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Ultrasonic Testing
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) uses high frequency sound waves
(typically in the range between 0.5 and 15 MHz) to conduct
examinations and make measurements. Besides its wide use
in engineering applications (such as flaw detection/ evaluation,
dimensional measurements, material characterization, etc.),
ultrasonics are also used in the medical field (such as
sonography, therapeutic ultrasound, etc.).

In general, ultrasonic testing is based on the capture and

quantification of either the reflected waves (pulse-echo) or
the transmitted waves (through-transmission). Each of the
two types is used in certain applications, but generally, pulse
echo systems are more useful since they require one-sided access to the object being insp

Basic Principles

A typical pulse-echo UT
inspection system consists
of several functional units,
such as the pulser/receiver,
transducer, and a display
device. A pulser/receiver is
an electronic device that can
produce high voltage electrical
pulses. Driven by the pulser,
the transducer generates
high frequency ultrasonic
energy. The sound energy is
introduced and propagates through the materials in the form of waves. When
there is a discontinuity (such as a crack) in the wave path, part of the energy will
be reflected back from the flaw surface. The reflected wave signal is transformed
into an electrical signal by the transducer and is displayed on a screen. Knowing
the velocity of the waves, travel time can be directly related to the distance that
the signal traveled. From the signal, information about the reflector location, size,
orientation and other features can sometimes be gained.

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Advantages and Disadvantages

The primary advantages and disadvantages when compared to other NDT methods
are:

Advantages

• It is sensitive to both surface and subsurface discontinuities.

• The depth of penetration for flaw detection or measurement is superior to other
NDT methods.
• Only single-sided access is needed when the pulse-echo technique is
used. • It is highly accurate in determining the reflector position and estimating its size
and
shapes. • Minimum part preparation is
required. • It provides instantaneous
results. • Detailed images can be produced with automated
systems. • It is nonhazardous to operators or nearby personnel and does not
affect the material being tested. • It has other uses, such as thickness
measurement, in addition to flaw detection. • Its equipment can be highly
portable or highly automated.

Disadvantages

• Surface must be accessible to transmit ultrasound.

• Skill and training is more extensive than with some other methods.
• It normally requires a coupling medium to promote the transfer of sound energy
into the test specimen. • Materials that are rough, irregular in shape, very
small, exceptionally thin or not homogeneous are difficult to inspect. • Cast iron
and other coarse grained materials are difficult to inspect due to low

sound transmission and high signal noise.

• Linear defects oriented parallel to the sound beam may go undetected.
• Reference standards are required for both equipment calibration and the
characterization of flaws.

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PHYSICS OF ULTRASOUND

Wave Propagation
Ultrasonic testing is based on the vibration in materials which is generally referred
to as acoustics. All material substances are comprised of atoms, which may be
forced into vibrational motion about their equilibrium positions. Many different
patterns of vibrational motion exist at the atomic level; however, most are irrelevant
to acoustics and ultrasonic testing. Acoustics is focused on particles that contain
many atoms that move in harmony to produce a mechanical wave. When a material
is not stressed in tension or compression beyond its elastic limit, its individual
particles perform elastic oscillations. When the particles of a medium are displaced
from their equilibrium positions, internal restoration forces arise. These elastic
restoring forces between particles, combined with inertia of the particles, lead to
the oscillatory motions of the medium.

In solids, sound waves can propagate in

four principal modes that are based on
the way the particles oscillate. Sound
can propagate as longitudinal waves,
shear waves, surface waves, and in thin
materials as plate waves. Longitudinal
and shear waves are the two modes of
propagation most widely used in
ultrasonic testing. The particle movement
responsible for the propagation of
longitudinal and shear waves is illustrated in the figure.

• In longitudinal waves, the oscillations occur in the

longitudinal direction or the direction of wave propagation.
Since compression and expansion forces are active in
these waves, they are also called pressure or compression waves.
They are also sometimes called density waves because
material density fluctuates as the wave moves.
Compression waves can be generated in gases, liquids,
as well as solids because the energy travels through the
atomic structure by a series of compressions and expansion movements.

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• In the transverse or shear waves, particles

oscillate at a right angle or transverse to the
direction of propagation. Shear waves
require an acoustically solid material for
effective propagation, and therefore, are not
effectively propagated in materials such as
liquids or gasses. Shear waves are relatively
weak when compared to longitudinal waves.
In fact, shear waves are usually generated
in materials using some of the energy from longitudinal waves.

Modes of Sound Wave Propagation

In air, sound travels by the compression and rarefaction of air molecules in the
direction of travel. However, in solids, molecules can support vibrations in other
directions. Hence, a number of different types of sound waves are possible. Waves
can be characterized by oscillatory patterns that are capable of maintaining their
shape and propagating in a stable manner. The propagation of waves is often
described in terÿs of hat are alled wave modesÿ.

As mentioned previously, longitudinal and transverse (shear) waves are most

often used in ultrasonic inspection. However, at surfaces and interfaces, various
types of elliptical or complex vibrations of the particles make other waves possible.
Some of these wave modes such as Rayleigh and Lamb waves are also useful for
ultrasonic inspection.

Though there are many different modes of wave propagation, the table summarizes
the four types of waves that are used in NDT.

Wave Type Particle Vibration

Longitudinal (Compression) Parallel to wave direction
Transverse (Shear) Perpendicular to wave direction
Surface - Rayleigh Elliptical orbit - symmetrical mode
Plate Wave - Lamb Component perpendicular to surface

Since longitudinal and transverse waves were discussed previously, surface

and plate waves are introduced here.

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• Surface (or Rayleigh) waves travel at the surface of a relatively thick solid
material penetrating to a depth of one wavelength. A surface wave is a
combination of both a longitudinal and transverse motion which results in an
elliptical motion as shown in the image. The major axis of the ellipse is
perpendicular to the surface of the solid. As the depth of an individual atom
from the surface increases, the width of its elliptical motion decreases. Surface
waves are generated when a longitudinal wave intersects a surface slightly
larger than the second critical angle and they travel at a velocity between .87
and .95 of a shear wave.

Rayleigh waves are useful because they are very

sensitive to surface defects (and other surface
features) and they follow the surface around curves.
Because of this, Rayleigh waves can be used to
inspect areas that other waves might have difficulty reaching.

