Unit 1:Interference

Interference -“modi cation of intensity”

When light from two sources move in a direction then the light wave trains from these sources superimpose upon each
other resulting in modi cation of distribution of intensity so that we get position of maximum and minimum intensity. This
modi cation of light intensity due to super position of two or more wave train is called interference. The underlying
principle of this phenomenon is superposition principle.

Superposition principle

According to this principle the resultant displacement of a particle of the medium

acted upon by two or more waves simultaneously is equal to the algebraic sum
of the displacement of the particle due to individual waves.

Or, According to the principle of superposition of waves, the resultant

displacement (at a particular point) produced by a number of waves is the vector
sum of the displacements produced by each one of the disturbances.

Let the displacement due to a single wave at a point be y1 and of another wave
at the same point be y2,

Now if wave displacements are in same direction then resultant is,

R = y1 + y2

If wave displacements are in opposite directions then resultant is,

R = y1 − y2

Superposition of two Simple Harmonic waves

Let us consider two sinusoidal waves (having same frequency) at a point. Let displacements produced by two waves be,

x1(t) = a1sin(ωt) and

x 2(t) = a 2 sin(ωt + ϕ)

Now, according to the superposition principle, the resultant displacement x (t) is given by

x (t) = x1(t) + x 2(t)

⇒ x (t) = a1sin(ωt) + a 2 sin(ωt + ϕ)

x (t) = a1sin(ωt) + a 2(sin ωtcosϕ + sin ϕcosωt)

x (t) = (a1 + a 2 cosϕ)sin ωt + a 2 sin ϕcosωt ........(1)

Put a1 + a 2 cosϕ = Acosθ .......(2) and

a 2 sin ϕ = A sin θ......(3)

Using these in equation (1)

⇒ x (t) = A sin ωt . cosθ + Acosωt . sin θ

x (t) = A sin(ωt + θ )

This is the resultant displacement with amplitude A.

Where A can be evaluated as,

Square and add equation (2) and (3)

A 2 cos 2 θ + A 2 sin 2 θ = (a1 + a 2 cosϕ)2 + a22 sin 2 ϕ

A 2 = a12 + a22 + 2a1a 2 cosϕ

∴A= a12 + a22 + 2a1a 2 cosϕ

Now, dividing equations (2) and (3)

a 2 sin ϕ
ta n θ =

a1 + a 2 cosϕ
This gives the phase of resultant wave, θ.

Test your understanding

Q.Find the resultant of superposition of two waves y1 = 2.0s i n ω t and y2 = 5.0s i n (ω t + 300 ) symbols have their usual meanings.

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 Unit 1:Interference

Constructive and Destructive interference (formation of fringes)

When the light from the slits (or two coherent sources) reaches a point p on the screen, then these two waves superimpose
,so if crest (positive amplitude or maximum) or two troughs (negative amplitude ) of the waves are meeting then maxima
(bright) fringe will occurs which we called constructive interference or if crest and trough of the waves are meaning then
they adds to give minima (dark ) fringe which we called destructive interference.

Inten sit y ∝ (A m plit u d e)2

Constructive interference = the two waves having path di erence as a even multiple of λ /2 superimpose.

Destructive interference = the two waves having path di erence as a odd multiple of λ /2 superimpose.

Huygens principle
1) It is based on geometrical construction.

2) Allows to determine the shape of the wavefront at any time, if earlier

wavefront is known.

Wavefront: Imaginary surface representing corresponding points of a wave that

vibrate in unison. That is locus of the points which are in the same phase.

Example: water ripple have circular wavefront.

Huygen principle each point of wavefront is a source of secondary

disturbance and wavelets emanating from these points spread in all directions
with speed of the wave.

Envelope of all these secondary wave give rise to the secondary wavefront.

Phase difference and coherence

Phase constant, ϕ: it tells how much wave signal is shifted along

the x axis.

x (t) = A sin(ωt − ϕ)

When two harmonic sinusoidal waves of the same

frequency and wavelength but of di erent phase combine,
the resultant wave is a harmonic wave whose amplitude
depends on the phase di erence.

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 Unit 1:Interference
If the phase di erence is zero, or an integer multiplied by 2π , the waves are in phase and interfere constructively.
The resultant amplitude equals the sum of the two individual amplitudes, and the intensity (which is proportional
to the square of the amplitude) is maximum.

If the phase di erence is π or any odd integer multiplied by π, the waves are out of phase and interfere
destructively. The resultant amplitude is then the di erence between the two individual amplitudes, and the
intensity is a minimum.

a phase di erence between two waves is often the result of a di erence in path lengths. The additional distance traveled
by the light re ected from the back surface is called the path- di erence between two waves.

A path-length di erence of λ produces a phase di erence of 2π, which is equivalent to no phase di erence at all.

A path-length di erence of one-half wavelength (λ /2) produces a π phase di erence. In general,

Now, a path-length di erence of Δ contributes a phase di erence given by δ

Δ
δ = 2π

λ
Test your understanding

Q.(a)What is the minimum path-length difference that will produce a phase difference of 180 degree for light of wavelength 800 nm? (b)What phase difference will that path-
length difference 700 nm? (A. a.400 nm b.206° 3.59 rad)

Condition for maxima and minima

⇒ δ = 2n π , maxima

and δ = (2n ± 1)π , minima

So, waves having constant phase di erence initially, reunites after traveling di erent optical paths, they interfere
constructively or destructively if their phases( at the point of observation) di er exactly by even or odd multiple of π
respectively.

