TRANSDUCERS 73

5.1 CLASSIFICATION: ACI'IVE AND PASSIVE

Electrical transducers i:an broadly be divided into two categories: active and
passive. Active ones are self-generating devices, their functioning being based
on conversion of energy from one fonn to another. And since they generate
energy themselves, nn external source of energy is necessary to excite them.
The thermocouple belongs to this category.
Passive transducers, on the other band, do not generate any energy. They
need be excited by the application of electrical energy from outside. The extracted
energy from the measurand produces a change in their electrical state which can
be measured. For example, a photoresistor can be excited by an emf from a cell
and the voltage against the photoresistor can be measured. When exposed to a
light of certain intensity (measurand) its resistance changes, thus changing the
voltage across it.
Depending on their principles of operation, active and passive transducers
can be classified as follows:

Active: Thermoelectric, Piezoelectric,.Photovoltaic, Electromagnetic, Galvanic.

Passive: Resistive, Inductive, Capacitative, Magnetoresistive, Hall Effect based,
Photoconductive, Thennoresistive, Elastoresistive.

Tables 5.1 and 5.2 give a rough idea of the use of different kinds of
transducers in the measurement of representative non-electrical properties. The
list is not exhaustive but representative. As discussed earlier, we are dealing
with electrical transducers only because of their adaptability to instrumentation.

Table 5.1 Active transducers

Property used AppllaJJion in the

meas1l~VrU!nl of
Thermoelectricity Thermocoup-le Temperature
generation
Thennopile Radia~on pyrorneuy
or ternpera!Ure of
d istant objects
Thermocouple gauge Low pressure
Piezoelectricity generation Piezoelectric transducer Pressure
Photoelectricity generation Photodiode in Pressure
combination with a
diaphragm
Electricity generation by Electromagnetic pick-up Flow
moving a coil in a
magnetic field

Copyr.grted materal
 Digitallnstruments 149

r
block diagram of Fig. 6.2 (b) can be implemented with the circuit shown in
Fig. 6.2 (c).
:- -------- _____ ..,d ..,c_,V'---.-------,
:
'
''' Attenuator • •
<!C V
- ----- ------ - - -
~. -. -------
S1c
dcV acV

Ohms
de rnA
..,
' Ohms dcmA AID
''' Converter
'• ICompensated I Rectifier ~
•
'
I Attenuator Decade
•' Counter
:' dcV

·--
acV Current
'
~----- - to Digital
dcmA Voltage Readout
Converter
Ohms

1 Constant
Current
Source
I
Ag. G1 (b) Block diagram of a basic digital multimeter
The current to be measured is applied to the summing junction (r. i) at the
input of the opamp. Since the current at the input of the amplifier is close to zero
because of the very high input impedance of the amplifier, the current JR is very
nearly equal to 1;, the current IR causes a voltage drop which is proportional to the
current, to be developed across the resistors. This voltage drop is the input to the
NO converter, thereby providing a reading that is proportional to the unknown
current.

,
-
Unknown r.1 AID Decade Digital
Current Converter Counter Read
Out

Fig. G1 (c) Current to voltage converter

Resistance is measured by passing a known current, from a constant current
source, through an unknown resistance. The voltage drop across the resistor is
applied to the NO converter, thereby producing an indication of the value ofthe
unknown resistance.

Copyng led Matera!

152 Elearonic Instrumentation

6. The function (X - Z)I Y provides off.~etting and scaling with user entered
Z and Y constants (where X is the reading).
7. The function 100 x (X - Y)/Y determines the percentage deviation, and
20 log XI)' displays X in decibels relative to the value of Y. An internal
memory (RAM) can be used to store the results of measurements and
programs for taking the measurements.

DIGITAL FREQUENCY METER 6.3

Principle of Operation The signal waveform is converted to trigger pulses and
applied continuously to an AND gate, as shown in Fig. 6.4. A pulse of I s is
app)jed to the other terminal, and the
number of pulses counted during this
period indicates the frequency. .,___m
-l 1-
The signal whose frequency is to be 1 sec
measured is converted into a train of
pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the
Fig. G.4 Principle of digital frequency
signal. The number of pulses occurring in
measurement
a definite interval of time is then counted
by an electronic counter. Since each pulse represents the cycle of the unknown
signal, the number of counts is a direct indication of the frequency of the signal
(unknown). Since electronic counters have a high speed of operation, high
frequency signals can be measured.

63.1 Basic Circuit of a Digital Frequency M et er

The block diagram of a basic circuit of a digital frequency meter is shown in Fig.
~5. .

Unknown V\., 'V'v Schmitt ~ Sl<lrV Digital

Freq. 1Amplifie Trigger Stop f-. Readout
Gate 0000

Fig. G.S Basic circuit of a digital frequency meter

The signal may be amplified before being applied to the Schmitt trigger. The
Schmitt trigger converts the input signal into a square wave with fast rise and fall
times, which is then differentiated and clipped. As a result, the output from the
Schmitt trigger is a train of pulses, one pulse for each cycle of the signal.
The output pulses from the Schmitt trigger are fed to a START/STOP gate.
When this gate is enabled, the input pulses pass through this gate and are fed
directly to the electronic counter, which counts the number of pulses.
When this gate is disabled, the counter stops counting the incoming pulses.
The counter displays the number of pulses that have P.i!Ssed through it in the time
interval between start and stop. If this interval is known, the unknown frequency
can be measured.

Copyr grted matenal

 Digital fnstruments I 59

When the function switch is on the period mode, the control voltage is
connected to proper gates of the logic circuitry, which connects the time base
signals to the counted signal channel of the main gate. At the same time the
logic circuitry connects the input to the gate control for enabling or disabling the
main gate. The other function switches, such as time interval ratio and external
standards perform similar functions. The exact details of switching and control
procedures vary from instrument to instrument.

DECADE COUNTER 6.6

A decade counter is a circuit of flip-flops (F/Fs) in cascade, which counts in the
base 10 (decimal number system). This means that there is a sequence of ten
distinct counts in increasing order. Three F/Fs used in cascade progress through 8
distinct states (binary numbers from 000 to Ill), while 4 F/Fs in cascade progress
through 16 distinct states (binary numbers 0000 to 1111 ). Hence to get a count
of 10, a minimum of 4 F/Fs are required (because 8 distinct statc·s are less while
16 are too many for a decade counter). This problem can be overcome by using
4 F/Fs in cascade and resetting the output of each F/F to 0 after the desired I 0
counl~. Figure 6.13 (a) shows a decade counter using 4 negative edged triggered
F/Fs in cascade.

+ Vee
(
\....r--
--
1~! D ~
Clock s A s 8 f- s
In put
T T 1- T
- R - R R C

A 8 c I o
Fig. G.13 (a) Decade counter

The outputs of the F/F B and D arc high (equal to binary I) after I 0 pulses
have been applied to the counter. Therefore, the output signal of the decade
counter is 1010. This output has to be reset on the very next pulse which is done
by the use of an AND gate that resets all F/F's to 0, when the t'utputs ofB and D
are 1. The wavefom1 shown in Fig. 6.13 (b) shows the pulse train applied to the
trigger i.nput (clock) oft he decade coumer (shown in Fig. 6.13(a)) and the output
wavefonn of each F/F.
At the beginning all the F/Fs are reset to 0000. The clock pulse is applied to
the trigger input T of the F/F. Since this is a negative edged triggered F/ F, at the
negative edge or falling edge oft he trigger input the F/ F A will toggle, and hence
the output of FIF A changes to level l; all other f/fs undergo oo change. The
outputs from the F/Fs will be 00{) l. At the next clock pulse the F/ F A will toggle
back to 0, and the output ofF/FA falls from I to 0 and is applied to the T input
oftbe next Fff B, toggling il The output of the F/F B changes to Eand the output
of the decade counter goes to 00 I 0.

Copynghled mater al
 Digirol Instruments 165

Let us consider the case, when the input signal frequency is 48 Hz. The period
i.e. 1/48 s = 20.83 ms. Within this period, the number of pulses wiJI be 5208. (For
20 ms the count is 5000, hence for 20.83 ms the count is
5000 x 20.83 ms _
5208
20ms
Therefore, 20.83 ms the count is 5208). Now, these pulses are counted down
and the display reading is I 0000 - 5208 = 4792; 48Hz is displayed as 47.92 Hz.

DIGITAL TACHOMETER 6.9

The technique employed in measuring the speed of a rotating shaft is similar to
the technique used in a conventional frequency counter, except tbat the selection
of the gate period is in accordance with the rpm calibration.
Let us assume, that the rpm of a rotating shaft is R. Let P be the number of
pulses produced by the pick up for one revolution of the shaft. Therefore, in one
minute the number of pulses from the pick up is R x P. Then, tfue frequency of
the signal from the pick up is (R x P)/60. Now, if the gate period is G s the pulses
counted are (R x P x G)/60. In order to get the direct reading in rpm, the number
of pulses to be counted by the counter is R. So we select the gate period as 60/P,
and the counter counts
(R x Px60)
R pulses
60xP

and we can read the rpm of the rotating shaft directly. So, the relation between
the gate period and the number of pulses produced by the pickup is G = 60/P. If
we fix the gate period as one second (G = I s), then the revolution pickup must
be capable of producing 60 pulses per revolution.
Figure 6.19 shows a schematic diagram of a digital tachometer.
4 Digit
Display
JlliiiiL.Jlllll
Gate Count Input
Generator Counter/Latch
Decoder
Main/
Gate
Strobe Reset

Reset .......llA'-----4A_
Strobe _ __..,1_---'IL
~
Fig. G.l9 Basic block diagram of a digital tachometer

DIGITAL pH METER 6.10

The measurement of hydrogen ion activity (pH) in a solution can be accom-
plished with the help of a pH meter. For those unfamiliar with the terminology, a
very brief review is included.