• Plate (or Lamb) waves are similar to surface waves except they can only be
generated in materials a few wavelengths thick (thin plates). Lamb waves are
complex vibrational waves that propagate parallel to the test surface
throughout the thickness of the material. They are influenced a great deal by
the test wave frequency and material thickness. Lamb waves are generated
when a wave hits a surface at an incident angle such that the parallel
component of the velocity of the wave (in the source) is equal to the velocity of the wave
Lamb waves will travel several meters in steel and so are useful to scan plate,
wire, and tubes. o With Lamb waves, a number of modes of particle vibration
are possible, but the two most common are symmetrical and asymmetrical.
The complex motion of the particles is similar to the elliptical orbits for
surface waves.
Symmetrical Lamb waves move in a symmetrical
fashion about the median plane of the plate.
This is sometimes called the extension modeÿ
because the wave is stretching and compressing
the plate in the wave motion direction.
The asymmetrical Lamb wave mode is often
called the flexural modeÿ eÿause a large portioÿ
of the motion is in a normal direction to the
plate, and a little motion occurs in the direction parallel to the plate. In
this mode, the body of the plate bends as the two surfaces move in the same direct

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Properties of Acoustic Waves

Among the properties of waves propagation in isotropic solid materials are
wavelength, frequency, and velocity. The wavelength is directly proportional to
the velocity of the wave and inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave.
This relationship is shown by the following equation:

=
ÿ
Where;
: wavelength
(m) : velocity
(m/ s) : frequency (Hz)

The velocity of sound waves in a certain medium is fixed where it is a characteristic

of that medium. As can be noted from the equation, an increase in frequency will
result in a decrease in wavelength. For instance, the velocity of longitudinal waves
in steel is 5850 m/ s and that results in a wavelength of 5.85 mm when the frequency is 1 MH

Wavelength and Defect Detection

In ultrasonic testing, the inspector must make a decision about the frequency of
the transducer that will be used in order to control the wavelength. The wavelength
of the ultrasound used has a significant effect on the probability of detecting a discontinuity
A general rule of thumb is that a discontinuity must be larger than one-half the
wavelength to stand a reasonable chance of being detected.

Sensitivity and resolution are two terms that are often used in ultrasonic inspection
to describe a technique's ability to locate flaws. Sensitivity is the ability to locate
small discontinuities. Sensitivity generally increases with higher frequency
(shorter wavelengths). Resolution is the ability of the system to locate
discontinuities that are close together within the material or located near the part
surface. Resolution also generally increases as the frequency increases.

The wave frequency can also affect the capability of an inspection in adverse ways.
Therefore, selecting the optimal inspection frequency often involves maintaining
a balance between the favorable and unfavorable results of the selection. Before
selecting an inspection frequency, the material's grain structure and thickness,
and the discontinuity's type, size, and probable location should be considered. As frequenc

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increases, sound tends to scatter from large or course grain structure and from
small imperfections within a material. Cast materials often have coarse grains and
thus require lower frequencies to be used for evaluations of these products.
Wrought and forged products with directional and refined grain structure can usually
be inspected with higher frequency transducers.

Since more things in a material are likely to scatter a portion of the sound energy at
higher frequencies, the penetration depth (the maximum depth in a material that
flaws can be located) is also reduced. Frequency also has an effect on the shape of
the ultrasonic beam. Beam spread, or the divergence of the beam from the center
axis of the transducer, and how it is affected by frequency will be discussed later.

It should be mentioned, so as not to be misleading, that a number of other variables

will also affect the ability of ultrasound to locate defects. These include the pulse
length, type and voltage applied to the crystal, properties of the crystal, backing
material, transducer diameter, and the receiver circuitry of the instrument. These
are discussed in more detail in a later section.

Sound Propagation in Elastic Materials

It was mentioned previously that sound waves propagate due to
the vibrations or oscillatory motions of particles within a material.
An ultrasonic wave may be visualized as an infinite number of
oscillating masses or particles connected by means of elastic
springs. Each individual particle is influenced by the motion of its
nearest neighbor and both inertial and elastic restoring forces act upon each particle.

A mass on a spring has a single resonant frequency (natural frequency) determined

by its spring constant k and its mass m. Within the elastic limit of any material, there
is a linear relationship between the displacement of a particle and the force trying
to restore the particle to its equilibrium position.
This linear dependency is described by Hooke's Law. In terms
of the spring model, the relation between force and displacement
is written as F = k x.

The Speed of Sound

Hooke's Law, when used along with Newton's Second Law, can explain a few things
about the speed of sound. The speed of sound within a material is a function of the

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properties of the material and is independent of the amplitude of the sound wave.
Newton's Second Law says that the force applied to a particle will be balanced by the particle's
mass and the acceleration of the particle. Mathematically, Newton's Second Law is written as F
= m a. Hooke's Law then says that this force will be balanced by a force in the opposite direction
that is dependent on the amount of displacement and the spring constant. Therefore, since the
applied force and the restoring force are equal, ma = kx can be written.

Since the mass m and the spring constant k are constants for any given material, it can be seen
that the acceleration a and the displacement x are the only variables. It can also be seen that
they are directly proportional. For instance, if the displacement of the particle increases, so does
its acceleration. It turns out that the time that it takes a particle to move and return to its
equilibrium position is independent of the force applied. So, within a given material, sound
always travels at the same speed no matter how much force is applied when other variables,
such as temperature, are held
constants.

Material Properties Affecting the Speed of Sound

Of course, sound does travel at different speeds in different materials. This is because the mass
of the atomic particles and the spring constants are different for different materials. The mass of
the particles is related to the density of the material, and the spring constant is related to the
elastic constants of a material. The general relationship between the speed of sound in a solid
and its density and elastic constants is given by the following equation:

=_
Where;
: speed of sound (m/ s) :
2
elastic constant in a given directionÿ (N/ m )
: density (kg/ m3 )

This equation may take a number of different forms depending on the type of wave (longitudinal
or shear) and which of the elastic constants that are used. It must also be mentioned that the
subscript attached to ÿin the above equation is used to indicate the directionality of the elastic
constants with respect to the wave type and

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direction of wave travel. In isotropic materials, the elastic constants are the same
for all directions within the material. However, most materials are anisotropic and
the elastic constants differ with each direction. For example, in a piece of rolled
aluminum plate, the grains are elongated in one direction and compressed in the
others and the elastic constants for the longitudinal direction differs slightly from
those for the transverse or short transverse directions.

For longitudinal waves, the speed of sound in a solid material can be found as:

= +
Where;
: speed of sound for longitudinal
2
waves (m/ s)
: Youÿg's odulus (N/ m )
: Poissoÿ's ratio

While for shear (transverse) waves, the speed of sound is found as:

=
Where;
: speed of sound for shear waves 2
(m/ s)
: Shear modulus of elasticity (N/ );
m =+
ÿ

From the above equations, it can be found that longitudinal waves travel faster
than shear waves (longitudinal waves are approximately twice as fast as shear
waves). The table below gives examples of the compressional and shear sound
velocities in some metals.
Material Compressional velocity ÿ Shear
ÿ velocity ÿ ÿ
Aluminum 6320 3130
Steel (1020) 5890 3240
Cast iron 4800 2400
Copper 4660 2330
Titanium 6070 3310

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Attenuation of Sound Waves

When sound travels through a medium, its intensity diminishes with distance. In
idealized materials, sound pressure (signal amplitude) is reduced due to the
spreading of the wave. In natural materials, however, the sound amplitude is further
weakened due to the scattering and absorption. Scattering is the reflection of the
sound in directions other than its original direction of propagation. Absorption is
the conversion of the sound energy to other forms of energy. The combined effect
of scattering and absorption is called attenuation.
Attenuation is generally proportional to the square of sound frequency.