Coherence
We need constant phase di erence for stationary or sustainable interference pattern.

If two waves which vibrate with a xed phase di erence between them then they are said to be coherent waves and
corresponding sources are called coherent sources.

Coherence e ects are of three type:

a. Temporal coherence, and b. Spatial coherence

Spatial coherence describes the correlation (or predictable relationship) between waves at di erent points in space, either
lateral or longitudinal.Temporal coherence describes the correlation between waves observed at di erent moments in
time.

a. Temporal coherence : is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a light wave at di erent points along the
direction of propagation.  Temporal coherence tells us how monochromatic a source is.Assume our source emits
waves with wavelength λ ± Δλ.  Waves with wavelength λ and λ + Δλ, which at some point in space constructively
interfere, will no longer constructively interfere after some optical path length or is called the coherence length.

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 Unit 1:Interference
The phase of a wave propagating into the x-direction is given by ϕ = k x − ω t. Look at the wave pattern in space at some
time t. At some distance lc the phase difference between two waves with wave vectors k1 and k 2 which are in phase at
x = 0 becomes Δϕ = (k 2 − k1)lc. When Δϕ = 1, or Δϕ ≈ 60 o, the light is no longer considered coherent. Interference and
diffraction patterns severely loose contrast.

2π 2π
1 = (k1 − k 2 )lc ⟮ − ⟯l
λ λ + Δλ c
⟮λ + Δλ − λ⟯ Δλ lc 1
lc ~ = .
λ (λ + Δλ) λ 2 2π

λ2
lc =
(2πΔλ)

Test your understanding

Q.In the coherence time for an ordinary light τc = 10−10 sec, obtain the degree of monochromaticity for λ 0 =5893 angstrom. (Hint: use above formula) (A. 1 angstrom)

The wave pattern travels through space with speed c.

l Δν Δω Δλ
The coherence time is tc = c . Since λ ν = c, we have = = . We can write
c ν ω λ
λ2 λν c 2π
lc = = lc = = , ⟮s i n c e = ω⟯
(2πΔλ) (2πΔν) Δω λ
1
tc =
Δω
If we know the wavelength or frequency spread of a light source, we can calculate lc and tc. We cannot
observe interference patterns produced by division of amplitude, such as thin-film interference, if the optical
path difference greatly exceeds lc, as the sources no longer remains coherent.

b. Spatial coherence : It is a measure of the correlation between the phases of a light wave at di erent points transverse
to the direction of propagation.  Spatial coherence tells us how uniform the phase of the wave front is. The continuity
and uniformity of a light wave in a direction perpendicular to the directions of propagation refers to spatial coherence.

Test your understanding

Q. explain the terms temporal and spatial coherence in the context of the interference phenomenon. Explain why interference due to division of amplitude is observed in thin films.
Q.can two independent sources give interference pattern. Why or Why not?

Young’s double slit experiment

two coherent light sources are produced by illuminating two very narrow parallel slits
using a single light source. When a wave encounters a barrier that has a very small
opening, the opening acts as a point source of waves (Huygens’ principle).

Example: Plane water waves in a ripple tank encountering a barrier that has a small opening. The waves
to the right of the barrier are circular waves that are concentric about the opening, just as if there were a
point source at the opening

Let us consider a narrow slit S illuminated by a monochromatic source of light of wavelength λ. Let S1 and
S2 be two parallel slits at equal distances from S.
The two sources S1 and S2 will act as coherent
sources.

D - distance between screen and the

sources.

d - distance between the sources.

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 Unit 1:Interference
th
yn -distance of n fringe from central fringe.

Approximations for Young’s Double Slits Experiment.

d
a.) D >>d b.) >>1 (d ≈ m m, λ ≈ μm)

λ
Under these approximation θ (angular position of fringe) is small.

Path di erence (extra distance traveled by wave from S2 to P = Δ= S2 P − S1P = d sin θ

Now conditions for maxima and minima

Δ = d sin θ = n λ, maxima

λ
Δ = d sin θ = (2n ± 1) , minima

2
Positions of Bright and Dark fringes

n th Bright fringe

yn yn
d⟮ ⟯ = nλ Since, θ is very small ∴ ta n θ ≈ θ = and sin θ ≈ θ

D D
nλD
⇒ yn =

d
n th dark fringes

yn λ
d⟮ ⟯ = (2n ± 1)

D 2
λD
yn = (2n ± 1)

d2

Fringe width, β

Distance between two adjacent bright (or dark) fringes.

Using condition for bright fringes, let yn and yn−1 be the position of two consecutive bright fringes.

n λ D (n − 1)λ D
β = yn − yn−1 = −

2 d
λD
β=

d
Note: it is same for dark fringes.

λ
Now , if apparatus of YDSE is immersed in a liquid of refractive index μ wavelength is reduced ⟮λ′ = ⟯

μ
β
Therefore, fringe width decreases β′ = .

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 Unit 1:Interference

Test your understanding

Q. Two narrow slits separated by are illuminated by yellow light from a sodium lamp that has a wavelength equal to Find the spacing of the bright fringes observed on a screen away.
(A.1.18 mm)

Calculation of Intensity - Intensity Distribution

Let y1and y2 be the two harmonic waves, originating from the two coherent source S1and S2 equidistant from a
monochromatic source S, interfere at a point p on the screen.

y1 = a1sin ωt

y2 = a 2 sin(ωt + ϕ)

Where a1and a 2 are the amplitudes of the two waves.