Copynghted mater ai
 Digital Instruments 171

DIGITAL PHASE METER 6.12

The simplest technique to measure the phase difference between two signals
employs two flip-flops. The sig111als to be fed must be of the same ftequency. First,
the signals must be shaped to a square waveform without any change in their
phase positions, by the use of a zero crossing detector. The process of measuring
the phase difference can be iiiUJstrated by the schematic diagram shown in Fig.
6.26.
The block diagram consists of two pairs of preamplifier's, zero crossing
detectors, J-K F/Fs, and a single control gate. Two signals having phases P" and
P:r respectively are applied as inputs to the preamplifier and attenuation circuit.
The frequency of the two inputs is the same but their phases are different.
Pre-
Amplifier Zero
& Crossing
Attenuator Detector

Pre- Zero
Amplifier Crossing
& Detector
Attenuator

Counter and nrno=-r.=h

Display Unit 00 0

Fig. S.26 Digital phase meter

As the P0 input signal increases in the positive half cycle, tbe zero crossing
detector changes its state when the input crosses zero (0) giving a high ( I) level
at the output. This causes the J- K F/F- 1 to be set (1), that is, the output (Q) of
F/F- 1 goes high. This high output from the F/F- 1 enables the AND gate, and
pulses from the clock arc fed directly to the counter. The counter starts counting
these pulses. Also this high output level of F/F-1 is applied to the clear input of
F/F-2 which makes the output of the F/F- 2 go to zero (0).
Now as the input P, which has a phase difference with respect to P0 , crosses
zero (0) in the positive half cycle, the zero detector is activated, causing its
output to go high (1). This high input in tum toggles the J-K F/F-2, making
its output go high. This output (Q) of F/F-2 is connected to the clear input of
F/F-1 forcing the F/F-1 to reset. Hence the output ofF/F-1 goes to zero (0). The
AND gate is thus disabled, and the counter stops counting.
The number of pulses counted while enabling and disabling the AND gate
is in direct proportion to the phase difference, hence the disp lay unit gives a
direct readout of the phase difference between the two inputs having the same
frequency/

Copynghted mater al
 NOTES ON
OSCILLOSCOPES
NOTES ON ................................................................................................................................ 1
OSCILLOSCOPES .................................................................................................................... 1
Oscilloscope ............................................................................................................................... 3
Analog and Digital ................................................................................................................. 3
Analog Oscilloscopes ............................................................................................................. 4
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Principles .................................................................................... 5
Electron Gun ...................................................................................................................... 5
The Deflection System ....................................................................................................... 6
Displaying a Voltage Waveform........................................................................................ 9
Triggering......................................................................................................................... 10
Pulse Generator: ............................................................................................................... 12
Sweep Generator .............................................................................................................. 12
X-Y Operation.................................................................................................................. 14
External Triggering .......................................................................................................... 14
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO)................................................................................... 15
Measurement Techniques..................................................................................................... 16
Phase difference: .............................................................................................................. 17
Controls ................................................................................................................................ 20
Display Controls............................................................................................................... 20
Vertical Controls .............................................................................................................. 20
Position and Volts per Division Settings.......................................................................... 20
Horizontal Controls .......................................................................................................... 21
Input Coupling.................................................................................................................. 22
X-Y Button....................................................................................................................... 22
DUAL Button................................................................................................................... 22
Alternate and Chop Buttons ............................................................................................. 23
ADD Button ..................................................................................................................... 23
LEVEL and +/- Buttons ................................................................................................... 25
Appendix .............................................................................................................................. 27

2
Oscilloscope
In many applications, observing certain voltage waveforms in a circuit plays a crucial role in
understanding the operation of the circuit. For that purpose several measurement instruments
are used like voltmeter, ammeter, or the oscilloscope.
An oscilloscope (sometimes abbreviated as “scope”) is a voltage sensing electronic
instrument that is used to visualize certain voltage waveforms. An oscilloscope can display
the variation of a voltage waveform in time on the oscilloscope’s screen

Figure 1.

A probe is used to connect the oscilloscope to the circuit. Figure 1 shows an oscilloscope and
a probe connected to it.

_
Figure 2.

Figure 2 shows a typical probe. Oscilloscope shows the potential difference between the two
terminals of the probe. The terminal ending with a hook is usually connected to the node in
the circuit whose voltage is of interest. The other terminal is usually (but not always)
connected to the ground. The probes are attached to input channels of the oscilloscope. Most
oscilloscopes have at least two input channels and each channel can display a waveform on
the screen. Multiple channels are useful for comparing waveforms. For example, one can
observe the voltage waveforms at the input and the output terminals of a circuit
simultaneously, by using a two channel oscilloscope.

Analog and Digital

Electronic equipments can be divided into two types: analog and digital. Analog equipment
works with continuously variable voltages, while digital equipment works with binary
numbers (1 and 0’s) that may represent voltage samples. For example, a conventional cassette
player is an analog device; a compact disc player is a digital device.

Oscilloscopes also come in analog and digital types. An analog oscilloscope works by directly
applying a voltage being measured to an electron beam moving across the oscilloscope
screen. The voltage deflects the beam up and down proportionally, tracing the waveform on
the screen. This gives an immediate picture of the waveform. In contrast, a digital
oscilloscope samples the waveform and uses an analog-to-digital converter (or ADC) to

3
convert the voltage being measured into digital information. It then uses this digital
information to reconstruct the waveform on the screen.

Figure 3: Digital and Analog Oscilloscopes Display Waveforms.

Analog Oscilloscopes

An analog oscilloscope displays the voltage waveforms by deflecting an electron beam

generated by an electron gun inside a cathode-ray tube on to a fluorescent coating. Because of
the use of the cathode ray tube, analog oscilloscopes are also known as cathode ray
oscilloscopes. To understand how an analog scope displays the voltage waveforms, it is
necessary to understand what is inside the unit. The following section describes the general
principles of the operation of cathode ray oscilloscopes.

4
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope Principles

Figure 4 shows the structure, and the main components of a cathode ray tube (CRT). Figure 5
shows the face plane of the CRO screen.

Fluorescent
Coating Vertical
Vertical Deflection Horizontal Deflection
Plates Plates
CRO Screen Deflection
Plates

Electron Beam

Electron Gun Horizontal

Deflection
CRO Screen Plates

Figure 4. Figure 5.
Electron beam generated by the electron gun first deflected by the deflection plates, and then
directed onto the fluorescent coating of the CRO screen, which produces a visible light spot
on the face plane of the oscilloscope screen.

A detailed representation of a CRT is given in Figure 6. The CRT is composed of two main
parts,

• Electron Gun
• Deflection System

Brightness control Focus Adjust

Fluorescent
-Vgrid Coating
2kV-10kV Horizontal
+400V
Vertical Deflection Deflection
Cathode Plates Plates

e- Electron Beam

e- e-

Control grid Focus anodes and

electrostatic field Screen

Electron Gun Deflection System

Figure 6.

Electron Gun
Electron gun provides a sharply focused electron beam directed toward the fluorescent-coated
screen. The thermally heated cathode emits electrons in many directions. The control grid
provides an axial direction for the electron beam and controls the number and speed of
electrons in the beam.

The momentum of the electrons determines the intensity, or brightness, of the light emitted
from the fluorescent coating due to the electron bombardment. Because electrons are
5
negatively charged, a repulsion force is created by applying a negative voltage to the control
grid, to adjust their number and speed. A more negative voltage results in less number of
electrons in the beam and hence decreased brightness of the beam spot.

Since the electron beam consists of many electrons, the beam tends to diverge. This is
because the similar (negative) charges on the electrons repulse each other. To compensate for
such repulsion forces, an adjustable electrostatic field is created between two cylindrical
anodes, called the focusing anodes. The variable positive voltage on the second anode
cylinder is therefore used to adjust the focus or sharpness of the bright spot.

The Deflection System

The deflection system consists of two pairs of parallel plates, referred to as the vertical and
horizontal deflection plates. One of the plates in each set is permanently connected to the
ground (zero volt), whereas the other plate of each set is connected to input signals or
triggering signal of the CRO.
Fluorescent
Coating
Vertical Deflection Horizontal Deflection
Plates Plates

Electron Beam

Electron Gun

CRO Screen

Deflection System
Figure 7.

As shown in Figure 7, the electron beam passes through the deflection plates. In reference to
the schematic diagram in Figure 8, a positive voltage applied to the Y input terminal causes
the electron beam to deflect vertically upward, due to attraction forces, while a negative
voltage applied to the Y input terminal causes the electron beam to deflect vertically
downward, due to repulsion forces. Similarly, a positive voltage applied to the X input
terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally toward the right, while a negative
voltage applied to the X input terminal will cause the electron beam to deflect horizontally
toward the left of the screen.

6
 Vertical
Vy Deflection
CRO Screen Plates

Vx

Horizontal
Deflection
Plates
Figure 8.
The amount of vertical or horizontal deflection is directly proportional to the corresponding
applied voltage. When the electrons hit the screen, the phosphor emits light and a visible light
spot is seen on the screen.

Since the amount of deflection is proportional to the applied voltage, actually the voltages Vy
and Vx determine the coordinates of the bright spot created by the electron beam.

Example 1:
Suppose Vx = sin(t), Vy = cos(t) are applied to the horizontal and vertical deflection plates
respectively. Then the bright spot would follow a circular path on the CRO screen.

Vy = cos(t)
CRO Screen

Vx = sin(t)

Figure 9.

7
Example 2:
Vy(t)

Vy(t)

Figure 10-a.

Vs(t)

Vs(t)
t

Figure 10-b.

Vy(t)
Vy(t)

Vs(t)
Vs(t)

Figure 10-c.