The amplitude change of a decaying plane wave can be expressed as:

=_ ÿ

Np (Neper) is a logarithmic dimensionless

quantity and it can be converted

Where; : initial (unattenuated) amplitude : to Decibels by dividing it by 0.1151.

Decibel is a more common unit when
attenuation coefficient (Np/ m) :
traveled distance (m) relating the amplitudes of two signals.

The Decibel (dB) is a logarithmic unit that describes a ratio of two measurements. The difference
between two measurements X1 and X2 is described in decibels as:
ÿ
= log
ÿ

The intensity of sound waves (I) is quantified by measuring the variation in sound pressure using a
transducer, and then the pressure is transferred to a voltage signal. Since the intensity of sound
waves is proportional to the square of the pressure amplitude, the ratio of sound intensity in decibels
can be expressed as:
ÿ
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ
= log = log = log = log
ÿ ÿÿ ÿ ÿ

where; : the change in sound intensity between two measurements

ÿ
& : are the two different transducer output voltages (or readings)
Use of dB units allows ratios of various sizes to be described using easy to work with numbers.

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Attenuation can be determined by evaluating the multiple back-wall reflections

seen in a typical A-scan display (like the one shown in the image in the previous
page). The number of decibels between two adjacent signals is measured and this
value is divided by the time interval between them. This calculation produces an
attenuation coefficient in decibels per unit time. Then knowing the velocity of
sound it can be converted to decibels per unit length.

Acoustic Impedance

Sound travels through materials under the influence of sound pressure. Because
molecules or atoms of a solid are bound elastically to one another, the excess
pressure results in a wave propagating through the solid.

The acoustic impedance (ÿ) of a material is defined as the product of its density ( )
and the velocity of sound in that material ( ).

Where; : acoustic impedance (kg/ m2 s) or (N s/

m3 ) : density (kg/ m3 ) : sound velocity
(m/ s)

The table gives examples of the acoustic impedances for some materials:
water() Water
Aluminum Copper Steel Titanium 20°C ( 20°C)
acou. Imp.
17.1 x 106 41.6 x 106 46.1 x 106 28 x 106 1.48 x 106 413
(kg/ m2 s)

Acoustic impedance is important in:

• The determination of acoustic transmission and reflection at the boundary of two
materials having different acoustic
impedances. • The design of ultrasonic
transducers. • Assessing absorption of sound in a medium.

Reflection and Transmission Coefficients

Ultrasonic waves are reflected at boundaries where there is a difference in acoustic

impedances (ÿ) of the materials on each side of the boundary. This difference in is

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commonly referred to as the impedance mismatch. The greater the impedance

mismatch, the greater the percentage of energy that will be reflected at the
interface or boundary between one medium and another.

The fraction of the incident wave intensity that is reflected can be derived based
on the fact that particle velocity and local particle pressures must be continuous
across the boundary. When the acoustic impedances of the materials on both
sides of the boundary are known, the fraction of the incident wave intensity that
is reflected (the reflection coefficient) can be calculated as:
ÿ Multiplying the reflection coefficient

=(ÿ
+ _ÿ_ )
by 100 yields the amount of energy
reflected as a percentage of the original energy.

Where & are the acoustic impedances of the two materials at the interface.

Since the amount of reflected energy plus the transmitted energy must equal the
total amount of incident energy, the transmission coefficientÿ is calculated by
simply subtracting the reflection coefficient from one (ÿ = ÿ ).

Taking for example a water steel interface and calculating the reflection and
transmission coefficients (using the acoustic impedance information given in the
previous table), we get = 0.88 and = 0.12. This means that the amount of energy
transmitted into the second material is only 12% while 88% is reflected back at
the interface. If we convert the amounts of reflection and transmission to decibels,
we find that to be -1.1 dB and -18.4 dB respectively. The negative sign indicates
that individually, the amount of reflected and transmitted energy is smaller than
the incident energy.

If reflection and transmission at interfaces is followed through

the component, only a small percentage of the original energy
makes it back to the transducer, even when loss by attenuation is ignored.
For example, consider an immersion inspection of a steel block.
The sound energy leaves the transducer, travels through the
water, encounters the front surface of the steel, encounters the
back surface of the steel and reflects back through the front
surface on its way back to the transducer. At the water steel
interface (front surface), 12% of the energy is transmitted. At
the back surface, 88% of the 12% that made it through the front surface is reflected.
This is 10.6% of the intensity of the initial incident wave. as the

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wave exits the part back through the front surface, only 12% of 10.6 or 1.3% of the
original energy is transmitted back to the transducer.

Note that in such calculation the attenuation of the signal as it travels through the
material is not considered. Should it be considered, the amount of signal received
back by the transducer would be even smaller.

Q: What portion of the signal will be reflected at an Air-Steel interface?

A: 99.996%

Refraction and Snell's Law

When an ultrasonic wave passes through an interface between two materials at an

oblique angle, and the materials have different indices of refraction, both reflected
and refracted waves are produced. This also occurs with light, which is why
objects seen across an interface appear to be shifted relative to where they really
are. For example, if you look straight down at an object at the bottom of a glass of
water, it looks closer than it really is.

Refraction takes place at an interface of two materials

due to the difference in acoustic velocities between the
two materials. The figure shows the case where plane
sound waves traveling in one material enters a second
material that has a higher acoustic velocity. When the
wave encounters the interface between these two
materials, the portion of the wave in the second material
is moving faster than the portion of the wave that is still
in the first material. As a result, this causes the wave to
bend and change its direction (this is referred to as “refractionÿ).

Snell's Law describes the relationship between the angles

and the velocities of the waves. Snell's law equals the
ratio of material velocities to the ratio of the sine's of incident
and refracted angles, as shown in the following equation:

sin ÿ sin ÿ
=
ÿ ÿ

Where;

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& : the longitudinal wave velocities in the first and second materials
ÿ ÿ

respectively
& : the
angles of incident and refracted waves respectively

Note that in the diagram, there is a reflected longitudinal wave (ÿ ) shown. This
wave is reflected at the same angle as the incident wave because the two waves
are traveling in the same material, and hence have the same velocity. This reflected
wave is unimportant in our explanation of Snell's Law, but it should be remembered
that some of the wave energy is reflected at the interface.

Conversion Mode

When sound travels in a solid material, one form of wave energy can be
transformed into another form. For example, when a longitudinal wave hits an
interface at an angle, some of the energy can cause particle movement
in the transverse direction to start a shear wave.
Mode conversion occurs when a wave encounters
an interface between materials of different
acoustic impedances and the incident angle is
not normal to the interface. It should be noted that
mode conversion occurs every timeÿ a wave
encounters an interface at an angle. This mode
conversion occurs for both the portion of the
wave that passes through the interface and
the portion that reflects off the interface.