Now resultant wave after interference, y = y1 + y2

y = a1sin ωt + a 2 sin(ωt + ϕ)

y = a1sin ωt + a 2⟮sin ωtcosϕ + cosωtsin ϕ⟯

y = sin ωt (a1 + a 2 cosϕ) + a 2 sin ϕcosωt

Now de ne

a1 + a 2 cosϕ = Rcosθ ......[1] and a 2 sin ϕ = sin θ .......[2]

⇒ y = Rcosθsin ωt + Rcosωtsin θ

y = R sin(ωt + θ )

Now to nd resultant amplitude R, square and add equation [1] &[2]

R 2 = (cos 2 θ + sin 2 θ ) = a12 + a22 + 2a1a 2 cosϕ

I = (a m plit u d e)2 = R 2

I = a12 + a22 + 2a1a 2 cosϕ

I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 cosϕ

When two interfering waves have same amplitude i.e. a1 = a 2 = a and

2
a = Io (look at gure at right)

ϕ
I = 4a 2 cos 2

2
⇒ Ima x = 4Io and Imin = 0

And when initial (amplitudes) intensities are not equal then this graph shifts upward as

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 Unit 1:Interference
ϕ
I = 4a 2 cos 2 + con sta nt

2
Contrast and visibility will be bad.

Or if we place a glass plate of refractive index μ in the path of either source the fringes will shifts either right or left. As one
of the wave has to travel extra optical path, therefore path di erence will change and so will the interference conditions.

Conservation of Energy

There is no violation of conservation of energy law due to modi cation of intensity ie. Interference.

To show that calculate average intensity

2π
∫0 Id ϕ
1 2π 2
∫
Iavg = 2π = (a1 + a22 + 2a1a 2 cosϕ)d ϕ

∫0 d ϕ 2π 0

1 2 2π (a12 + a 22 )
Iavg = ⟮a1 + a22 + 2a1a 2 cosϕ⟯2π
0 =

2π 2π
⇒ Iavg = a12 + a22 = I1 + I2

If a1 = a 2 = a

Then Iavg = 2a 2 = 2I

Thus the average intensity is same as the sum of the separate intensities.

This implies even if the energy apparently disappears at the minima but it actually appears at the maxima. Thus there is no
violation of the law of conservation of energy in the phenomenon of interference.

Visibility of fringes
The quality of fringes produced by interferometric system can be described quantitatively using visibility factor, V.

It is de ned as

Ima x − Imin
V=

Ima x + Imin

Where I = I1 + I2 + I1I2 cosϕ

⇒ Ima x = I1 + I2 + 2 I1I2 and Imin = I1 + I2 − 2 I1I2

2 I1I2
⇒V=

I1 + I2
Test your understanding

Q. Two coherent sources, whose intensity ratio is 81 : 1 produce interference fringes. Calculate the ratio of intensity of maxima and minima in the fringe system. (A25/16)

Q.Find the ratio of intensities at two points x and y on a screen in Young’s double slit experiment, where waves from S1 and S2 have path difference of

(i) 0 and (ii) λ / 4 ( A. 2/1)

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 Unit 1:Interference

Shape of interference fringes

Let S1and S2 be the two coherent sources. At a point P, there is maxima and minima

S2 P − S1P = con sta nt

Which is an equation of hyperbola with S1 and S2 as Foci of hyperbolas. Since, the

wavelength is extremely small therefore S2 P − S1P will be of that order. Therefore
the eccentricity of interference fringes is quite large and hence these hyperbolas
appear, more or less straight line.

Angular fringe width

The angular fringe width is de ned as the angular separation between consecutive bright and dark fringes and is denoted
as θ. Now as

ar c
a ngle =

r a diu s
xn+1 xn xn+1 − xn β
θ = θn+1 − θn = − = =

D D D D
Dλ
2d
θ =

D
λ
⇒θ =

2d
Test your understanding

Q.Two narrow slits are illuminated by monochromatic light. If the distance between the slits is equal to 2.75 wavelengths, what is the maximum number of bright fringes that can be
seen on a screen? (a)1, (b)2, (c)3, (d)4, (e)5, (f)6 or more (A.5)

Q. Monochromatic light from a narrow slit illuminates two narrow slits 0.3 mm apart producing an interference pattern with bright fringes 1.5 mm apart on a screen 75 cm away. Find
the wavelength of the light. How will the fringe width be altered if

the distance of the screen is doubled (A.3mm)

the separation between the slits is doubled(A.0.75 mm)

Conditions for interference

1.) Sustained interference - sustained fringe pattern.

a. The two beams of lights which interfere must be originating from same source of light.

b. The two sources must have either zero phase di erence or a constant di erence of phase. (Coherent sources)

c. The two sources must have the same time period (frequency) and wavelength. (Monochromatic sources)

2.) Good visibility - larger the fringe width (β) better is contrast.

a. The separation between screen and sources (D) must be large. So that the fringe width is large and hence the can be
seen clearly.

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 Unit 1:Interference
b. The separation between the sources (d) must be small. So that the fringe width is large and hence the can be seen
clearly.

c. The background must be dark.

3.) Good Contrasts - di erence between intensity of dark and bright fringe should be large.

a. The amplitude of two interfering waves must be nearly same or equal.