8
In Figure 10-a, the input signal Vy(t) is applied to the vertical deflection plates, whereas the
horizontal deflection plates are connected to ground. It is assumed that the electron beam is
kept at the extreme left position when the horizontal deflection plates are connected to
ground. Under this configuration, the bright spot in the CRO screen will follow a vertical path
(will go up and down) at the extreme left position of the screen.

In Figure 10-b, the input signal Vs(t) is applied to the horizontal deflection plates, whereas the
vertical deflection plates are connected to ground. This time, the bright spot will travel from
extreme left to extreme right end of the screen and will stop there.

In Figure 10-c, the signals Vy(t) and Vs(t) are applied to the vertical and the horizontal
deflection plates respectively. This time the bright spot will follow a sinusoidal path, resulting
a visualization of the input signal Vy(t) on the CRO screen.

Actually the bright spot must follow the same path fast and repetitively (at least 30 times in a
second) so that the human eye can perceive the motion of the bright spot as a continuous
curve. Therefore, in order to display the waveform on the CRO screen for the example in
figure 10-c, the signals Vy(t) and Vs(t) should be applied to the vertical and the horizontal
deflection plates periodically and in synchronization. The next section discusses the details of
this procedure and depicts how CRO handles this problem.

Displaying a Voltage Waveform

In numerous applications it will be required to display a periodical voltage waveform as a
function of time. By applying the voltage to be displayed on the CRO, to the vertical
deflection plates (Vy), the vertical deflection of the beam spot will be proportional to the
magnitude of this voltage. It is then necessary to convert the x axis (horizontal deflection) into
a time axis. Notice that, in the example given in figure 10-c, the voltage waveform Vs(t)
(which varies linearly in time before the bright spot reaches the extreme right end of the
screen) is used for this purpose and the bright spot have traveled the path determined by Vy(t).
If the signal to be observed is periodic, then a periodic voltage waveform that varies linearly
with time, as shown in figure below, is applied to the horizontal deflection plates. This type of
waveform is called the sawtooth waveform.

s(t)

Extreme Right

Extreme Left
t

Trace time (Tr) Flyback time

Figure 11
When s(t) is zero volt, the bright spot is at the extreme left-hand position, and when s(t) is
maximum, the bright spot is at the extreme right position. Therefore, the bright spot travels
from extreme left to extreme right in a time equal to the trace time. During the flyback time,
which is usually very short compared to trace time, a high negative voltage pulse is applied to
the control grid of the electron gun to prevent electron beams reaching the CRO screen. This

9
action is called blanking and prevents any reverse retrace (or shadow) as the beam is going
back to the extreme left-hand position. The time period including the trace time and the
flyback time is called the sweep period.

The period of the sawtooth waveform plays a crucial role in obtaining a steady waveform on
the CRO screen. The following section discusses the requirements on the period of the
sawtooth waveform and the need of a synchronization between the sawtooth waveform and
the input waveform.

Triggering

Vy (t)

CRO SCREEN
t

s(t) T
τ
Extreme Right

Extreme Left

Steady Waveform is obtained

t

Figure 12

Suppose the input Vy(t) and s(t) shown in Figure 12 are applied to the vertical and horizontal
deflection plates of the CRO respectively. Note that, At the beginning of each sweep cycle,
(i.e when the bright spot is at extreme left) Vy(t) gets exactly the same value (The points
indicated by red circles). Therefore the bright spot is following exactly the same path in each
sweep cycle. Thus, we can observe a steady waveform on CRO screen. Notice that the time
between the beginning of two consecutive sweep cycles is a multiple of input signal period.
(i.e. = n T. T, are shown on the figure 12, n is a positive integer.)

10
 Yinput (t)

CRO SCREEN
t

S(t)

Extreme Right
Extreme Right Extreme Right

Extreme Left
Extreme Left Extreme Left Waveform is not steady!
t

Figure 12

For the given case, the bright spot is following different paths in different sweep cycles,
therefore we can not obtain a steady waveform on CRO screen.

In order to obtain stable and stationary waveform displays, the sawtooth signal should be
applied to the horizontal deflection plates, in synchronism with the waveform being
displayed. CRO handles this synchronization problem by using the following structure.

Vertical
Amplifier
CRO Display
~ Yinput

s(t) p(t)
Horizontal Sweep Pulse
Amplifier Generator Generator

Figure 13
Notice that, the voltage waveform which is to be displayed on the CRO screen (Yinput in this
case) is applied to the vertical amplifier. In the amplification stage, only the amplitude of the
input waveform is changed. After the amplification stage, the output of the vertical amplifier
is applied to the vertical deflection plates. Then in order to obtain a steady waveform on the
CRO screen, a sawtooth waveform having a period which is an integer multiple of the period
of the input voltage waveform should be applied to the horizontal deflection plates.

11
 Yinput (t) Level

P(t)

t
S(t)

Trace time (Tr)

Figure 14

Pulse Generator:
The main function of the pulse generator (PG) (see figure 13.) is to produce periodical pulses
with a period of T, which is equal to the period of the input signal. For that purpose, the input
signal is compared to a certain voltage level (‘Level’ on the figure 14). Producing pulses each
time the input voltage is equal to that certain voltage level, may seem to result pulses which
are periodic with period T. But this is not the case. Notice that, the ‘Level’ intersects the input
signal more than once in one period. Therefore, one of the intersection points is neglected in
each period. The decision on which intersection point to neglect is made by inspecting the
slope of the signal at the intersection point.

The pulse generator produces pulses each time the input voltage level is same as the ‘Level’,
after checking the slope of the signal at that time instant. In the example given in figure 14,
there are two intersection points at each period, and the one with the negative slope (blue
points) are neglected. (The selected slope is positive for that case). Actually, the sign of the
slope can be selected by using the +/- button of the CRO. Also the voltage level that the signal
is being compared to, can be adjusted by using the level button on the oscilloscope.

Sweep Generator
The main function of the sweep generator is to produce one cycle of a sawtooth waveform,
when it receives a pulse at its input. If the sweep generator receives a trigger pulse during its
sweep cycle (i.e., during the trace period Tr), it will simply ignore the pulse and continue with
the completion of its sweep cycle.

Depending on the selected level and the slope of the input signal, the output of the pulse
generator will consist of narrow trigger pulses separated from each other by one period T.
Each time the input signal crosses a preselected level (and a preselected slope), the pulse
generator emits one narrow trigger pulse. The emitted pulse triggers the sweep generator to
begin producing one cycle of the sweep waveform; its duration is the trace period Tr. At the

12
end of each sweep cycle, the sweep generator stops its output and awaits the arrival of the
next trigger pulse before producing a new sweep cycle.

Notice that if the sweep generator receives a trigger pulse during its sweep cycle (i.e., during
the trace period Tr), it will simply ignore the pulse and continue with the completion of its
sweep cycle. The trigger pulse received after the completion of the trace period will initiate
the new sweep cycle. This allows the scope to display more than one cycle, of period T, of the
signal connected to its vertical deflection plates.

The following figure illustrates an example.

Yinput (t) SUMMARY

Level
Assume +/- button of CRO is
released. At these points, even
the input is equal to the ‘Level’,
the pulses are not generated,
because slope is (-)ve
t
Those pulses are ignored by the
Sweep generator, since they are
received during the sweep cycle.

Note that, the Trace time is

Tr determined by the time/div button
of the oscilloscope
P(t) Note that, the voltage of the
starting point of the plot on the
CRO screen is equal to ‘Level’.
And plot starts with a (+)ve slope.

t
CRO SCREEN
S(t)

Trace time (Tr)

Figure 15.

In the given example, first the voltage waveform to be displayed on the CRO screen is
compared with a voltage level. The blue and the red points show the intersection of the input
signal with the level. Assuming the positive slope is selected, pulse generator produces pulses
at each time the input signal is equal to ‘level’, and its slope is positive. The pulses generated
by the pulse generator, trigger the sweep generator, which produces one cycle of the sawtooh
waveform. The trace time of the sweep generator is adjusted by the time/div button which is
available on the front panel of the oscilloscope. The resulting sawtooth waveform is applied
to the horizontal deflection plates, which leads to a steady display of the input signal on the
oscilloscope screen. Notice that, at the beginning of each sweep period (when the bright spot
is at the extreme left), input signal voltage is equal to `level` and has a positive slope.
Therefore, the waveform shown on the CRO screen starts with a positive slope at the extreme
left and its value is equal to the ‘level’. One can change these settings by varying the ‘level’
control or the +/- button of the oscilloscope.

13
The whole process is called triggering because, obtaining a steady plot on the CRO screen can
only be achieved by producing pulses at the input of the Sweep Generator at the correct time
instances. (i.e. triggering the Sweep Generator at the correct time instances.)

X-Y Operation
When the variation of one voltage waveform, Vy(t), as a function of another, Vx(t),
eliminating the parameter time, t, is desired, X-Y mode of operation is used. In X-Y mode,
one signal is applied to the vertical deflection plates whereas the other signal is applied to the
horizontal deflection plates. The XY button on the front panel of the oscilloscope disconnects
the triggering signal from the horizontal deflection system, and connects the second input
signal instead. This process is done by using a switch shown as ‘X-Y button’ on the figure
below.
Vertical
Amplifier
CRO Display
~ Yinput

s(t) p(t)
Horizontal Sweep Pulse
Amplifier Generator Generator

~ Vexternal
Xinput ~
X-Y Button Ext. Button

Figure 16

External Triggering
Rather than the input signal itself, an external signal can also be used for triggering. For that
purpose multi-positional switch, which corresponds to Ext. Button of the CRO, should be set
to position 2, as shown in Figure 16. The external signal should satisfy certain conditions in
order to obtain a steady waveform on the CRO screen. Keeping in my that the period of the
sawtooth waveform, s(t), should be an integer multiple of the period of the input signal, can
you find the conditions needed on the frequency of the external triggering signal?

