EARTH SCIENCE Frost Wedging

Exogenic Processes  Occurs in regions where temperature fluctuates above and

below freezing point.
 refers to activities or phenomena that occur on the earth’s
 Water that enters through rock’s spaces expands when it
surface.
freezes.
 Rocks are naturally exposed to different forces that affect
 When ice thaws, water can flow further into the cracks.
their physical characteristics. Wind, water, ground,
 Repeated freeze-thaw cycle weakens the rock.
organisms, and other factors influence the processes that
shape the surface of the earth.
 Include degradation and aggradation processes.
 Weathering is a type of degradation processes.
Weathering
- Is the process of disintegration (physical) and
decomposition (chemical) of rocks; breaking down of rock
into smaller particles. Thermal Expansion

TWO TYPES OF WEATHERING  Occurs when a rock is exposed to high temperature such as
a forest fire; its outer layer expands due to baking. When it
Mechanical (physical weathering) cools, the outer layer contracts, causing the surface to
 Physical breaking down of rocks without changing it’s break-off into sheets.
composition.  The outer surface of the rock is often warmer or colder than
 Frost Wedging, Thermal Stress and Pressure. the inner portions.
 The process of peeling off or onion like sheets parallel is
Chemical Weathering called exfoliation.
 There are changes in the composition of rocks due to
chemical reaction.
Pressure Release
  Occurs the overlying rock is eroded away, the causing the seashore causing sharp edges and corners to wear off and
outer layer to expand more than the layer underneath. become rounded.
 This expansion may separate the outer rock from the rock 5. ORGANIC ACTIVITY - The roots grow causing penetration
body. into the crack, expand, and in the long run, break the rock.
 The exfoliation due to pressure release is often called 6. HUMAN ACTIVITIES - Activities such as digging, quarrying,
sheeting. (Granite). denuding forests and cultivating land contribute to physical
weathering.
7. BURROWING ANIMALS - Animals like rats, rabbits and
squirrels excavate into the ground to create a space for
habitation.
FACTORS AFFECTING IN MECHANICAL WEATHERING
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
1. PRESSURE - Due to tectonic forces, granite may rise to form
mountain range. After the granite ascends and cools, the 1. DISSOLUTION - It occurs in specific minerals which are
overlying rocks and sediments may erode. At the point dissolved in water. Examples of these minerals are Halite
when the pressure diminishes, the rock expands, cools, and (NaCI) and Calcite (CaCO3). The formation of stalactites and
became brittle and fractured. stalagmites in caves are brought about by this chemical
2. TEMPERATURE - Rocks expand and are fractured when reaction.
expose to high temperature. However, if the temperature 2. HYDROLYSIS - Rock-forming minerals like amphibole,
drops to 0°C (freezing point of water), it also expands and pyroxene, and feldspar react with water and form different
causes fracture. kinds of clay minerals.
3. FROST WEDGING - Generally, rocks have fracture in its 3. OXIDATION - It is the response of oxygen with minerals. If
surface and when water accumulates in the crack and at the iron oxidizes, the mineral in rocks decomposes. Rusting
that point freezes, the ice expands and breaks the rock is an example of this chemical reaction.
apart.
4. ABRASION - The breakdown of rocks is caused by impact
and friction. This primarily occurs during collision of rocks, Soil Formation
sand, and silt due to current or waves along a stream or
 Weathering is an important process in the formation of soil.
The mixture of different products of weathering and
 nondecaying organic matter, known as humus, makes up
the soil.
Erosion

 Erosion is the separation and removal of weathered rocks

due to different agents like water, wind, and glacier that
causes transportation of the material to where they are
deposited. Plants, animals, and humans play an important
role in the erosional process.

Mass Movement or Mass Wasting

- Gravity is an agent of erosion that exerts a pulling action on
everything. It makes rocks fall and water flow. . This process
is known as mass movement or mass wasting.
- There are different mass movements, depending on the
materials involved or the manner of movement.
Creep - The slow movement of large quantities of soil over a long
period of time.
Landslides - are the sudden and rapid movement of soil and rocks.