→ Ima x = 4A 2 and Imin = 0

b. The two source (slits) must be very narrow. If the sources are wide, they contain a large number of narrow sources
giving rise to many interference patterns which overlaps on the screen resulting in the decreased contrast.

c. The light sources should be monochromatic or should have wavelengths with smaller di erence, otherwise due to
overlapping of interference fringes of di erent colors the interference pattern will be white.

Classification of interference phenomenon

Division of wavefront
The devices which divide the incident wave front into two parts by utilizing the phenomenon of re ection, refraction or
di raction in such a way that after traversing di erent optical paths they reunite at small angle to produce interference
bands.

Point source or line source limited portion of wavefront are employed, di raction e ects will also be present along with the
interference e ects.

Examples: Fresnel Biprism, Lloyd’s mirror

Division of amplitude
Device which divide the amplitude of incoming wave of light into two or more parts by partial re ection and refraction and
thereby give rise to two beams which interfere.

Broad sources are used there fore minimized di raction e ects.

Example: Newton’s rings, Michelson interference

Fresnel Bi-prism
superposition region
virtual source
A Fresnel Biprism is a variation on the Young’s Slits experiment. In this experiment two ---4----
.. .
sources are created using refraction through a Biprism. It is an example of division of
d
wavefront. In this experiment Fresnel tried to eliminate di raction. the essential idea is to
divide the incident beam into two coherent interfering beams by utilizing the phenomenon
of refraction.
biprism
~ - - - - - D. . - - - - -
screen

Biprism
The Fresnel biprism consists of two thin prisms joint at their bases to form an
isosceles triangle. A single wavefront impinges on both prisms; the left portion of the
wavefront is refracted right while the right segment is refracted left. In the region of
superposition, interference occurs as here two virtual sources exist.

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 Unit 1:Interference
o
Obtuse angle of prism is only slightly less than 180 and other angles are ≈ 30′ in order and are equal.

The labelled ray diagram depicting interference by a biprism

Light from a narrow slit S, illuminated with monochromatic light of wavelength λ,Is
allowed to fall symmetrically on a biprism. The intersection of the two inclined faces
forming the obtuse angle must be adjusted accurately parallel to the length of the slit.

The waves which passes through the upper half of the biprism is deviated through a
small angle towards the lower half of the diagram and appears to diverge from the virtual
image S1.

The waves which passes through the lower half of the biprism is deviated through a
small angle towards the upper half of the diagram and appears to diverge from the virtual
image S2.

These virtual images S1 and S2 being the image of slit S therefore function as coherent sources.

The emergent wavefronts which intersect at a small angles, are derived from the same angles, are derived from the same
wavefronts and hence satisfy the fundamental condition of interference.

α (angle of biprism) is small →d (distance between two virtual sources) is small.

As a consequence, interference fringes are observed on the screen in overlapping region AB of two emergent beams of
light.

The fringes extended into space and are thus non localized, can be seen if screen is moved.

Beyond the overlapping region AB, faint, uneven and widely spaced bands of di erent characteristics from the uniformly
spaced interference bands of the middle portion, are also observed.

These wider bands are due to di raction e ect at the straight edges present at the apex and vertices of the biprism.

In reality di raction bands are present over the whole region but equally spaced interference fringes are observed super
posed on them in AB region.

Determination of path di erence of two waves interfering in fresnel biprism

Let d be the distance between two virtual sources. Now from gure and using Pythagorean’s theorem

d 2
(S1P )2 = D 2 + (x + )

2
d 2
And (S2 P )2 = D 2 + (x − )

2
Subtracting above two equation

d 2 d
(S2 P )2 − (S1P )2 = = (x + ) − (x − )2 = 2x d

2 2
2x d
∴ S2 P − S1P =

S2 P + S1P

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 Unit 1:Interference
Assume S2 P = S1P ≈ D

2x d xd
S2 P − S1P = =

2D D
For maxima

xd
= nλ
D
For minima

xd λ
= (2n ± 1)
D 2
Fringe width

Using bright fringe condition

β = xn − xn−1
D D
β= n λ − (n − 1)λ
d d
D
β= λ
d

D = a+b
a+b
⇒β = λ
d
Determination of wavelength of light using fresnel biprism

The fringe width is same as in the YDSE

λD
β=

d
This can be used to nd the wavelength of the source light.

Test your understanding

Q. In a biprism experiment, the eye piece is placed at a distance of 1.2m from the source. The distance between the virtual source was found to be 7.5 × 10−4 m. Find the
wavelength of light if the eye piece to be moved transversely through a distance of 1.888 cm for 20 fringes

Q.In biprism experiment, the eye-piece is placed at a distance of 1.2 meter from the sources. The distance between the virtual sources was found to be 7.5 × 10–4 m. Find the
wavelength of light if the eye-piece is to be moved transversely through a distance of 1.888 cm for 20 fringes.(A.5900 angstroms )

Determination of distance between two virtual sources

1- Deviation method

Refractive angle of each prism is small (approximately 30’).Therefore, Deviation produced by prisms are quite small. If ϕ is
the deviation produced.

Using prism formula

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 Unit 1:Interference
sin(α + ϕ)
2
μ=

sin( α2 )

ϕ and α are very small angles

α+ϕ
2 (α + ϕ)
μ= α =
α
2

ϕ = μα − α = α[μ − 1]

SS1 = SS2 = a tan(ϕ) = a ϕ

d = S1S2 = 2a ϕ

d = 2a(μ − 1)α

2- Displacement method
For nding d, a cover lens is placed between biprism and eyepiece. The focal length of the lens is less than one fourth of
the distance between slit and eyepiece.