See also: http://www.eee.metu.edu.tr/~ee213/CRO/CRO.htm

14
Digital Storage Oscilloscopes (DSO)
The concept behind the digital oscilloscope is somewhat different to an analogue scope.
Rather than processing the signals in an analogue fashion, the DSO converts them into a
digital format using an analogue to digital converter (ADC), then it stores the digital data in
the memory, and then processes the signals digitally, finally it converts the resulting signal in
a picture format to be displayed on the screen of the scope.

Since the waveform is stored in a digital format, the data can be processed either within the
oscilloscope itself, or even by a PC connected to it. One advantage of using the DSO is that
the stored data can be used to visualize or process the signal at any time. The analogue scopes
do not have memory therefore the signal can be displayed only instantaneously. The transient
parts of the signal (which may vanish even in milliseconds or microseconds) can not be
observed using an analogue oscilloscope.

The DSO’s are widely used in many applications in view of their flexibility and performance.

15
Measurement Techniques

The major concern in observing a signal on the oscilloscope screen is to make voltage and
time measurements. These measurements may be helpful in understanding the behavior of a
circuit component, or the circuit itself, depending on what you measure. Except for the X-Y
mode of operation, the oscilloscope displays the voltage value of the waveform as a function
of time. The oscilloscope screen is partitioned into the grids, which divides both the
horizontal axis(voltage) and the vertical axis(time) into divisions which will be helpful in
making the measurements. See Figure 17.
5

- 1

- 2

- 3

- 4

- 5

0 0. 1 0 . 2 0 . 3 0 . 4 0. 5 0. 6 0. 7 0. 8 0 . 9 1

Figure 17: Oscilloscope Screen.

Obviously one needs to know the time or the voltage values corresponding to each division, in
order to make accurate calculations. These values are determined by two variables namely the
time/div and the volt/div both of which can be adjusted from the relevant buttons available
on the front panel of the oscilloscope (see Figure 10-13). Also note that, the time/div button
controls the trace time of the sweep generator, whereas the volt/div button controls the `gain`
in the vertical amplifiers in the vertical deflection system.
Typical quantities, which are of primer interest when observing a signal with the scope, are
shown in Figure 18.
5

DC 1

Value
Ground 0
Peak
value
- 1

- 2
Period

- 3
Peak to peak
value
- 4

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 1 4 16 18 20

Figure 18: Sinusoidal Signal on Oscilloscope Screen.

16
For the given figure, suppose that the variables volt/div and time/div are set to:

volt/div = 2Volts/div.
time/div = 1millisecond/div

Then the corresponding values shown on the figure are calculated to be;

Peak Value = 6volts

Peak to peak value = 12 Volts
DC Value (Average Value) = 2 Volts
Period = 3 milliseconds
1
Frequency = = 333 Hz.
Period
Note that the signal s(t), shown on the oscilloscope screen can be expressed as,

s ( t ) = V peak sin(2π ft ) + VDC

= 6 sin ( 2π 333t ) + 2
= 6 sin ( 666π t ) + 2 Volts.

Phase difference:

In some applications, one may need to monitor or compare two or more signals
simultaneously. A typical example can be the comparison of the input voltage with the output
voltage of a two-port (input and output ports) circuit. If the signals that are being monitored
have the same frequency, a time delay may occur between the signals (i.e. one signal may
lead the other or vice versa). Two waves that have the same frequency, have a phase
difference that is constant (independent of t). When the phase difference (modulo 2 ) is zero,
the waves are said to be in phase with each other. Otherwise, they are out of phase with each
other. If the phase difference is 180 degrees ( radians), then the two signals are said to be in
anti-phase. If the peak amplitudes of two anti-phase waves are equal, their sum is zero at all
values of time, t.

5
5

- 1

- 1

- 2

- 2

- 3

- 3

- 4

- 4

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 14 16 18 20

Figure 19: In-phase Waves Figure 20: Out of phase Waves

17
The phase difference is expressed in terms of radians or degrees. In Dual Mode of the
oscilloscope the phase difference can be calculated easily as follows.

Given the two signals having the same frequency, as shown in Figure 21,
5

3
∆T

2
T

- 1

- 2

- 3

Phase
- 4

- 5
Difference
0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0

Figure 21: Two Signals Displayed in DUAL Mode

define,

T = horizontal spacing of the peak values (or the zero crossings) of the two signals.
T = horizontal spacing for one period.

Then the phase difference, is;

∆T
θ= × 360 o in deg rees
T
∆T
θ= × 2π in radians
T

Note that, one has to specify the leading or the lagging signal in order to fully describe the
time difference between the two signals. In the figure above, the signal represented with
dashed curve leads the other. Suppose that the signal represented by the dashed curve is
connected to Channel I of the oscilloscope, and the other one is connected to Channel II. In
such a case Channel I is leading the Channel II with phase difference equal to , and Channel
II is lagging the Channel I with phase difference equal to . Determining the leading or the
lagging signal may be frustrating at first, but note that the dashed curve reaches its maximum
value before the other does.

The phase difference between the signals can also be determined in XY mode of the
oscilloscope. In the XY mode, the x-axis data is taken from one channel, y-axis data is taken
from the other. In that way, Channel I vs Channel II graph can be obtained, so that the
variation of a signal with respect to another can be observed. Figure 22 shows a typical graph
in XY mode, of two signals having a constant phase difference.

18
 5

A B
0

- 1

- 2

- 3

- 4

- 5

- 5 - 4 - 3 - 2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 22: Phase Difference Calculation in XY Mode

Phase difference is equal to,

 A
θ = sin −1  .
B

B
One can show this relation by expressing one signal as, y (t ) = sin( wt ± θ ) and the other
2
C
signal as, x(t ) =sin( wt ) . Then consider the value of y(t) when x(t) is zero volts. It should be
2
noted that, the center of the ellipsoidal shape (sometimes circular or linear shapes) on the
screen should be at the origin of CRO unless any DC component is added to one of the
signals.

In XY mode, the leading or the lagging signal can not be determined. One has to switch to
DUAL mode in order to specify the leading signal.

Figure 23 shows typical graphs in XY mode corresponding to different values of phase

difference.

5 5
5
5

4 4
4
4

3 3
3

2 2

1 1

0 0

-1 -1

-1

-1

-2 -2

-2

-2

-3 -3

-3

-3

-4 -4

-4

-4

-5 -5

- 5 - 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 -5 - 4 -3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-5

-5 - 4 -3 -2 - 1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-5

-5 - 4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

0° 45° 90° 180°

Figure 23: The Graphs in XY Mode for Different Phase Difference Values

19
Controls

Display Controls
Display systems may vary between analog and digital oscilloscopes. Common controls
include:

• An intensity control to adjust the brightness of the waveform. As you increase the
sweep speed of an analog oscilloscope, you need to increase the intensity level.
• A focus control to adjust the sharpness of the waveform. Digital oscilloscopes may not
have a focus control.
• Other display controls may let you adjust the intensity of lights and turn on or off any
on-screen information (such as menus).

Vertical Controls
Vertical controls are used to position and scale the waveform vertically. Oscilloscopes also
have controls for setting the input coupling and other signal conditioning, described in this
section. Figure 24 shows the vertical controls of the DSO3062A

Figure 24: Vertical Controls of DSO3062A.

Position and Volts per Division Settings

The position knob moves the waveform vertically. The scale knob varies volts per division
(usually written volts/div), which determines the voltage value corresponding to each vertical
division on the oscilloscope’s screen. As the volt/div value is altered, the size of the
waveform on the screen changes.
The volts/div setting is a scale factor. For example, If there are ten vertical divisions on the
oscilloscope screen and if the volts/div setting is 5 volts, then each of the vertical divisions
represents 5 volts and the entire screen can show 50 volts from bottom to top. If the setting is
0.5 volts/div, the screen can display 5 volts from bottom to top, and so on. The maximum

20
voltage you can display on the screen is the volts/div setting times the number of vertical
divisions.
Often the volts/div scale has either a variable gain or a fine gain control for scaling a
displayed signal to a certain number of divisions. Figure 25 shows the vertical controls of the
HM203-7 CRO.

Figure 25: Vertical Controls of HM203-7 CRO

Horizontal Controls
Horizontal controls are used to position and scale the waveform horizontally. Figure 26 and
27 show typical front panel for the horizontal controls.

Figure 26: Horizontal Controls of Figure 27: Horizontal Controls of HM203-7

DSO3062A CRO

The horizontal position control (x-pos.) is used to move the waveform from left and right to
exactly where you want it on the screen.

The time per division (time/div) setting lets you select the rate at which the waveform is
drawn across the screen (also known as the time base setting or sweep speed). This setting is a
scale factor. For example, if the setting is 1 ms, each horizontal division represents 1 ms and
the total screen width represents 10 ms (ten divisions). Changing the time/div setting lets you
look at longer or shorter time intervals of the input signal.

As with the vertical volts/div scale, the horizontal sec/div scale may have variable timing,
allowing you to set the horizontal time scale in between the discrete settings.

Also note that, the time/div button actually controls the trace time of sawtooth waveform in
the sweep generator. When sawtooth waveform is zero volt, the bright spot is at the extreme
left-hand position, and when it is maximum, the bright spot is at the extreme right position.
Therefore, the bright spot travels from extreme left to extreme right in a time equal to the
Trace time. Assume that the CRO screen is divided into N equal horizontal divisions. The
bright spot travels the N divisions in Tr seconds. Therefore each division corresponds to

21
(Tr/N) seconds. If the Trace time is changed, the corresponding time for each division is
changed. Time per division controls can be used to select the appropriate time/div (i.e., the
Trace time of the sawtooth waveform).