In the previous section, it was pointed out that when sound waves pass through
an interface between materials having different acoustic velocities, refraction
takes place at the interface. The larger the difference in acoustic velocities
between the two materials, the more the sound is refracted. However, the
converted shear wave is not refracted as much as the longitudinal wave because
shear waves travel slower than longitudinal waves. Therefore, the velocity
difference between the incident longitudinal wave and the shear wave is not as
great as it is between the incident and refracted longitudinal waves. Also note that when a lo
inside the material, the reflected shear wave is reflected at a smaller angle than the

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reflected longitudinal waves. This is also due to the fact that the shear velocity is
less than the longitudinal velocity within a given material.

Snell's Law holds true for shear waves as well as longitudinal waves and can be
written as follows:

sin ÿ sin ÿ sin ÿ sin ÿ

= = =
ÿ ÿ ÿ ÿ

Where;
ÿ
& ÿ : the longitudinal wave velocities in the
first and second materials respectively : the
& shear wave velocities in the first
_
and second materials
_ & respectively : the angles of incident
and refracted longitudinal waves
_ & respectively : the angles of the converted reflected
and refracted shear waves respectively

Critical Angles

When a longitudinal wave moves from a slower to a faster material at an angle (and
thus the wave is refracted), there is an incident angle that makes the angle of
refraction of the longitudinal waveÿ to become 90°. This is angle is known as the
first critical angleÿ. The first critical angle can be found from Snell's law by putting
in an angle of 90° for the angle of the refracted ray. At the critical angle of incidence,
much of the acoustic energy is in the form of an inhomogeneous compression
wave, which travels along the interface and decays exponentially with depth from the interfac
This wave is sometimes referred to as a "creep wave". Because of their
inhomogeneous nature and the fact that they decay rapidly, creep waves are not
used as extensively as Rayleigh surface waves in NDT.

When the incident angle is greater than the first critical angle, only the mode
converted shear wave propagates into the material. For this reason, most angle
beam transducers use a shear wave so that the signal is not complicated by having
two waves present.

In many cases there is also an incident angle that makes the angle of refraction
for the shear waveÿ to become 90°. This is known as the second critical angleÿ and at this

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point, all of the wave energy is reflected or refracted into a surface following
shear wave or shear creep wave. Slightly beyond the second critical angle, surface
(Rayleigh) waves will be generated.

The incident angle for angle-beam transducers is somewhere between the first
and second critical angles such that a shear wave, at a desired angle, is introduced
into the material being inspected.

The figure shows the mode of waves introduced into a steel surface as a function
of the incident angle of the wave generated by the transducer. It can be seen from
the figure that the incident angle for angle beam (shear) transducers ranges
between 30° to 55°. But it is important to remember that, due to refraction, the
angle of the shear wave inside the material is completely different than the
incident angle.

Wave Interaction or Interference

The understanding of the interaction or interference of waves is important for
understanding the performance of an ultrasonic transducer. When sound
emanates from an ultrasonic transducer, it does not originate from a single point,
but instead originates from many points along the surface of the piezoelectric
element. This results in a sound field with many waves interacting or interfering with each o

When waves interact, they superimpose on each other, and the amplitude of the
sound pressure at any point of interaction is the sum of the amplitudes of the two
individual waves. First, let's consider two identical waves that originate from the
same point. When they are in phase (so that the peaks and valleys of one are
exactly aligned with those of the other), they combine to double the pressure of
either wave acting alone. When they are completely out of phase (so that the
peaks of one wave are exactly aligned with the valleys of the other wave), they
combine to cancel each other out. When the two waves are not completely in
phase or out of phase, the resulting wave is the

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sum of the wave amplitudes for all points along the wave.

When the origins of the two interacting waves are

not the same, it is a little harder to picture the wave
interaction, but the principles are the same. Up until
now, we have primarily looked at waves in the form
of a 2D plot of wave amplitude versus wave position.
However, anyone that has dropped something in a
pool of water can picture the waves radiating out
from the source with a circular wave front. If two
objects are dropped a short distance apart into the
pool of water, their waves will radiate out from their sources and interact with
each other. At every point where the waves interact, the amplitude of the particle
displacement is the combined sum of the amplitudes of the particle displacement of the ind

As stated previously, sound waves originate from multiple points along the face
of the transducer. The image shows what the sound field would look like if the
waves originated from just three points (of course there are more than three
points of origin along the face of a transducer). It can be seen that the waves
interact near the face of the transducer and as a result there are extensive fluctuations and t
very uneven. In ultrasonic testing, this is known
as the near fieldÿ or Fresnel zone. The sound
field is more uniform away from the transducer,
in the far fieldÿ or Fraunhofer zone. At some
distance from the face of the transducer and
central to the face of the transducer, a uniform
and intense wave field develops.

Wave Diffraction
Diffraction involves a change in direction of waves as
they pass through an opening or around a barrier in their path.
Diffraction of sound waves is commonly observed; we
notice sound diffracting around corners or through door
openings, allowing us to hear others who are speaking to us from adjacent rooms.

In ultrasonic testing of solids, diffraction patterns are usually

generated at the edges of sharp reflectors (or discontinuities) such as cracks.
Usually the tip of a crack behaves as point source spreading waves
in all directions due to the diffraction of the incident wave.

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EQUIPMENT & TRANSDUCERS

Piezoelectric Transducers
The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion
of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for
ultrasonic testing. This conversion is done by the transducer using a piece of
piezoelectric material (a polarized material having some parts of the molecule
positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with
electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied
across the material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric
field causing the material to change dimensions. In addition, a permanently-
polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce
an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed
mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect.

The active element of most acoustic transducers used today

is a piezoelectric ceramic, which can be cut in various ways
to produce different wave modes. A large piezoelectric ceramic
element can be seen in the image of a sectioned low frequency
transducer. The most commonly employed ceramic for making
transducers is lead zirconate titanate.

The thickness of the active element is determined by the desired frequency of the
transducer. A thin wafer element vibrates with a wavelength that is twice its thickness.
Therefore, piezoelectric crystals are cut to a thickness that is 1/2 the desired
radiated wavelength. The higher the frequency of the transducer, the thinner the
active element is.

Characteristics of Piezoelectric Transducers

The function of the transducer is to convert electrical signals into mechanical
vibrations (transmit mode) and mechanical vibrations into electrical signals (receive mode).

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factors, including material, mechanical and electrical construction, and the

external mechanical and electrical load conditions, influence the behavior of a transducer.