Now, the lens is so adjusted that it forms real image of two

virtual sources on the plane of eyepiece. This happens at
two di erent positions of the lens. Let x and y be the
separation between real images of S1 and S2 for two
positions of the lens.

In these positions magni cations are

x v y v′ u
m1 = = And m2 = = =

d −u d u′ −v
Where u and v are the distance of the object and image respectively from the lens in the rst conjugate position.

Multiply these equations.

x y v u
= = 1

dd −u −v
⇒ x y = d 2

d= x y

Test your understanding

Q. A biprism is placed 5 cm from slit illuminated by sodium light of wavelength 5890 A.U. The width of the fringes obtained on a screen 75 cm from the biprism is 9.424 × 10–2 cm.
What is the distance between two coherent sources? (A.0.55 mm)

Q. A point is situated at 6.5 cm and 6.65 cm from two coherent sources. Find the nature of illumination at the point if wavelength of light is 5000 A.U. (A.the point is bright)

Effect of Increasing the angle of Biprism on fringes

If the angle of biprism α is increased, then deviation due to refraction ϕ will increase, hence the distance between two
virtual sources will increase. Since,

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 Unit 1:Interference
d = 2a(μ − 1)α

Therefore, fringe width will decrease.

Dλ
β=

d
⇒ The fringes will not be visible separately and may dis appear ultimately.

Test your understanding

Q.In biprism experiment, the slit is illuminated by red light of wavelength 6400 A.U. and the cross wire of eyepiece is adjusted to the centre of 3rd bright band. By using blue light it is
found that 4th bright band is at the centre of the cross wire. Find the wavelength of blue light. (A. 4800 angstroms )

Effect of increasing angle of Fresnel’s Biprism on fringes

If the angle α of the biprism be increased, the distance 2d between the virtual sources would increase because

Dλ
2d = 2a(μ − 1)α. This in turn would reduce the fringe width β = . The fringes will not be separately visible and
2d
may disappear ultimately.

Effect of increasing slit width on Fresnel’s fringes

When in the biprism experiment, the width of the slit is gradually increased the visibility between the bright and dark
fringes become poorer and poorer. Ultimately disappear, leaving a uniform illumination everywhere.

On increasing the slit width, the two virtual source slits are correspondingly widened. They are then equivalent to a
large number of pairs of narrow slits. All pairs produce their fringe patterns, which are relatively shifted.

This causes partial overlapping of maxima and minima, due to different pairs, resulting in indistinctness.

Greater the width of the source slit, greater the overlapping when the slit width equals half the fringe width, there is
complete overlapping of maxima and minima and the fringes disappears.

Interference with white light

If we replace the monochromatic source with the white light source (having light of different wavelengths), then
several colored fringes with central white fringe will be seen on the screen.

Central fringe is white because the path difference four all the wave of different wavelengths will be having zero path
difference hence all colors will have maxima there at center which implies overlapping of all colors shows white light.

However, we know the fringe width β increases with increase in wavelength therefore for initial orders of maxima and
minima overlapping of different colors takes place and we get fringes of mixed colors with inner edge red and outer
edge violet.

For higher orders this overlapping of large number of wavelengths results into uniform illumination.

Location of zero order fringe in Fresnel Biprism

When a monochromatic light is used alternate dark and bright fringes will be forming, which appears similar.hence it
is not possible to locate the zero order fringe.

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 Unit 1:Interference
To locate the zero order fringe, monochromatic light source is replaced with white light source. Now with white light
source central fringe appears white there fore it makes it easy to locate.

Displacement of fringes
When a thin transparent plate of thickness ‘t’ is introduced in front of one of the slits in Young’s double slit
experiment, the fringe pattern shifts toward the side where the plate is present.

The dotted lines denote the path of the light before introducing the transparent
plate. The solid lines denote the path of the light after introducing a transparent
plate of refractive index μ.

Path difference before introducing the plate

Δ = S2 P − S1P

To derive the new path difference, let us nd the path traveled by wave from S2 to
P
S2 P − t t c
S2 P = + ⟮μ = ⟯
c v v
Where c and v are the speed of light in air and glass medium used
S2 P − t μt
S2 P = +
c c
S2 P + (μ − 1)t
S2 P =
c
Thus the air path S2 P has increased by (μ − 1)t as a result of glass plate
Now the effective path difference at the point P is
Δ′ = S2 P + (μ − 1)t − S1P
Δ′ = Δ + (μ − 1)t
{We can check it glass plate was not there t=0 therefor
Δ = Δ′ = S2 P − S1P
d
Now using path difference equation derived before (Δ = xn )
D
d
Δ′ = xn + (μ − 1)t
D
Now for bright fringe
d
Δ′ = xn + (μ − 1)t = n λ
D
d
x = n λ − (μ − 1)t
D n
D
xn = (n λ − (μ − 1)t)
d
For n=0 central fringe shift is
D
| xo | = ((μ − 1)t)
d
Entire fringe system is displaced by this value toward the beam in which the glass place is introduced

14





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 Unit 1:Interference
Division of amplitude
Change of phase by reflection : Stokes law
If light traveling in one medium strikes the surface of a medium in which light travels more slowly, there is
a 180° phase change in the reflected light. a wave sometimes undergoes upon reflection from a surface. This
happens whenever a wave traveling in rarer medium gets reflected from a denser medium.