EROSION
 - Is the separation and removal of weathered and Sediments move along in four ways:
unweathered rocks and soil from its substrate due to gravity
1. Traction – Rolling or dragging of large grains aided by the push of
or transporting agents like wind, ice, or water.
smaller grains.
TRANSPORT
2. Saltation – Bouncing of sand grains as they are picked-up ,
- Is the process by which sediments are moved along from carried along, and dropped repeatedly.
the source to where they are deposited.
3. Suspension – Movement of fine particles like silt and clay.
WIND EROSION
4. Solution - Movement of soluble minerals (salts).
- Commonly occurs in flat, bare areas or dry, sandy, and loose
soils. It detaches soil particles and transports them by wind.
Mass Wasting or Mass Movement
GLACIER
- Is the downslope movement of rock, soil, and ice due to
- Is a permanent body of ice, which consists largely of
gravity.
recrystallized snow and shows evidence of movement due
- It is also a natural hazard that can cause damage to life and
to gravity.
property.
- Glaciers have enormous erosive power.
Water is the most common erosion agent. Millions of tons of
sediments are picked-up and transported everyday along rivers, Factors that contribute to the occurrence of mass wasting are the
coasts, and in deep oceans around the world. Sediments move following:
along in four ways.
1. Relief – The difference in elevation between two places creates
slopes; gravity pulls materials at higher elevations to lower
elevations.
2. Slope stability – The balance between the downslope force
caused by gravity and the resistance force due to friction; slope
failure occurs when the downslope force is greater.
3. Fragmentation and weathering – Intact rock is held together by
chemical bonds within minerals, by mineral cement, and by
interlocking of grains, while a fragmented rock is held only by
friction between fracture planes or by weak electrical charges
between grains.

DEPOSITION
- Is the process in which sediments settle out of transporting
medium.
- Dropping off the sediment in the new place and can create a
new landform.
- Ex. When glacier melts, the rocks are deposited on the
ground.

- The layer formed when the materials are laid down is called
bed.
- It varies in thickness depending on the volume of the
sediments.
The area where sediments are deposited is called sedimentary
environment. Some of these environments are the following.
3. Mountain Front Environment - When a stream enters the flat
1. Glacial Environment - Glacial environments refer to areas where
area at the base of a mountain, it loses its energy and decreases in
glaciers and ice sheets are found such as in high altitude mountains
velocity. This results to a landform called alluvial fan which is
and in polar regions. At the end of the glacier, a pile of sediments,
primarily composed of sand- to boulder-size sediments.
ranging from clay to boulder-size, mixed together can be found and
it is called glacial till.

2. Mountain Stream Environment - Turbulent streams can carry

4. Desert Environment - Wind carries sand and silt materials. When
large sediments like boulders and cobbles during flood, forming
deposited, well-sorted sand - produce sand dunes, while the
thick gravel and boulder layers. Conglomerates usually form in this
accumulation of silts forms loess deposit. Sediments from solutions
environment.
called evaporites are also formed when temporary lakes in the 6. River (fluvial) Environment - In flat areas, rivers are slow moving
desert dry-up. and commonly carry an assortment of pebbles, sand, silt, and mud.
The coarser sediments tumble along the river bed while the finer
ones move along in suspension. Mud is deposited on the floodplain
after flood events. Pebbles and sand are deposited on the inner
bend of meander. Beds of sand and pebble form lenses alternating
with silt and mud layers.

5. Lake (lacustrine) Environment - A lake is a quiet environment.

Streams carrying sediments deposit coarse sediments on lake
margins, only silt and clay are deposited from suspension in deeper
parts of the lake. Shale can form in this environment.

7. Delta Environment - When a river enters the sea, it empties its

load in a delta, which extends to the middle portion contains fine
sand and silt, and the basal portion is mostly silt and clay. Mud is
also found in the swamps.
8. Beach Rent - Tidal currents transport sands along the coastline. 10. Shallow Water Carbonate Environment - In shallow marine
The waves winnow out the finer sediments, leaving only well- environment where the supply of sediments is limited, marine
sorted and well-rounded sand grains that form ripples. organisms like coral reefs develop where the water is fairly warm,
clear, and full of nutrients. Most of the sediments are derived from
the shell and coral fragments collectively called carbonate
sediments. Limestones can be formed in this environment.

11. Deep Marine Environment - Slope failures from the steep

slopes of submarine canyons generate submarine landslides which
create sediments of varying sizes. Turbidity currents carry the finer
sediment components, ranging from sand to clay to a submarine
9. Shallow Marine Environment - The mud and silt removed from fan where turbidite deposit/ sequence is formed. In the deep ocean
the shoreline and from river mouths the shallow coastal area. The floor, clay and planktons settle down and form very thin layers of
upper part of the delta consists mostly of coarse sand and gravel; mud. Chalk is formed from very fine calcite shells while chert is
are transported by tidal currents and deposited in quieter waters derived from siliceous shells.
below the wave zone. It forms well-sorted and well-rounded silt
and mud layers inhabited by various organisms like worms and
mollusks.