Input Coupling
Coupling means the method used to connect an electrical signal from one circuit to another.
In this case, the input coupling is the connection from your circuit to the oscilloscope. The
coupling can be set to DC, AC, or ground (GND). By setting the coupling control to AC, the
DC offset voltage is removed form the input waveform, so that you see the waveform
centered at zero volts. When DC coupling is selected, both AC and DC components of the
input waveform are passed to the oscilloscope. Figure 28 illustrates the difference. The signal
in Figure 28 is y (t ) = 3 + sin( wt ) where 3 Volts is DC component and sin(wt) is AC
component. By selecting AC coupling, DC component is eliminated and only the signal of
sin(wt) is shown on the screen (Figure 28-b). The AC coupling setting is useful when the
entire signal (alternating plus constant components) is too large for the volts/div setting.

5 5

4 4

3 3

2
2

1
1

0
0

- 1
- 1

- 2
- 2

- 3
- 3

- 4

- 4

- 5

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 14 16 1 8 2 0

0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 1 4 1 6 18 2 0

Figure 28-a: 2V peak to peak sinusoidal Figure 28-b: 2V peak to peak sinusoidal
with 3 Volts offset, shown in DC mode. with 3 Volts offset, shown in AC mode.

The ground setting disconnects the input signal from the vertical system, which lets you see
where zero volts is on the screen. With grounded input coupling and auto trigger mode, you
see a horizontal line on the screen that represents zero volts. Switching from DC to ground
and back again is a handy way of measuring signal voltage levels with respect to ground.

X-Y Button
Most oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying a second channel signal along the X-axis
(instead of time). This is called XY mode. Pressing the X-Y button the oscilloscope is used in
XY mode. See Also (Notes on CRO)

DUAL Button
The oscilloscopes have the capability of displaying both channel signals on the screen at the
same time. This is called the Dual Mode. This mode is usually used to measure phase
difference between two signals which is explained in Phase difference part on page 17.

22
Alternate and Chop Buttons
On analog scopes, multiple channels are displayed using either an alternate or chop mode.
(Digital oscilloscopes do not normally use chop or alternate mode.)

Alternate mode draws each channel alternately - the oscilloscope completes one sweep on
channel 1, then one sweep on channel 2, a second sweep on channel 1, and so on. Use this
mode with medium- to high-speed signals, when the time/div scale is set to 0.5 ms or faster.
Alternate mode is available when only DUAL button is depressed.

Chop mode causes the oscilloscope to draw small parts of each signal by switching back and
forth between them. The switching rate is too fast for you to notice, so the waveform looks
whole. You typically use this mode with slow signals requiring sweep speeds of 1 ms per
division or less. Chop mode is available when both DUAL and ADD button are depressed.
Figure 29 shows the difference between the two modes. It is often useful to view the signal
both ways, to make sure you have the best view.

Figure 29: ALT and CHOP modes

ADD Button
When ADD button is depressed, the signals of both channels are algebraically added and the
result is displayed on the screen. Volt/div scales of two channels should be the same in order
to appropriately see the summation of the signals. When the volt/div scales of the channels are
not the same, the signals are summed up as they are displayed on the screen (i.e. graphically).
Assume a signal 2 sin( wt ) is connected to Channel I and a signal 2 sin( wt ) is connected to
channel II. CH I is set to 2 volts/div (Figure 30-a) and CH II is set to 1 volt/div (Figure 30-b).
When the ADD button is depressed, the resulting signal on the screen is shown in Figure 31.

23
 5 5

4
4

3
3

2
2

0
0

- 1

- 1

- 2

- 2

- 3

- 3

- 4

- 4

- 5

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 1 6 1 8 2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20

Figure 30-a: The first signal seen on the Figure 30-b: The second signal seen on the
oscilloscope with 2 volt/div scale. oscilloscope with 1 volt/div scale.

24
 5

- 1

- 2

- 3

- 4

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0

Figure 31: The sum of two signals in Figure 30-a and 30-b when ADD button is depressed.

INVERT Button
When the INVERT button of a channel is depressed, negative of the signal is displayed on
the CRO screen.

EXT Button
When the EXT button is depressed, the oscilloscope is used in external triggering mode.
External triggering is explained at Section External Triggering at page 14.

AT/NORM Button
Using the AT/NORM button you can switch between automatic trigger level selection (AT)
and manual trigger level selection (NORM). When the AT/NORM button is released, the
automatic trigger level is selected as zero volts, so that the value of the signal on the extreme
left of the screen is equal to zero. When the AT/NORM button is depressed, the user can
determine the trigger voltage level (the voltage on the extreme left) manually by adjusting
LEVEL knob.

LEVEL and +/- Buttons

The trigger level can be set using the LEVEL knob when the AT/NORM button is depressed.
Using the LEVEL knob, the trigger voltage level can be set to values different than zero.
However, if the trigger level is set to a voltage value that is higher/lower than the
positive/negative peak of the signal, the signal can not be triggered and therefore can not be
displayed on the CRO screen (Figure 32-d). The +/- button is used to determine whether an
increasing signal passing from trigger voltage, starts the sawtooth waveform (+/- button
released) or viceversa. To be familiar with these buttons, the signals seen on the oscilloscope
with various button configurations for the signal in Figure 30-b (1.5sin(wt)) are given in
Figure 32.

25
 5 5

4
4

3
3

2
2

1
1

0
0

- 1
- 1

- 2

- 2

- 3

- 3

- 4

- 4

- 5

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 14 16 1 8 2 0

Figure 32-a: The signal when Figure 32-b: The signal when AT/NORM
AT/NORM button is released. (LEVEL is button is depressed, LEVEL is set to 1 Volt
automatically set to 0 volt.) and +/- button is released.
5
5

4
4

- 1

- 1

- 2

- 2

- 3

- 3

- 4

- 4

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 1 4 1 6 18 20

- 5

0 2 4 6 8 10 1 2 1 4 16 18 20

Figure 32-c: The signal when AT/NORM Figure 32-d: The signal when
button is depressed, LEVEL is set to 1 Volt AT/NORM button is depressed, LEVEL is
and +/- button is depressed. set to 2 Volt.

26
Appendix
The front panel of the oscilloscopes DSO3062A and the HM203-7 CRO are shown in the
following figures respectively.

Figure A1: Front Panel of the HM203-7 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope.

Figure A2: Front Panel of the DSO3062A.

27
Figure A3: Schematic for the Front Panel of the DSO3062A.

28
Bridges 11
INTRODUCTION 11.1
A bridge circuit in its simplest fonn consists of a network of four resistance arms
fonni.ng a closed circuit, wi th a de source of current applied to two opposite junc-
tions and a current detector connected
tO the oU1er two junction~, as shown in A
Fig. I I. I. '•/ ':::-!._2
Bridge circuits are extensively
used for measuring component values
such as R, L and C. Since the bridge
circuit merely compares the value of
an unknown component with that of
an accurately known component (a
standard), its measurement accuracy
can be very high. This is b ecause the
readout of this comparison is based on
B
the null indication at bridge balance,
and is essentially independent of the Fig. Ill Wheatstone's bridge
characteristics of the null detector.
The measurement accuracy is therefore directly related to the accuracy of the
bridge componen£ and not to that of the null indicator used.
The basic de bridge is used for accurate measurement of resistance and is
called Wheatstone's bridge.

WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE (MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE) I I .2

Wheatstone's bridge is the most accurate method available for measuring
res istances and is popular for laboratory use. The circuit diagram of a typical
Wheatstone bridge is given in Fig. 1I .I. The source of emf and switch is connected
topomts A andB, while a sensitive current indicating meter, the galvanometer, is
connected to points C andD. The galvanometer is a sensitive microammeter, with
a2ero center scale. When there is no current through the meter, the galvanometer
poi nter rest~ at 0, i.e. mid scale. Current in one direction causes the pointer to
deflect on one side and current in the opposite direction to the other side.

~cp~ r !CCI maT.Cr

 Bridges 323

When SW 1 is closed, current flows and divides into the two arms at point
A , i.e. I 1 and I2 . The bridge is balanced when there is no current through the
galvanometer, or when the potential difference at points C and Dis equal, i.e. the
potential across the galvanometer is zero.
To obtain the bridge balance equation, we have from the Fig. 11 .1.
II Rl = 12 R2 (ll.l)
For the galvanometer current to be zero, tl1c following conditions should be
satisfied.
( 11.2)

{11.3)

Substituting in Eq. ( 11.1 )

ExR1 _ ExR2
Rl + Rl R2 +R4
Rl X (R2 + R4) = (RI + RJ) X R2
R1 R2 + R 1 R4 =R1 R2 + R3 R2
R4 = R2 RJ
Rl
Thls is tlle equation for tlle bridge to be balanced.
ln a practical Wheatstone's bridge, at least one of the resistance is made
adjustable, to permit balancing. When the bridge is balanced, tlle unknown
resistance (normally connected at R4 ) may be determined from the setting of the
adjustable resistor, which is called a standard resistor because it is a precision
device having very small tolerance.
Hence R = R2 R3 (11.4)
.. RI

Example fl.l Figure 11.1 consists ofthe following parameters. R 1 = I 0 k,

R 1 = I 5 k and R1 = 40 k. Find the unknown resistance Rr

Solution From the equation for bridge balance we have

R 1 R 4 = R 2 R 3 , i.e. R 1 Rx = R 2 R 3
R2 R3 IS k x 40 k
Therefore Rx= R = 10k 60kil
I

11.2.1 Sensitivity of a Wheatstone Bridge

When the bridge is in an unbalanced condition, current flows tllrougb tlle
galvanometer, causing a deflection of its pointer. The amount of deflection is a
324 flectronic lnstrumen!Orion

function of the sensitivity of the galvanometer. Sensitivity can be thought of as

deflection per unit current A more sensitive galvanometer deflects by a greater
amount for the same current. Deflection may be expressed in linear or angular
units of measure, and sensit ivity can be expressed in units of S = mm/J.IA or
degree/j.lA or radianslj.lA.
Therefore it follows that the total deflection D is D = S xI, where Sis defined
above and I is the current in microamperes.