This phase change is analogous to the inversion of a pulse on a string when it reflects from a point where
the density suddenly increases, such as when a light string is attached to a heavier string or rope. The
inversion of the reflected pulse is equivalent to a phase change of for a sinusoidal wave (which can be
thought of as a series of pulses).

When light is traveling in the liquid wall of a soap bubble, there is no phase change in the light reflected
from the surface between the liquid and the air. This situation is analogous to the reflection without
inversion of a pulse on a heavy string at a point where the heavy string is attached to a lighter string.

Interference from parallel thin films

You have probably noticed the colored bands in a soap bubble or in the
lm on the surface of oily water. These bands are due to the interference of
light re ected from the top and bottom surfaces of the lm. The di erent
colors arise because of variations in the thickness of the lm, causing
interference for di erent wavelengths at di erent points.

When waves traveling in a medium cross a surface where the wave speed
changes, part of the wave is re ected and part is transmitted.

Consider a thin lm of water (such as a small section of a soap bubble) of uniform thickness viewed at small
angles with the normal. Part of the light is re ected from the upper air–water interface where it undergoes a
phase change. Most of the light enters the lm and part of it is re ected by the bottom water–air interface.
There is no phase change in this re ected light. These two rays will interfere to form interference pattern.

Path difference in reflected rays

The optical path difference between two refracted rays BR and DR1 is given by,

Δ = (BC + CD)med − (BE )air

c
= (BC + CD)μ − BE (Since v = )
A N R
μ I
I

Rarer
(Air)
Now using snells law
.....
......
' ......
'•
sin(i ) BE /BD BE
.....
l
H
μ= = =
G

..... r
sin(r) FD /BD FD I
' ...... .
' .....
µ
Denser
t I
'
(glass)
⇒ BE = μ(FD)
G' [ CQ~,'- ~,, c: : - - - - - - - H '
I /

Δ = μ(BC + CD + FD)

Now,
I /
'I /

.~,
I
I /
t r I

= μ(BC + CF + FD − FD) = μ(PC + CF )

I
I /
I I
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ JI / p

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 Unit 1:Interference
Δ = μ(PF ) (Since PC = BC )

From ΔBPF

PF
cos(r) =

BP
PF = BPcos(r) = 2tcos(r)

Δ = 2μtcos(r)

Now the rays reflected from a denser medium suffers an abrupt phase change of π, which is equivalent to path
λ
difference of .

2
λ
Therefore the effective path difference Is = 2μtcosr ±

Interference due to reflected light

Δ = 2μtcosr

λ
2μtcosr ± = n λ Constructive interference (bright)

2
λ
2μtcosr = (2n ± 1) ,condition for bright band in thin lm for re ected light.

2μtcosr = n λ ,condition for dark band in thin lm for re ected light.

Interference due to transmitted light

λ
Now for transmitted rays the path difference is = 2μtcosr. No factor of as there is no additional phase change on
2
reflection. therefore,

2μtcosr = n λ, condition for bright band in thin film for transmitted light.

λ
2μtcosr = (2n ± 1) , condition for dark band in thin lm for transmitted light.

Interference due to wedge-shaped film

Let us consider OX and OY are two planes, which are inclined at an angle α. A medium of refractive index μ is enclosed
between them. When a light ray incident on the inclined plane, then is re ected from top and bottom surface of the lm in
the form of A R1 and CR2. Notice A R1 su ers phase change of π.

Path di erence in to re ected rays

Since the time taken by rst light ray to go from AN is same as for the second ray to go from A to B, B to C, thus a path
di erence between re ected rays A R1 and CR2 can be written as,

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 Unit 1:Interference
λ
Δ = (BC + CD)med − ⟮BF ± ⟯air

2
λ
= μ(CD + BC ) − ⟮BF ± ⟯

2
From snells law

sin(i )
μ=

sin(r)

From Δ′s BFD and BED,

BF/BD
μ= ⇒ BF = μ BE

BE /BD
Putting the value of BF in Δ equation

λ
Δ = μ(BC + CD − BE ) ±

2
λ
Δ = μ(BE + EC + CD − BE ) ±

2
λ λ λ
Δ = μ(EC + CD) ± = μ(EC + CP ) ± = μ EP ±

2 2 2
In Δ′s CID and CIP,

∠CDI = ∠CPI = (r + θ )

∠CID = ∠CIP = 90o And CI is common.

Thus CIP and CIP are equivalent triangles.

DI=PI=t=thickness of the lm.

Now the path di erence becomes

From ΔEPD, EP = 2tcos(r + θ )

λ
Δ = 2μtcos(r + θ ) ±

Interference due to reflected light

λ
Δ = 2μt . cos(r + θ ) ±

2
λ
Δ = 2μt . cos(r + θ ) = (2n ± 1) , for constructive interference.

2
Δ = 2μt . cos(r + θ ) = n λ , for destructive interference.

n=0, zero fringe will be dark

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 Unit 1:Interference

Interference due to transmitted light

Δ = 2μt . cos(r + θ ) = n λ , bright fringe

λ
Δ = 2μt . cos(r + θ ) = (2n ± 1) , dark fringe
2

Fringe width in wedge shaped film interference pattern

Let x1 be the distance of n th dark ring from the edge for thickness t1 and x 2 be the distance of (m + n)th dark ring from the
edge for thickness t2 .