A cut away of a typical contact transducer is shown in the figure. To get as much
energy out of the transducer as possible, an impedance matching layer is placed
between the active element and the face of the transducer. Optimal impedance
matching is achieved by sizing the matching layer so that its thickness is 1/4 of
the desired wavelength. This keeps waves that are reflected within the matching
layer in phase when they exit the layer. For contact transducers, the matching
layer is made from a material that has an acoustical impedance between the active
element and steel. Immersion transducers have a matching layer with acoustical
impedance between the active element and water. Contact transducers also
incorporate a wear plate to protect the matching layer and active element from scratching.

The backing material supporting the crystal has a great influence on the damping
characteristics of a transducer. Using a backing material with an impedance similar to
that of the active element will produce the most effective damping. Such a
transducer will have a wider bandwidth resulting in higher sensitivity and higher
resolution (ie, the ability to locate defects near the surface or in close proximity
in the material). As the mismatch in impedance between the active element and the backing
increases, material penetration increases but transducer sensitivity is reduced.

The bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies associated with a transducer.

The frequency noted on a transducer is the central frequency and depends
primarily on the backing material. Highly damped transducers will respond to
frequencies above and below the central frequency. The broad frequency range
provides a transducer with high resolving power. Less damped transducers will
exhibit a narrower frequency range and poorer resolving power, but greater penetration.

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The central frequency will also define the capabilities of a transducer. Lower frequencies
(0.5MHz - 2.25MHz) provide greater energy and penetration in the material, while high
frequency crystals (15.0MHz - 25.0MHz) provide reduced penetration but greater sensitivity
to small discontinuities.

Radiated Fields of Ultrasonic Transducers

The sound that emanates from a piezoelectric transducer does not originate from a point,
but instead originates from most of the surface of the piezoelectric element. The sound
field from a typical piezoelectric transducer is shown in the figure where lighter colors
indicating higher intensity. Since the ultrasound originates from a number of points along
the transducer face, the ultrasound intensity along the beam is affected by constructive
and destructive wave interference as discussed previously.

This wave interference leads to

extensive fluctuations in the sound
intensity near the source and is known
as the near fieldÿ. Because of acoustic
variations within a near field, it can be
extremely difficult to accurately
evaluate flaws in materials when they
are positioned within this area.

The pressure waves combine to form a relatively uniform front at the end of the near field.
The area beyond the near field where the ultrasonic beam is more uniform is called the
far fieldÿ. The transition between the near field and the far field occurs at a distance, , and
is sometimesSpherical
referred to
oras the "natural
cylindrical focus"changes
focusing of a flat the
(or structure
unfocused)of transducer.
a transducer field
by "pulling" the point nearer the transducer. The area just beyond the near field is where
the sound wave is well behaved and at its maximum strength. Therefore, optimal detection
results will be obtained when flaws occur in this area.

For a round transducer (often referred to as piston source transducer), the near field
distance can be found as:

= ÿÿÿ
4
Where;

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: transducer diameter, : transducer frequency, and : sound longitudinal

velocity in the medium through which waves are transmitted.

Beam Spread Transducers

As the sound waves exit the near field and propegate through the material, the
sound beam continuously spreads out. This phenomenon is usually referred to
as beam spread but sometimes it is also referred to as beam divergence or
ultrasonic diffraction. It should be noted that there is actually a difference between
beam spread and beam divergence. Beam spread is a measure of the whole angle
from side to side of the beam in the far field. Beam divergence is a measure of the
angle from one side of the sound beam to the central axis of the beam in the far
field. Therefore, beam spread is twice the beam divergence.

Although beam spread must be considered when performing an ultrasonic

inspection, it is important to note that in the far field, or Fraunhofer zone, the
maximum sound pressure is always found along the acoustic axis (centerline) of the transd
Therefore, the strongest reflections are likely to come from the area directly in
front of the transducer.

Beam spread occurs because the vibrating particle of the material (through which
the wave is traveling) do not always transfer all of their energy in the direction of
wave propagation. If the particles are not directly aligned in the direction of wave
propagation, some of the energy will get transferred off at an angle. In the near
field, constructive and destructive wave interference fill the sound field with fluctuation. At
the start of the far field, however, the beam strength is always greatest at the
center of the beam and diminishes as it spreads outward.

The beam spread is largely influenced by the frequency and diameter of the
transducer. For a flat piston source transducer, an approximation of the beam
divergence angle at which the sound pressure has decreased by one half (-6 dB)
as compared to its value at the centerline axis can be caculated as:

sin = .ÿ

Where;

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: the beam divergence angle from centerline to point where signal is at

half strength : sound velocity in the material

: diameter of the transducer :

frequency of the transducer

Transducer Types
Ultrasonic transducers are manufactured for a variety of applications and can be
custom fabricated when necessary. Careful attention must be paid to select the
proper transducer for the application. It is important to choose transducers that
have the desired frequency, bandwidth, and focusing to optimize inspection
capability. Most often the transducer is chosen either to enhance the sensitivity or
resolution of the system.

Transducers are classified into two major groups according to the application.

Contact transducers are used for direct contact inspections, and are generally
hand manipulated. They have elements protected in a rugged casing to
withstand sliding contact with a variety of materials. These transducers have
an ergonomic design so that they are easy to grip and move along a surface.
They often have replaceable wear plates to lengthen their useful life. Coupling
materials of water, grease, oils, or commercial materials are used to remove
the air gap between the transducer and the component being inspected.

Immersion transducers do not contact the component. These transducers are

designed to operate in a liquid environment and all connections are watertight.
Immersion transducers usually have an impedance matching layer that helps
to get more sound energy into the water and, in turn, into the component being
inspected. Immersion transducers can be purchased with a planer, cylindrically
focused or spherically focused lens. A focused transducer can improve the
sensitivity and axial resolution by concentrating the sound energy to a smaller
area.

Immersion transducers are typically used inside a

water tank or as part of a squirter or bubbler system
in scanning applications.

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Other Types of Contact Transducers

Contact transducers are available in a variety of configurations to improve their

usefulness for a variety of applications. The flat contact transducer shown above
is used in normal beam inspections of relatively flat surfaces, and where near
surface resolution is not critical. If the surface is curved, a shoe that matches the
curvature of the part may need to be added to the face of the transducer. If near
surface resolution is important or if an angle beam inspection is needed, one of
the special contact transducers described below might be used.

• Dual element transducers contain two independently

operated elements in a single housing. One of the
elements transmits and the other receives the ultrasonic
signal. Dual element transducers are especially well suited
for making measurements in applications where reflectors
are very near the transducer since this design eliminates
the ring down effect that single-element transducers
experience (when single-element transducers are operating
in pulse echo mode, the element cannot start receiving reflected
signals until the element has stopped ringing from its transmit
function). Dual element transducers are very useful when making
thickness measurements of thin materials and when inspecting for
near surface defects. The two elements are angled towards each other to create a crossed

• Delay line transducers provide versatility with a

variety of replaceable options. Removable delay
line, surface conforming membrane, and protective
wear cap options can make a single transducer
effective for a wide range of applications. As the
name implies, the primary function of a delay line
transducer is to introduce a time delay between the generation
of the sound wave and the arrival of any reflected waves. This
allows the transducer to complete its "sending" function before
it starts its "receiving" function so that near surface resolution
is improved. They are designed for use in applications such
as high precision thickness gauging of thin materials and
delamination checks in composite materials. They are also
useful in high-temperature measurement applications since the delay line
provides some insulation to the piezoelectric element from the heat.