11.2.2 Unbalanced Wheats.tone's Bridge

To determine the amount of deflection
that would result for a particular degree
of unbalance, general circuit analysis can
be app lied, but we shall use Tbevenin 's
theorem.
Since weare interested in d etermining
the current through the galvanometer; we a b
E
wish to find the Thcvenin's equivalent,
as seen by the galvanometer.
Th~vcoin 's equiva!em ·vo!t&ge is
found by disconnecting the galvanom-
eter from the bridge circuit, as shown
in Fig. 11.2, and determining the open- Fig.ll.2 Unbalanced wheatstone's bridge
circuit voltage between terminals a and b.
Applying the voltage divider equation, the voltage at point a can be determined
as follows
. b,
and at pomt E ExR4
6 = ---"-
R1 +R3 R2 +R4
Therefore, the voltage between a and b is the di.fference between Eu and Eb,
which represents Thevenin's equivalent voltage.
ExR
3
£tit = Eub = E - Eb = - -"-
a R, + R3 R1 + R~

Therefore E b =E ( R3 _ R4 )
a R, +Rl Rz +R.a
Thevenin's eq uivalent resistance can be deterrnillled by replacing the voltage
source E with its internal impedance R R
1 2
or otherwise short-circuited and cal- r - -"'11,..flr.....,.--vw v----,
culating the resistance looking into
R, =Internal
terminals a and b. Since the internal Resistance of Rs = 0 n
resistance is assumed to be very low, 8 b
the Source
we treat it as 0 n. Thevenin's equiva-
lent resistance circuit is shown in Fig. R3 ~
11 .3. FIQ. Il3 Thevenin's resistance
 Bridges 325

The equivalent resistance of the circuit is R1//R3 in series with R2//R4 i.e.
R 111R3 + R/IR4•

Therefore, Thevenin 's equivalcni circuit is given in Fig. 11.4. Thevcnin's

equivalent circuit for the bridge, as seen looking back at terminals a and b in Fig.
11.2, is shown in Fig. 11.4.
If a galvanometer is connected across the
Rill
terminals a and b of Fig. L1.2, or its Thevenin
equivalent Fig. 11.4 it will experience the
same deflection at the output of the bridge.
The magnitude of current is limited by both Etll TL--------------4ob
Tbevenin 's equivalent resistance and any Fig..ll.4 Thevenin's equivalent
resistance connected between a and b. The
resistance between a and b consists only of the galvanometer resistance R8 . The
deflection current in the galvanometer is therefore given by

I = E,~ ( 11.5)
8
R,~ + Rg

Example11.2 An rmbafm,ced
Whearstone bridge is given in Fig.
/l.5. Calculme the current through
the ga/vanomete1:
Solution The Thevenin's equivalent
voltage between a and b is the differ-
ence of voltages at these po·ints i.e.
£,1, = £ 0 - Eb = Eh- £,..

.. Eh=
,
£( R4
Rz + R4
_ R3 )
Rr + R3
B
Fig.II.S
E _ 6( 10 k 3.5 k )
th - 2.5 k + 10 k I k + 3.5 k
E,h = 6 (0.800- 0. 778}
£,h=O.I32V
Thevenio 's equivalent resistance is
Rr R3
R,,, = Rz R4 + --''-''-
R1 + R3 R2 + R4
I k X 3.5 k 2.5 k X 10 k
R,h = + --------
1 k + 3.5 k 2.5 k + 10 k
l26 Electronic lnsuumentotion

= 0.778k+2k
= 2.778 k R,h=2.n8k
The equivalent circuit connected along Ech -=- Rg =3000
with the galvanometer is as shown in Fig. o.132 v
11.6.
The current through the galvanometer is
given by Fig.ll.6 Equivalent circuit

I E,h 0.132 V = .
42 88
A
g = R," + Rg - 2.778 k + 0.3 k ~
11.23 Slightly Unbalanced Wheatstone's Bridge
If three of the four resistor in a bridge are equal toR and the fourth differs by 5%
or less, we can develop an approximate but accurate expression for Thevenin's
equivalent voltage and resistance.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.7.
The voltage at point a is
ExR ExR E
E =
n R +R
=--
2R 2
The voltage at point b is E
E _ R + D.r x E E(R + D.r)
I> - R + R + D.r 2R + D.r
Thevenin 's equivalent voltage
between a and b is the difference Fig.ll.7 Slighdy unbalanced Wheatstone's
between these voltages. bridge

Therefore E
ch
= E - E
a b
= E (<R + D.r) -
2R + D.r 2
.!.)
= E (2(R + D.r)- (2R + M))
2(2R + D.r)
= E (2R+2D.r-2R-M J
4R + 2D.r

- E ( 4R ~;D.r)
If D. r is 5% of R or less, D. r in the denominator can be neglected without
introducing appreciable error. Therefore, Thevenin 's voltage is

E = ExD.r =E(D.r )
th 4R 4R

Ccpyr gl>red marer l•'

 Bridges 317

The equivalent resistance can be calculated .-- - -a

by replacing the voltage source with its
internal impedance (for all practical purpose
short-circuit). The Thevenin 's equivalent R
resistance is gi ven by
R X R _R...!..(R_+_D.J
~ ·)
Rtlr = +
R+R R+R + t.r
= R + _R-'-
(R_+_ D.J....:..
·)
2 2R + 6.r
Again, if 61- is small compared to R, il r
can be neglected. Therefore, Ag.II.B Thevenin's equivalent of a
R R slightly unbalanced Wheatstone's
R = -+- =R bridge
th 2 2
Using these approx.imatioms, the Thevenin 's equivalent circuit is as shown in
Fig. 11.8. These approxjmate· equations arc about 98% accurate if 6.r S 0.05 R.

Example 11.3 Given a centre zero

200- 0 - 200 J.LA movement having an
internal resistance of 125 !2 Calculate
the current through the galvonomerer
10V
given in Fig. 11.9 by zhe approximarion
method.
Solution The Thevenin's equivalent
voltage is
E (M )
Etlr = 4R
Ag.ll.9
10x35
= 4 X 700 = 0.125 V
Thevenin 's equivalent resistance is
R,, = R = 700 n
The current through the galvanometer is
E,h
O.l25V 0.125
lg= Rr~,+Rg =700 + 125= 825 = !Sl. 5 J.IA

If the detector is a 200 - 0 - 200 J.lA galvanometer, we sec that the pointer is
full scale for a 5% change in resistance.

11.2.4 Application of Wheatstone's Bridge

A Wheatstone bridge may be used to measure the de resistance of various types
of wire, either for the purpose of quality control of the wire itself, or of some

opyr ted "'1 a ·1

328 Electronic Instrumentation

assembly in which it is used. For example, the resistance of motor windings,

transformers, solenoids, and relay coils can be measured.
Wheatstone's bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and
others to locate cable faults. The fault may be two lines shorted together, or a
single Iine shorted to ground.

11.2.5 Limitat ions of Wheatstone's Bridge

For low resistance measurement, the resistance of the leads and contacts becomes
significant and introduces an error. This can be eliminated by Kelvin's Double
bridge.
For higfu resistance measurements, the resistance presented by the bridge
becomes so large that the galvanometer is insensitive to imbalance. Therefore, a
power supply has to replace the battery andl adc VTVM replaces the galvanometer.
In the case of high resistance measurement~ in mega ohms, the Wheatstones
bridge cannot be used.
Another difficulty in Wheatstone's bridge is the change in resistance of the
bridge arms due to the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in
temperature causes a change in the value of the resistance, and excessive current
may cause a permanent change in value.

KELVIN'S BRIDGE 11.3

When the resistance to be measured is of the order of magnitude of bridge contact
and lead resistance, a modified form of Wheatstone's bridge, the Kelvin bridge
is employed.
Kelvin's: bridge is a modification ofWheatstone's bridge and is used to measure
values of resistance below I n. In low resistance measurement, the resistance of
the leads connecting the unknown resistance to the terminal of the bridge circuit
may affect the measurement.
Consider the circuit in Fig. 11.1 0, where R.v represents the resistance of the
connecting leads from R3 to Rx (unknown
resistance).. The galvanometer can be
connected either to point cor to point a. When
it is connected to point a, the resistance R..., of
the connecting lead is added to the unknown
resistance R.,, resulting in too high indication
for R.,. When the connection is made to point c,
Ry is added! to the bridge arm R 3 and resulting
measurement of Rx is lower than the actual
value, because now the actual value of R 3 is
higher than its nominal value by the resistance
R...- lftbe galvanometer is connected to point b,
in between points c and a, in such a way that
the ratio of the resistance from c to b and that I
from a to b equals the ratio of resistances R 1
andR2, then Rg.II.ID Kelvin's bridge I
_.op ooma!E.na 1
 Bridges 319

Rd) R
-= - 1 (11.6)
R.b R2
and the usual balance equations for the bridge give the relationship
Rt
(Rx + R,b) = ~ (R3 +Rub) ( 11.7)

R,b Rt
but R.b + R,b = Ryand -R =R
ob 2

Reb R•
- + } = -+}
Rob R1
Rt +R2
= __,__.._
R2
Rl +R2
i.e.