Then using destructive interference condition for re ected waves,

nλ
t1 =

2μcos(r + θ )
(m + n)λ
t2 =

2μcos(r + θ )

From the gure

t1 = x1ta n θ

t2 = x 2ta n θ

nλ
Now, x1 =

2μ ta n θ cos(r + θ )
(m + n)λ
x2 =

2μ ta n θ cos(r + θ )
mλ
x 2 − x1 =

2μ ta n θ cos(r + θ )
x 2 − x1 λ
Fringe width, β = =

m 2μ ta n θ cos(r + θ )

If θ is very small then

ta n θ ≈ θ, r > > θ ⇒ r + θ = r

λ
β=

2μ θ cos(r)

For normal incidence

λ
β=

2μθ

Colors in reflected and transmitted light will be complimentary

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 Unit 1:Interference
The conditions of maxima and minima in the re ected light is just reverse of those in transmitted light.

→ the colors observed in thin lms in the case of re ected light will be complementary of those observed in re ected light.

Why do we need an extended source?

An extended source is necessary to observer the Eye

larger area of a thin lm. When we use point source the Point

pair of light waves, re ected from top and and bottom surface
of the, lm are wide apart. Hence all these pairs cannot be
received by the eye simultaneously. Therefore rays only from a
small portion of the lm will be observed at a moment. Hence
the entire lm cannot be seen by the eye placed at a xed 1(•) (b)
position.

Production of colors in thin films

If light from an extended monochromatic source falls normally on the thin lm then equally dark and bright fringes will be
observed. However, if The monochromatic source is replaced by a white light source and thin lm is observed under
re ected light, various colors are seen in the lm. These colors arises due to the interference of light waves re ected from
the top and bottom surfaces of the lm.

The path di erence we know depends on thickness of the lm t and angle of refraction r, hence upon the inclinations of the
incident rays and this inclination can be determined by the position of eye relative to the region of lm which is being
observed. This is for the case of monochromatic extended light source.

Now white light has continues range of wavelengths ranging from (400 to 700nm). For a particular position of eye and
constant thickness of lm. Change in path di erence will be due to wavelength only. For di erent wavelengths di erent μ.

λair
λmed =

The colors which have the wavelength which satisfy the condition for maxima will appear at that point of observation and
rest of the colors will be missing due to following condition of destructive interference

Clearly colouration of lm depends on the position of eye and thickness also. Whereas in the above case
we have assumed constant thickness and xed position of eye with respect to the observation point on the lm. Now if we
change the position of eye we might see di erent colors following constructive interference condition for re ected waves.

Notice for constant thickness lm (parallel lm), if incident light falls parallel to the surface of lm, then the path di erence
is same at each point of the lm, therefore the lm appears uniformly colored.

What will happen if we observe fringes using thick lm?

Large thickness implies large path di erence, therefore large number of wavelengths will satisfy constructive interference
condition also large number of wavelengths will satisfy destructive interference condition. Number of wavelengths sending
maximum intensity at the point of observation is equal to the number of wavelengths sending minimum intensity at the
point of observation. For white light the wavelength sending maxima and minima will be distributed equally over the colors
in white light. Therefore resultant e ect at any such point will be sum of average intensity of all wavelengths, for this case
that is white.

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 Unit 1:Interference

How thin must be the thin lm?

We know that the interference pattern due to thin lms disappears when ever it’s thickness is increased beyond a certain
limit.

We know that the necessary condition for observing interference pattern is coherent sources.

Therefore, in the case of thin lms, the path di erence between two interfering beams must be less than longitudinal
coherence length lc otherwise they would be in-coherent.

λ2
2μtcosr ≤

Δλ
λ2
Δλ
⇒t = ≈ Few μm

2μcosr

Colors in Soap Bubble

White light has di erent wavelengths and refractive indices. Also due to its spherical
shape the angle of refraction varies from point to point even for parallel incident beam.
For a constant thickness t soap bubble, the path di erence will depend on r, t and μ.
Hence varying values of these variable will satisfy constructive interference condition for
particular wavelength i.e particular color. So that point will be maximum in that color.

λ
2μtcosr = (2n ± 1) For constructive interference.

2
Similarly, the other points di erent color may satisfy the constructive interference
condition and appear bright in that color.

Thin Layer of oil lm

When parallel rays are incident, the angle of refraction will remain constant. Whereas the
value of refractive index will be di erent for di erent wavelengths. If the the thickness is
varying than condition for bright fringe, for parallel incident rays, will depends on
wavelengths or refractive index and thickness. That is why the lm appears multicolored.

Newton’s rings
When we place a Plano convex lens above of plane glass, a thin lm is formed having zero thickness at point O. Then the
light re ected from the bottom surface of the lens and top surface of glass plate interfere and concentric dark and bright
fringes will form with central dark fringe, this interference pattern is called Newton’s rings.

Condition for dark and bright rings for

re ected system

As for wedge shaped lms (re ected rays)

λ
Δ = 2μt . cos(r + α) ±
s Reflected light

20
Glass plate
Fig.NI Fig.N2
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 Unit 1:Interference
α < < r and

For normal incidence cosr = 1, as it is air between the lens and glass plate ⇒ μ = 1

λ
Δ = 2t ±

2
This expression show that a maximum of a particular order of n will occur at a constant value of t.

λ
2t ± = n λ , Constructive interference

2
λ
2t = (2n ± 1)

2
λ λ
2t ± = (2n ± 1) , Destructive interference

2 2
2t = n λ

Diameter of n th bright

The geometry implies R is the radius of curvature of the lens, r is the radius of the n th ring present at thickness t of the
lens.