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Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used to

introduce a refracted shear wave into the test material.
Transducers can be purchased in a variety of fixed
angles or in adjustable versions where the user
determines the angles of incidence and refraction. In the
fixed angle versions, the angle of refraction that is
marked on the transducer is only accurate for a particular
material, which is usually steel. The most commonly used
refraction angles for fixed angle transducers are 45°, 60° and
70°. The angled sound path allows the sound beam to be
reflected from the backwall to improve detectability of flaws in
and around welded areas. They are also used to generate surface waves for use in detecti

• Normal incidence shear wave transducers are unique because they allow the
introduction of shear waves directly into a test piece without the use of an
angle beam wedge. Careful design has enabled manufacturing of transducers
with minimal longitudinal wave contamination.

• Paint brush transducers are used to scan wide areas. These long and narrow
transducers are made up of an array of small crystals and that make it possible
to scan a larger area more rapidly for discontinuities. Smaller and more
sensitive transducers are often then required to further define the details of a discontinuit

Couplant

A couplant is a material (usually liquid) that facilitates the transmission of

ultrasonic energy from the transducer into the test specimen. Couplant is generally
necessary because the acoustic impedance mismatch between air and solids is
large. Therefore, nearly all of the energy is reflected and very little is transmitted into the test
The couplant displaces the air and makes it possible to get more sound energy
into the test specimen so that a usable ultrasonic signal can be obtained.
In contact ultrasonic testing a thin film of oil, glycerin or
water is typically used between the transducer and the test surface.
When shear waves are to be transmitted, the fluid is generally
selected to have a significant viscosity.

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When scanning over the part, an immersion technique is

often used. In immersion ultrasonic testing both the
transducer and the part are immersed in the couplant, which is typically water.
This method of coupling makes it easier to maintain
consistent coupling while moving and manipulating the
transducer and/or the part.

Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducers (EMATs)

Electromagnetic-acoustic transducers (EMAT) are a modern type of ultrasonic
transducers that work based on a totally different physical principle than
piezoelectric transducers and, most importantly, they do not need a couplant.
When a wire is placed near the surface of an electrically conducting object and is
driven by a current at the desired ultrasonic frequency, eddy currents will be
induced in a near surface region of the object. If a static magnetic field is also
present, these eddy currents will experience forces called Lorentz forcesÿ which
will cause pressure waves to be generated at the surface and propagate through
the material.

Different types of sound waves (longitudinal, shear,

lamb) can be generated using EMATs by varying the
configuration of the transducer such that the orientation
of the static magnetic field is changed.

EMATs can be used for thickness measurement, flaw

detection, and material property characterization. The EMATs offer many
advantages based on its non-contact couplant-free operation. These advantages
include the ability to operate in remote environments at elevated speeds and temperatures.

Pulser-Receivers

Ultrasonic pulser-receivers are well suited to general purpose ultrasonic testing.

Along with appropriate transducers and an oscilloscope, they can be used for
flaw detection and thickness gauging in a wide variety of metals, plastics, ceramics, and co
Ultrasonic pulser-receivers provide a unique, low-cost ultrasonic measurement

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capabilities. Specialized portable equipment that are dedicated for ultrasonic inspection
merge the pulser-receiver with the scope display in one small size battery operated
unit.

The pulser section of the instrument generates

short, large amplitude electric pulses of controlled
energy, which are converted into short ultrasonic
pulses when applied to an ultrasonic transducer.
Control functions associated with the pulser
circuit include:

• Pulse length or damping: The amount of time the pulse is applied to the
transducer. • Pulse energy: The voltage applied to the transducer. Typical pulser circuits will
from 100 volts to 800 volts to a transducer.

In the receiver section the voltage signals produced by the transducer, which
represent the received ultrasonic pulses, are amplified. The amplified signal is
available as an output for display or capture for signal processing. Control functions
associated with the receiver circuit include:

• Signal rectification: The signal can be viewed as positive half wave, negative half
wave or full wave.
• Filtering to shape and smoothing
• Gain, or signal amplification •
Reject control

Data Presentation
Ultrasonic data can be collected and displayed in a number of different formats.
The three most common formats are known in the NDT world as A-scan, B-scan
and C-scan presentations. Each presentation mode provides a different way of
looking at and evaluating the region of material being inspected. Modern
computerized ultrasonic scanning systems can display data in all three presentation forms si

A-Scan Presentation

The A-scan presentation displays the amount of received ultrasonic energy as a

function of time. The relative amount of received energy is plotted along the vertical
axis and the elapsed time (which may be related to the traveled distance within the
material) is displayed along the horizontal axis. Most instruments with an A-scan

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display allow the signal to be displayed as a rectified signal, or as either the positive
or negative half of the signal. In the A-scan presentation, relative discontinuity size
can be estimated by comparing the signal amplitude obtained from an unknown
reflector to that from a known reflector. Reflector depth can be determined by the
position of the signal on the horizontal time axis.

in the
illustration of the A-scan presentation shown in the figure, the initial pulse generated
by the transducer is represented by the signal IP, which is near time zero. As the
transducer is scanned along the surface of the part, four other signals are likely to
appear at different times on the screen. When the transducer is in its far left position,
only the IP signal and signal A, the sound energy reflecting from surface A, will be
seen on the trace. As the transducer is scanned to the right, a signal from the backwall BW
will appear later in time, showing that the sound has traveled farther to reach this
surface. When the transducer is over flaw B, signal B will appear at a point on the
time scale that is approximately halfway between the IP signal and the BW signal.
Since the IP signal corresponds to the front surface of the material, this indicates
that flaw B is about halfway between the front and back surfaces of the sample.
When the transducer is moved over flaw C, signal C will appear earlier in time since
the sound travel path is shorter and signal B will disappear since sound will no
longer be reflecting from it.

B-Scan Presentation

The B-scan presentation is a type of presentation that is possible for automated

linear scanning systems where it shows a profile (cross-sectional) view of the test specimen.
In the B-scan, the time-of-flight (travel time) of the sound waves is displayed along
the vertical axis and the linear position of the transducer is displayed along the
horizontal axis. From the B-scan, the depth of the reflector and its approximate
linear dimensions in the scan direction can be determined. The B-scan is typically
produced by establishing a trigger gate on the A-scan. Whenever the signal intensity
is great enough to trigger the gate, a point is produced on the B-scan. The gate is triggered by

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sound reflected from the backwall of the specimen and by smaller reflectors within
the material. In the B-scan image shown previously, line A is produced as the
transducer is scanned over the reduced thickness portion of the specimen. When
the transducer moves to the right of this section, the backwall line BW is produced.
When the transducer is over flaws B and C, lines that are similar in length to the
flaws and at similar depths within the material are drawn on the B-scan. It should
be noted that a limitation to this display technique is that reflectors may be masked
by larger reflectors near the surface.