Therefore

.-----tilt - - - - .
Ek

Hence R = RI R3 (J 1.8)
x R2
Equation (11.8) is the usual Wheatstone's
balance equation and it indicates that the
effect of the resistance of the connecting
leads from point a to point c has been
eliminated by connecting the galvanometer
to an iotennediate position, b.
The above principle fonns the basis of . , .
the construction of Kelvin's Double Bridge, fig.ll.ll Kelvl,ns double bridge
popularly known as Kelvin's Bridge. It is a Double bridge because it incorporates
a second set of ratio arms. Figure 11.11 shows a schematic diagram of Kelvin's
double bridge.
llO Bectronic Instrumentation

The second set of arms, a and b, connects the galvanometer to a point c at

the appropriate potential between m and 11 connection, i.e. Rr The ratio of the
resistances of anns a and b is the same as the ratio of R1 and R2• The galvanometer
indication is zero when the potentials at k and c are equal.
· Elk= £/me
But R2 xE ( I 1.9)

and E=

Substituting forE in Eq.(J 1.9),

we get £ 11, = R
R2
R
(
xI R3 + Rx +
(a+ b)R,.
·
J (11.10)
1 + 2 a+b+ RY

Similarly, Etmc= I R3 + -b - [(a+b)Ry]J (11.11)

( a +b a +b+Ry
But

1.e.

(a+b)R>. RR
1 1 hR1 R,, bR>,
Rx+ +R3 = - -· +R3 + · +--..__-
a+b+R>. R2 R2 (a+b+Ry) a+b+Ry

R = R1 R3 + bR1 R-" + bRY (a+b)R_v

x R2 R2 (a+b+R>.) a+b+RF a+b+R>'
R R bR1 R,. bR>. -aR,. -bRv
R = --+
1 3 . + . .
·' R2 R2 (a+b+Ry) a+b+R,.

R = R1 R3 + bR1 Ry aRY
x R2 R2 (a+b+Ry) a+b+R>,

R = R1 R3
"
bR_,,
R2 + (a+h+R,.)
(RR
1
-
a)
b
2
R1 a
But - =

Copyr ·ti!d ma· r G

 Bridges 331

Therefore,

This is the usual equation for Kelvin' s bridge. lt indicates that the resistance of
the connecting lead RY' has no effect on the measurement, provided that the ratios
of the resistances of the two sets of ratio arms are equal. In a typical Kelvin 's
bridge the range of a resistance covered is I - 0.00001 Q (10 J..lohm) with an
accuracy of± 0.05% to ± 0.2%.

Example 11.4 If in Fig. 11.12

the ratio ofRa 10 R h i.dOOO Q, Rt is
5 Q and R 1 = 0.5 R 2. What is the
vol11e ofRx.
-=- E
Solution Resistance R" can be cal-
culated as foUows.

F'1!1.11.12 Kelvin's bridge

Therefore,
Rb = _1_
R0 1000
Since
R 1 = 0.5 R2, R2 = 5/0.5 = 10 Q.
Therefore R/ 10= 1/ 1000= lOx l/1000 = 11100 = 0.01 n.

PRACTICAL KELVIN'S DOUBLE BRIDGE 11.4

Figure 11.13 shows a commercial Kelvin's bridge capable of measuring
resistances from I 0 - 0.0000 I Q.
Contact potential drops in the circuit may cause large errors. This effect is
reduced by varying a standard resistance consisting of nine steps of 0.00 I Q
each, plus a calibrated manganin bar ofO.OOII Q with a sliding contact. When
both contacts are switched to select the suitable value of standard resistance, the
voltage drop between the ratio arm connection points is changed, but tl1e total
resistance around the battery circuit is unchanged.
This arrangement places any contact resistance in series with the relatively
higb resistance value of the ratio arms, rendering the contact resistance effect
negligible. The ratio R 11R2 is selected (as given in Fig. 11. 13) such that a relatively
large part of the standard resistance is used and hence R, is determined to the
largest possible number of significant figures. Therefore, measurement accuracy
improves.

pyr rted mala I

3 32 Elearonic lnstromentotion

.-------111 _____,£..__ __.__~8~-----~-:-~·

f-' --------,
E

/
Standard
Resistors
9 Steps
of 0.001 0 each

Manganin Bar
with Sliding
Contact. 0.0011 0
fig.11.13 Practical kelvin's bridge

BRIDGE CONTROLLED CIRCUITS 11.5

Whenever a bridge is unbalanced, a potential difference exists _at its output
tenninal. The potential difference causes current to flow through the detector
(say, a galvanometer) when the bridge is used as part of a measuring instrument.
When the bridge is used as an error detector in a control circuit, the potential
difference at the output of the bridge is called an error signal, as in Fig. 11.14.
Passi.ve circuit elements such as strain gauges, tempemture sensitive resistors
(thermistors) and photo resistors, produce no output voltage. However, when
used as one arrn of Wheatstones bridge, a change in their sensitive pammeter
(heat, li:ght, pressure) produces a change in their resistances. This causes the
bridge to be unbalanced, thereby producing an output voltage or an error'signal.
Resistor R,. in Fig. 11.14 may be sensitive to one of many different physical
pammeters, such as heat or light. Jfthe particular parameter to which the resistor
is sensitive, is of a magnitude such that the ratio RiRv equals R 11R3, then the error
signal is zero. If the physical parameters changes, R,. also changes. The bridge
then becomes unbalanced and an error signal occurs. In most control applications
the measured and controlled pammeter is corrected, restoring Rv to the value that
creates a mill condition at the output of the bridge.

vapynghtoo ma!E.na
II
 Bridges 333

l
E

Error
Signal

1
Fig. 11.14 Wheatstone's bridge error detector with resistance R, sensitive
to some physical parameters

Since R, varies by only a small amount, the amplitude of the error signal
is normally quite low. It is therefore amplified before being used for control
purposes.

Example 11.5 Resistor R. in Fig. JJ.l5(a) is temperature sensirive, with a

relation between resistance and temperat11re as shown in Fig.11.15(b}.
Calculate (i) at what temperature the bridge is balanced, and (ii) The amplitude
of the et:ror signal at 60°C.

.
:
'
I
.
:
• • • , • • • • L • • • ~- -- • • • , • • • •,
5 ' I 1 I I
••• 1 · · · - l . . . I I
I : I I I
E
Resistance
in
4 ---~----
I I
.'
--~~---r---~----·
1
'
'
I
'
'
I
- ' 1 - - - L. . . . . . . . ---~ - - -'l - - - -·
6V 3 1 I I I 1
kn : : : : :
2 ---1·---~--------~---1·---·
I I I I
Error I I I I I

Signal
e, t 1 --- ~- ---:----1·--·r---:----·
I :

I
I
I
1
: :

I
I
I

1
I

(0,0) 20 40 60 80 100
- Temperature ·c
(a) (b)

Ag.II.IS
Solution
(i) The value of R, when the bridge is balance is calculated as

R,. = R2 RJ = 5 k X 5 k 5 k.Q
R1 5k
334 E/eCIJ'Onic Instrumentation

The bridge is balanced when the temperature is 80°C. This is read

directly from the graph of Fig. I I. I 5(b).
(ii) We can also determine the resistance of R. at 60°C directly from the
graph. This values of 4. 5 kil. Therefore the error signal is given by

e, = E ( R
1
; R
3
R
2
~ R..)
= 6 ( 5k 4.5 k )
5 k + 5k 5 k + 4.5 k
= 6 (0.5 - 0.4736)
= 6 (0.0263)
0.158 v
=
The error signal can also be determined by usmg the foJiowing
equation.

es = Erh=E 4R (tlr) 6 (4x5k

=
500 )

es = 0.150 v

DIGITAL READOUT BRIDGES 11.6

The tremendous increase in the use of digital circuitry has had a marked effect
on electronic test instruments. The early use of digital ci.rcuits in bridges was to
provide a digital readout. The actual measuring circuitry of the bridge remained
the same, but operator error in observing the reading was eliminated. The block
diagram for a Wheatstone bridge with digital readout is shown in Fig. 11.16.
t\ote that a logic circuit is used to provide a signal to R3, sense the nuJI, and
provide a digital readout representing the value of Rx.

r----e--llll - - - - - - ,

R3
Programmable
Resistors

Fig. II.IG Block diagram of wheatstone's bridge with digital readout

Ccpyr gl'red marer al

 Bridges 335

MICROPROCESSOR CONTROLLED BRIDGES 11.7

Digital computers have been used in conjunction with tes.t systems, bridges,
and process controllers for several years. In these applications, computers were
used to give instructions and perform OJ?Crations on the data measured. When
microprocessors were first developed they were used in much the same way as
digital computers. However, real improvements in performance occurred when the
microprocessor was truly integrated into the instrument. With this accomplished,
microprocessors cannot only give instructions about measurement, but also they
can change the way the measurements are taken. This innovation has given rise
to a whole new class of instruments, called Intelligent Instruments.
The complexity and cost of making analog measurements can be reduced
using a microprocessor. This reduction of analog circuitry is important, even if
additional digital circuitry must be added, !because precision analog components
are expensive. Also, adjusting, testing and troubleshooting analog circuits is time
consuming and often expensive. Digital circuits can often replace analog circuits
because various functions can be done either way.
The following are some of the ways in which microprocessors are reducing
the cost and complexity of analog measurements.
I. Replacing sequential control logic with stored control programs.
2. Eliminating some auxiliary equipment by handling interfacing,
programming and other system functions.
3. Providing greater flexibility in the selection of measurement circuits,
thereby making it possible to measure one parameter and calculate
another parameter of interest.
4. Reducing accuracy requirements by storing and applying correction
factors.
Instruments in which microprocessors arc an integral part can take the results
of a measurement that is easiest to make in a given circuit. then calculate and
display the value of some other desired parameter, which may be much more
difficult to measure directly.
For example, conventional counters can measure the period of a low
frequency waveform. This is then converted to frequency either manually, or
using extensive circuitry. On the other hand, such calculations are done very
easily by a microprocessor. Measurements of resistance and conductance,
which are reciprocals of each other offer another example. Some hybrid digital/
analog bridges are designed to measure conductance by measuring current. This
measurement is then converted to a resistance value by rather elaborate circuitry.
With a microprocessor based instrument, a resistance value is easily obtained
from the conductance measurement.
Many other similar examples could be presented. However, the important
thing to remember is that the microprocessor is an integral part of the measuring
instrument. This results in an inte'lligent instrument that allows us to choose the
easiest method of measurement and requires only one measurement circuit to
obtain various results. Specifically, one quantity can be measured in tenns of