Using Pythagoras theorem in triangle BOE

OB 2 + BE 2 = OE 2, where OB = R − t

(R − t)2 + r 2 = R 2

R 2 + t 2 − 2Rt + r 2 = R 2

t 2 < < 1 , since t is very small. So we can ignore this term compared to other term.

⇒ r 2 = 2Rt

r2
2t = ........(1)

R
For bright ring

λ
2t = (2n ± 1)

2
Using equation (1)

λ r2
(2n ± 1) = .........(2)

2 R
D
r =

2
Using equation (2)

D 2 = 2λ R(2n ± 1) .........(3)

21
 Unit 1:Interference
D= 2λ R(2n ± 1) bright ring

D= 4λ R(n) dark ring

Wavelength of source using Newton’s ring

Dn2 = 4λ R n 2
And D(m+n) = 4λ R(m + n)
2
Dm+n ----
B
-r- --------- I
I

2 2
D −D = 4m R λ
dn ' I ...
2 .' I
D11,+n -
m+n n
i__ _
I

1 ___
I
I
I

2 2
D m+n − D
I

n
I

λ=
I I

~·
I I

4m R
I

I
m I
I I
I I
I

Graph shows (di a m eter)2 v/s number of rings n.

I
•c I
D
n m+n
-
No. of rings (n)
To determine of refractive index of liquid

Perform Newton's rings experiment with the air in between the lens and glass plane. The diameter of n th and (m + n)th
rings are determined with the help of traveling microscope.

Dn2 = 4λ R n And 2
D(m+n) = 4λ R(m + n)

D 2 m+n − D 2 n = 4m R λ.........(1)

Now when the air lm is replaced by liquid whose refractive index is needed. Again diameter of n th and (m + n)th rings are
determined.

4λ R n 4λ R(n + m)
Now, Dn′2 = And ′2
Dn+m =

μ μ
4m R λ
D ′2 m+n − D ′2 n = .........(2)

Now station (1) and (2)

D 2 m+n − D 2 n
μ= , Refractive Index of liquid.

D ′2 m+n − D ′2 n

Perfect blackness of central spot

Newton’s rings in re ected light are formed by interference between the two
re ected rays. Near the point of contact the thickness of the air lm is almost zero
and hence no path di erence is introduced between the interfering rays. How ever
the ray re ected from the bottom surface of the lm su ers a phase change of π,
while the ray re ected from the upper surface is not having any such phase change.
Thus two wave interfering at the center have path di erence of half wavelength thus
they both destroy each other. However, this destruction is not complete since the
amplitude of ray re ected from bottom is less than that of ray re ected from the
upper surface. However when other waves re ected from the bottom surface overlaps
and interfere at center creates perfect darkness at the center.

22






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 Unit 1:Interference

Newton’s rings are circular but air wedge fringe is straight

In both the Newton’s rings arrangement and the air wedge fringe arrangement, each fringe is the locus of points of equal
thickness of the lm. In the Newton’s rings arrangement, the point of equal thickness of lm lie on circles with the point of
contact of the lens and plate as center.

Hence fringes are concentric circles. In case of wedge shaped air lm the loci of equal thickness are Straight lines parallel
to edge of wedge. Hence the fringes are straight and parallel.

If lens placed on silver glass plate in Newton’s rings arrangement

If, in Newton’s rings arrangement, the top surface of the glass plate on which the lens is kept highly silvered, the rings
would disappear. This is because the transmitted rays will then be re ected at silvered surface and the two complementary
systems of rings would superimpose on each other, resulting in uniform illumination.

If white light is used

With white light only a few colored rings are visible, fading into general illumination. This is because the white light
composed of number of colors. Each produces its own ring system having a di erent spacing. Therefore at a point near
point of contact, the condition for bright ring will be satis ed by some colors , while that for a dark ring by some colors.

Hence the ring passing through that point will be colored. However at center dark fringe is formed.

But as we move away from the point of contact, the thickness of the lm increases and therefore the number of colors at a
point and the closeness of rings of each colors increases. This means in a greater overlapping and hence in general
illumination.

If the lens is lifted slowly o the plate

As the distance between the lens and plate increased, the Order of the ring at a given point increases.the rings, therefore ,
come closer until they can no longer separately observed.

Why do we need a narrow source for biprism but the extended source for Newton's rings
In the case of the biprism experiment, the wavefront emerging from the narrow slit S is divided in width by the biprism.
After refraction a part of the wavefront appears to diverge from S1 and the other part from S2. The two coherent sources
have a de nite position and interference fringes can be obtained anywhere in the region which permits both the coherent
sources to be seen.

These non localized fringes have good contrast provided the sources and slits are narrow. If a wide slit is used which is
equivalent to a number of adjacent narrow slits, each producing it's own set of fringes. These sets would be relatively
displaced and results in poor contrast due to overlapping.

However in Newton's rings experiment rings are formed due to interference of waves re ected from top and bottom
surface of air lm. In this case the width of the incident wavefront remains intact but the amplitude is divided and fringes
are localized in a particular plane whose position is determined by the amplitude dividing lm.

With a point source, the entire lm cannot be seen by the eyepiece in a xed position because of limited size of pupil of the
eye.

When an extend source of light is used, di erent points of the sources, so that entire lm can be seen.

This, there is a need of an extended source to see localized fringes.

23
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