodl'l. A .. 54 Tnn'. I) .. 7
Scor in g Test ,1d lni ni str,lt ion
defcll sc Illcchani sills. 55 - 5(, illl]lIiry. 11 - 12
SYStClll S. 14 - 15 ill "'trllU iol1 s, 8- 9
Sl'if-eSlec lll thcllles. 46-47. K6 - 87 111,1terials. 5- 6
SC Il I,l nti c di lie rc lltial stlldies. 34- 49 r,ll i,l l inlpli c,lt io lls. 12
Sen ior Ap perccp ti on Test. 3, 62 r,l pport .6
SC llin g,6 reco rdill g responscs, 9- 1 I
Sex thelllcs "'ct tin g,6
adva nce s. 37 test illg c h ilelrel l, 12
cxaillpie. 77-78 w he ll to li se TAT. 5
illi cit. 43 w hi c h ca rd s to give. 6- 8
S h a rk ey. 1< . .J. . 3. (,7 Tcst behavior observ,l tion s, 23-2')
S h e rw ood . E. T., 68-7 0 Tes t rcports. 83-93
Shn e idlllan , E. S .. 3 COllllllller-gt' llerated. 92-93
Silber. D. E.. 66 Ill ,l x imi zillg val idit y, 90

Copyrighted Material
 Index 121

optilllizing collllllunication, 91 Theilles Conccrning Blacks cards. 63

organization, 89- 90 Thcory , 13- 14
outline, 84- 89 Tholllas, S .. 55
suggestions, 89-93 Tholllpson. C E.. 62-63, 65
Th'll , S., 3, 46 Tischler. L., 98
Theincr, E., 74 TOlllpkins, S., 14
Thematic Appl'rccption Test Tonsager. M. E.. 76
Altcrnativcs to, 61-69 Transccndcnce, 32
alTas of interpretation, 17- 23 Triplett. S .. 63
assessment dirfl'rcnces. 70- 71 Tsui. E. C, 65
authorship of. 2
card stilll ulu s charaOl'r ist ics, 31-49 Ullmann, L. . 73- 74
choosi ng tests, 69- 70 Understanding of Soc ial Causality scales.
defcnsc lllcchanisills. 55-56 57
diVl'rsity issucs. 59- 7 1 Unrequi ted love thcmes, 35
history of. 1- 3
Iwstilit y/agg rcssion. 53- 55 Vacillat ion thelllcs. 40, 48-49
idiographic intl'rpretation, 16- 17 Valid it y. maxim izing, 90
in ps ychotherapy. 73- 82 Vazqucz, C .. 3. 64- 65
In dian Illodil'ication , 64
inquir y. 11-12 War thClllCS. 39.46. 100- 10 1
inst rUCliolls. 8 - 9 Washington. G .. 77
interpersolhll object rclations. 56-57 Watkins, C E.. 2
intl'rprctJtion. 1>-30 Webl'r. M .. 60
maill themes techniquc, 15- 16 Weinbergcr, J.. 51
III a t l'ria Is, 5-6 Wcincr, B .. 53
nced lor ,lchievclllcllt. 5 1-53 Weiskopl , E. A .. 13
I\()lllothctic interpret ation. 16- 17 Weisskopf-.Joelson, E. A .. 32
1\()llciinical ,lpp li cat ion s. 3 Wcissman, S., 53
ra cial implications, 12 Wcstcn. 0 .. 14, 56-57
I·apport. 6 Williaills. J. M .. 91
recording resIH lIls{'S, 9- 11 Winterbottom, M. R .. 52
ITscarch filHiings. 5 1-57 Wiss. F. C. 57
scori ng syste m s. 14- 15 Wixolll. J.. 57
settillg, 6 Wolford . .J., 76
tcst beha vior observations. 23-25 Wolk, R. B .. 3. 62
tcst reports. 83-93 Wolk. R. I.. 3. 62
tcsting childre n. 12 Worchcl, F. F., 13. 62
thcory. 13- 14 Worry tlll'lllcs. 4 1
whcn to usc, 5
which cards to give, 6- 8 Zax. M .. 32. 34
-Z.67 Zubin, J., I, 6, 14, 16,29, 3 1

Copyrighted Material
Copyrighted Material