C-Scan Presentation

The C-scan presentation is a type of presentation that is

possible for automated two-dimensional scanning systems
that provides a plan-type view of the location and size of
test specimen features. The plane of the image is parallel to
the scan pattern of the transducer. C-scan presentations
are typically produced with an automated data acquisition
system, such as a computer controlled immersion scanning system.
Typically, a data collection gate is established on the A-
scan and the amplitude or the time-of-flight of the signal is
recorded at regular intervals as the transducer is scanned
over the test piece. The relative signal amplitude or the time-
of flight is displayed as a shade of gray or a color for each of the positions where
data was recorded. The C-scan presentation provides an image of the features that
reflect and scatter the sound within and on the surfaces of the test piece.

High resolution scans can produce very detailed images. The

figure shows two ultrasonic C-scan images of a US quarter.
Both images were produced using a pulse-echo technique with
the transducer scanned over the head side in an immersion
scanning system. For the C-scan image on the top, the gate
was set to capture the amplitude of the sound reflecting from
the front surface of the quarter. Light areas in the image indicate
areas that reflected a greater amount of energy back to the
transducer. In the C-scan image on the bottom, the gate was
moved to record the intensity of the sound reflecting from the
back surface of the coin. The details on the back surface are
clearly visible but front surface features are also still visible
since the sound energy is affected by these features as it travels through the front surface of

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MEASUREMENT AND CALIBRATION TECHNIQUES

Normal Beam Inspection

Pulse-echo ultrasonic measurements can determine the location of a discontinuity
in a part or structure by accurately measuring the time required for a short
ultrasonic pulse generated by a transducer to travel through a thickness of
material, reflect from the back or the surface of a discontinuity , and be returned
to the transducer. In most applications, this time interval is a few microseconds
or less. The two-way transit time measured is divided by two to account for the
down-and-back travel path and multiplied by the velocity of sound in the test
material. The result is expressed in the well-known relationship:

ÿ
=
ÿ

Where is the distance from the surface to the discontinuity in

the test piece, is the velocity of sound waves in the material,
and is the measured round-trip transit time.

Precision ultrasonic thickness gages usually operate at frequencies between 500

kHz and 100 MHz, by means of piezoelectric transducers that generate bursts of
sound waves when excited by electrical pulses. Typically, lower frequencies are
used to optimize penetration when measuring thick, highly attenuating or highly
scattering materials, while higher frequencies will be recommended to optimize
resolution in thinner, non-attenuating, non-scattering materials. It is possible to
measure most engineering materials ultrasonically, including metals, plastic,
ceramics, composites, epoxies, and glass as well as liquid levels and the thickness
of certain biological specimens. On-line or in-process measurement of extruded
plastics or rolled metal often is possible, as is measurements of single layers or
coatings in multilayer materials.

Angle Beam Inspection

Angle beam transducers and wedges are typically used to introduce a refracted
shear wave into the test material. An angled sound path allows the sound beam
to come in from the side, thereby improving detectability of flaws in and around welded area

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Angle beam inspection is somehow different than normal beam inspection. in normal
beam inspection, the backwall echo is always present on the scope display and
when the transducer basses over a discontinuity a new echo will appear between
the initial pulse and the backwall echo. However, when scanning a surface using
an angle beam transducer there will be no reflected echo on the scope display
unless a properly oriented discontinuity or reflector comes into the beam path.

If a reflection occurs before the sound waves reach the backwall, the reflection is
usually referred to as first leg reflectionÿ. The angular distance (Sound Path) to
the reflector can be calculated using the same formula used for normal beam
transducers (but of course using the shear velocity instead of the longitudinal velocity) as:

ÿ ÿ
=
ÿ

where ÿ is the shear sound velocity in the material.

Knowing the angle of refraction for the

transducer, the surface distance to the
reflector and its depth can be calculated as:

sin × = ÿ

ÿÿ ÿ ÿÿ ÿ ÿÿ = × cos
where ÿ is the angle of refraction.

If a reflector came across the sound beam after it has reached and reflected off the
aÿkÿall, the refleÿtioÿ is usually referred to as second leg reflectionÿ. Iÿ this ase,
the Sound Pathÿ (the total sound path for the two legs) aÿd the Surface Distanceÿ
aÿ e calculated using the same equations given above; hoÿeÿer, the Depthÿ of
the reflector will be calculated as:

ÿ ÿ = ÿ ÿ × cos

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Inspection of Welded Joints

The most commonly occurring defects in welded joints are porosity, slag
inclusions, lack of side-wall fusion, lack of intermediate-pass fusion, lack of root
penetration, undercutting, and longitudinal or transverse cracks. With the exception of singl
pores all the listed defects are usually well detectable using ultrasonics.

Ultrasonic weld inspections are typically performed using straight beam

transducers in conjunction with angle beam transducers.
• A normal beam transducer, producing a longitudinal wave at normal incidence
into the test piece, is first used to locate any laminations in or near the heat-
affected zone. This is important because an angle beam transducer may not be
able to provide a return signal from a laminar flaw.
• The second step in the inspection involves using an angle beam transducer to
inspect the actual weld. This inspection may include the root, sidewall, crown,
and heat-affected zones of a weld. The process involves scanning the surface
of the material around the weldment with the transducer. This refracted sound wave will
bounce off a reflector (discontinuity) in the path of the sound beam.

To determine the proper

scanning area for both sides of
the weld, the inspector must
calculate the skip distance of
the sound beam using the
refracted angle and material thickness as:

× = tan ÿ
where is the material thickness.

Based on such calculations, the inspector can identify the transducer locations
on the surface of the material corresponding to the face, sidewall, and root of the weld.

The angle of refraction for the angle beam transducer used for inspection is
usually chosen suchÿ =that (
9ÿ .(ÿÿÿÿÿ Doing so, the second leg of the beam will be
normal to the side wall of the weldment such that lack of fusion can be
easily detected (the first leg will also be normal to the other wall). However, for
improving the detectability of the different types of weld discontinuities, it is
recommended to repeat the scanning using several transducers having different
angles of refraction.

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Crack Tip Diffraction

When the geometry of the part is relatively uncomplicated and the orientation of
a flaw is well known, the length of a crack can be determined by a technique known as
rak tip diffractionÿ.

One common application of the tip diffraction technique is to determine the length
of a crack originating from on the backside of a flat plate as shown below. In this
case, when an angle beam transducer is scanned over the area of the flaw, an

echo appears on the scope display

because of the reflection of the
sound beam from the base of the
crack (top image). As the
transducer moves, a second, but
much weaker, echo appears due
to the diffraction of the sound
waves at the tip of the crack
(bottom image). However, since
the distance traveled by the
diffracted sound wave is less, the
second signal appears earlier in time on the scope.

Crack height (ÿ) is a function of the ultrasound shear velocity in the material
( ), the incident angle ( ) and the difference in arrival times between the two signals (ÿÿ .
Since the beam angle and the thickness of the material is the same in both
measurements, two similar right triangles are formed such that one can be
overlayed on the other. A third similar right triangle is made, which is comprised
on the crack, the length andtime .
the angle
but can
The
easily
variable
be converted
is really the
to adifference
distance in
by
dividing the time in half (to get the one- way travel time) and multiplying this
value by the velocity of the sound in the material. Using trigonometry, we can
write:

= × cos
Therefore, the crack height is found to be:

ÿ
= ( ) × cos
ÿ

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If the material is relatively thick or the crack is relatively short, the crack base echo and
the crack tip diffraction echo could appear on the scope display simultaneously
(as seen in the figure). This can be attributed to the divergence of the sound beam
where it becomes wide enough to cover the entire crack length. In such case,
though the angle of the beam striking the base of the crack is slightly different
than the angle of the beam striking the tip of the crack, the previous equation still
holds reasonably accurate and it can be used for estimating the crack length.

Calibration Methods
Calibration refers to the act of evaluating and adjusting the precision and accuracy
of measurement equipment. In ultrasonic testing, several forms of calibrations
must occur. First, the electronics of the equipment must be calibrated to ensure
that they are performing as designed. This operation is usually performed by the
equipment manufacturer and will not be discussed further in this material. It is
also usually necessary for the operator to perform a "user calibration" of the
equipment. This user calibration is necessary because most ultrasonic equipment
can be reconfigured for use in a large variety of applications. The user must
"calibrate" the system, which includes the equipment settings, the transducer, and
the test setup, to validate that the desired level of precision and accuracy are achieved.

In ultrasonic testing, reference standards are used to establish a general level of

consistency in measurements and to help interpret and quantify the information
contained in the received signal. The figure shows some of the most commonly
used reference standards for the calibration of ultrasonic equipment. Reference
standards are used to validate that the equipment and the setup provide similar
results from one day to the next and that similar results are produced by different
systems. Reference standards also help the inspector to estimate the size of flaws.
In a pulse-echo type setup, signal strength depends on both the size of the flaw
and the distance between the flaw and the transducer. The inspector can use a
reference standard with an artificially induced flaw of known size and at

approximately the same distance

away for the transducer to produce a

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signals. By comparing the signal from the reference standard to that received from
the actual flaw, the inspector can estimate the flaw size.

The material of the reference standard should be the same as the material being
inspected and the artificially induced flaw should closely resemble that of the actual
flaw. This second requirement is a major limitation of most standard reference
samples. Most use drilled holes and notches that do not closely represent real
flaws. In most cases the artificially induced defects in reference standards are
better reflectors of sound energy (due to their flatter and smoother surfaces) and
produce indications that are larger than those that a similar sized flaw would
produce. Producing more "realistic" defects is cost prohibitive in most cases and,
therefore, the inspector can only make an estimate of the flaw size.

Reference standards are mainly used to calibrate instruments prior to performing

the inspection and, in general, they are also useful for:

• Checking the performance of both angle-beam and normal-beam transducers

(sensitivity, resolution, beam spread, etc.) • Determining the sound beam exit
point of angle-beam transducers • Determining the refracted angle produced •
Calibrating sound path distance • Evaluating instrument performance (time base,
linearity, etc.)

Introduction to Some of the Common Standards

A wide variety of standard calibration blocks of different designs, sizes and systems
of units (mm or inch) are available. The type of standard calibration block used is
dependent on the NDT application and the form and shape of the object being
evaluated. The most commonly used standard calibration blocks are those of the;
International Institute of Welding (IIW), American Welding Society (AWS) and
American Society of Testing and Materials (ASTM). Only two of the most commonly
used standard calibration blocks are introduced here.

IIW Type US-1 Calibration Block

This block is a general purpose calibration block that can be used for calibrating
angle beam transducers as well as normal beam transducers. The material from which IIW
blocks are prepared is specified as killed, open hearth or electric furnace, low-
carbon steel in the normalized condition and with a grain size of McQuaid-Ehn No.
8 (fine grain). Official IIW blocks are dimensioned in the metric system of units.

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The block has several features that facilitate checking

and calibrating many of the parameters and functions
of the transducer as well as the instrument where that
includes; angle-beam exit (index) point, beam angle,
beam spared, time base, linearity, resolution, dead
zone, sensitivity and range setting.

The figure below shows some of the uses of the block.

ASTM - Miniature Angle-Beam Calibration Block (V2)

The miniature angle-beam block is used in a somewhat similar manner as the as

the IIW block, but is smaller and lighter. The miniature angle-beam block is
primarily used in the field for checking the characteristics of angle-beam transducers.

With the miniature block, beam angle and exit

point can be checked for an angle-beam
transducer. Both the 25 and 50 mm radius
surfaces provide ways for checking the location
of the exit point of the transducer and for calibrating the time base of the

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instrument in terms of metal distance. The small hole provides a reflector for
checking beam angle and for setting the instrument gain.

Distance Amplitude Correction (DAC)

Acoustic signals from the same reflecting surface
will have different amplitudes at different distances
from the transducer. A distance amplitude correction
(DAC) curve provides a means of establishing a
graphic refereÿÿe leÿel seÿsitiÿityÿ as a function of
the distance to the reflector (ie, time on the A-scan
display). The use of DAC allows signals reflected
from similar discontinuities to be evaluated where
signal attenuation as a function of depth has been correlated.
DAC will allow for loss in amplitude over material depth (time) to be represented
graphically on the A-scan display. Because near field length and beam spread vary
according to transducer size and frequency, and materials vary in attenuation and
velocity, a DAC curve must be established for each different situation. DAC may
be employed in both longitudinal and shear modes of operation as well as either
contact or immersion inspection techniques.

A DAC curve is constructed from the peak

amplitude responses from reflectors of equal
area at different distances in the same material.
Reference standards which incorporate side
drilled holes (SDH), flat bottom holes (FBH), or
notches whereby the reflectors are located at
varying depths are commonly used. A-scan
echoes are displayed at their non-electronically
compensated height and the peak amplitude of
each signal is marked to construct the DAC curve as shown in the
figures. It is important to recognize that
regardless of the type of reflector used, the size
and shape of the reflector must be constant.

The same method is used for constructing DAC curves for angle beam transducers,
however in that case both the first and second leg reflections can be used for
constructing the DAC curve.

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