Copyr!Qtllec. Male~ul
336 Electronic Instrumentation

another, or several others with completely different dimensions, and the desired
results calculated with the microprocessor.
(One such microprocessor-based instrument is the General Radio model
I658RLC digibridge.)
Such intelligent instruments represent a new era in impedance measuring
instruments. The following are some features of these instruments.
I. Automatically measures R, inductance L, capacitance C, dissipation
factor D and storage factors for inductors Q.
2. 0 .1% basic accuracy
3. Series or parallel measurement mode
4. Autoranging
5. No calibration required
6. Ten bins for component sorting/binning (equivalent, binary number)
7. Three test speeds
8. Three types of display-programmed bin limits, measured values or bin
number.
Most of these features are available because of the use of a microprocessor,
e.g. the component sorting/binning feature is achieved by programming the
microprocessor.
When using the instrument in this mode, bins are assigned a tolerance range.
When a component is measured, a digital readout (bin number) indicating the
proper bin for that component is displayed on the keyboard control panel.

ACBRIDGES 11.8
Impedances at AF or RF are commonly determined by means ofan ac Wheat~tone
bridge. The diagram of an ac bridge is given in Fig. 11.17. This bridge is similar to
a de bridge, except that the bridge arms are
impedances. The bridge is excited by an ac
source rather than de and the galvanometer
is replaced by a detector, such as a pair of
headphones, for detecting ac. When the
bridge is balanced,
zt
-=-
Zz
23 z4 Head
Phone
where Z 1, 2 2, Z3 and Z4 are the impedances of
the arms, and are vector complex quantities
that possess phase angles. It is thus necessary
to adj u:st both the magnitude and phase angles
of the impedance arms to achieve balance,
i.e. the bridge must be balanced for both the
Fig.ll.17 ac Wheatstone's bridge
reactan.ce and the resistive component.

vopynghloo ma!E.na
 Bridges 337

CAPACITANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE 11.9

Figure 11.18 shows the circuit of
a capacitance comparison bridge.
The ratio arms R 1, R2 are resistive.
The known standard capacitor c3
is in series with R3. R3 may also
include an added variable resistance ~ Detector
needed to balance the bridge. c"
is the unknown capacitor and R, is Ca
the small leakage resistance of t he
capacitor. In this case an unknO\"'ll
capacitor is compared with a standard
capacitor and the value of the former, fig..II.IB Capacitance comparison bridge
along with its leakage resistance, is
obtained. Hence.
z, =R,
Z:z = R2
Z3 = R3 in series with C3 = R3 - j!OJC3
Zx = Rx in series with Cx = Rx- j!OJC,
The condition for balance of the bridge is
z, ~,= z2 z3
I.e. R1 (R. -__l_C.)
• {)) X
= R1 (R, - ~ )
J' {)) '"'J

R, R- }R, = R2 R3- jR2

' (/) Cx (/) C3
Two complex quantities are equal when both their real and their imaginary
terms are equal. Therefore,
R2RJ
i.e. R1 Rx = R2R3 :.Rx = R I
[ 11 .12(a)]

and
R1
--~--
R2 c ~ C3RI [11.12(b)]
roCx ro C3 X R
2

Since R3 does not appear in the expression for C", as a variabie element it is an
obvious choice to eliminate any i11teraction between the two balance controls.

Example II.S (a) A capaciwnce comparison bridge (similar angle bridge) is

used to measure a capacitive impedance at afi"equency o/2 kHz. The bridge
cons lmlls a1 balance are C3 = JOOpF, R 1 = 10 kil, R 1 = 50 kil, R3 = 100 ill
Find tbe equivalem series circuit .ofthe tm.!.:nown impedance.

-~I' r1edf"1 · I
338 Electronic Instrumentation

Solution Finding R" using the equation

R = R2 R3
·" R•
I 00 k X 50 k = SOO kQ
=
IOk
Then finding C., using the equation
c X
= llc
R 3
2

= I Ok X WO X I 0-6 = 20 ~
50 k
The equivalent series circuit is sb:own in Fig. ll.l9.
500 kQ 201!f
. _ _b
Fig. 11.19

Example II.G {b) In the measurement of capacitance using capacitance

bridge comparison bridge.
R1 in branch BC = 2000 !2
R1 in branch CD= 2850 !2
R4 in bra11ch DA = 52 !2 in series with C4 = 0.5pF
Rx in series with Cx in branch AB (unknowns)
f= 400Hz.
Solution
Step 1:

R 2850
Step 2: c" = -2 x C4 =--xo.s~F=0.7 1 25~F
. R1 2000
Step 3: Loss angle of the capacitor (a series RC circuit) is defined as the angle by
which current departs an exact quadrature from the applied voltage. •8' is the loss
angle of the capacitor and is given by tan 8.
tan 8 = XRx = roC:c"Dx = 2-'C D
"J x"x
,r

2 X 3.14 X 400 X 36.5 X 0.7 125

= ~If= 0.06533
Hence 8 = 3" 74'

vC r ghtcd 'T1 '

 Bridges 339

INDUCTANCE COMPARISON BRIDGE 11.10

Figure 11.20 gives a schematic diagram of an inductance comparison bridge. In
this, values of the unknown inductance Lx and its internal resistance Rx are ob-
tained by comparison with the standard inductor and resistance, i.e. L3 and R3.
The equation for balance condition
is
2 1 Zx= Z2 23•
The inductive balance equation
yields
Detector
L = ~ R2 (ll.l3(a)]
X RI
and resistive balance equations
yields
R = R2R3 ({11.13(b)]
x R1 Fig. li.2D Inductance comparison bridge
ln this bridge R 2 is chosen as the inductive balance control and R3 as the
re.sistance balance control. (lt is advisable to usc a fixed resistance ratio and
variable standards). Balance is obtained by alternately varying L3 or R3 . If the Q
of the unknown reactance is greater than the standard Q, it is necessary to place a
variable resistance in series with the unknown reactance to obtain balance.
lf the unknown inductance bas a high Q, it is permissible to vary the
resistance ratio when a variable standard inductor is not available.

Example 11.7 An inductance comparison bridge is used to measure in-

tluclive impedance at a freq uency of 5 KHz. The bridge constwJIS at balance
are L 3 = 10 mH, R 1 = 10 kQ, R1 = 40 Kfl, RJ = 100 KI2 Find the equiva/ew
series circuit ofthe unknown impedaJ1ce.

Solution Gi ven L3 = l 0 mH, R 1= I 0 kQ, R 2 = 40 kQ, R3 = 100 kQ. To find R,

andL,.
From balance equation,
R2 R3 40 K x I 00 K
Step I: Rx = R, - l OK = 400 kQ

IOmH x 40 K
Step 2: =40mH
lOK
The equivalent series circuit is shown in Fig. 11.21 .
400kn 40mH
B --......JWVV---' L..._-b

Fig.l1.21

_op r rte-1 rna c I

140 Electro11ic lnstrumentotion

MAXWELL'S BRIDGE 11.11

MaxweiE's bridge, shown in Fig. 11 .22,
measures an unknown inductance in
tenns of a known capacitor. The use
of standard ann offers the advantage
of compactness and easy shielding.
The capacitor is almost a loss-less
rv Detector
component. One ann has a resistance
R 1 in parallel with C1, and hence it is
easier to write the balance equation
using the admittance of arm I instead
of the impedance.
The general equation for bridge
balance is Ag.11.22 Maxwell's bridge
Z 1 Zx= Z2 Z3

1.e. Zx= zz2z3 I

=~Z3 Y1 (11.14)

Where Z1 = R1 in parallel with C 1 i.e. Y1 = z1

1 I
Y1 = R +jwC1
I
22 = R2
23= R3
Zx = Rx in series with Lx = Rx + jwL_,
From Eq. (11.14) we have

R.r + Jwlx = R2 R3

R2R3
( * + jOJC1 J
Rx + jOJLx = -- + jw C 1 R2 R3
R,
Equating real terms and imaginary tenms we have
R, R ,
Rx = - -- 3 andL_. = C 1 R2 R3 (11.15)
R,
Also Q= wLX =we; Rz R3 X R, =we, RJ
Rx R2 R3
Maxwell's bridge is limited to the measurement of low Q values (I - 10).
The measurement is independent of the excitation frequency. The scale of the
resistance can be calibrated to read inductance directly.
The Maxwell bridge using a fixed capacitor has the disadvantage that there is
an interaction between the resistance and reactance balances. This can be avoided
by varyimg the capacitances, instead of R2 and R3, to obtain a reactance balance.
However, the bridge can be made to read directly in Q.
vopynghloo mal£!m~
I
 Bridges 341

The bridge is particularly suited for i11ductances measurements, since

comparison with a capacitor is more idea'! than with another inductance.
Commercial bridges measure fr om I - I000 ~. with ± 2% error. (If the Q is very
large, R1 becomes excessively large and it is impractical to obtain a satisfactory
variable standard resistance in the range of ~alues required).

Example 11.8 (a) A Maxwell bridge is use~ to mf:asure w r inductive imped-

ance. The bridge constrmis at balance are \
C, =0.01 pP. R1 = 470 kt2. 'R2 = 5.1 kQ an<( R1 = 100 ktl
Find the series equivalent ofthe rmlmown iml(edance.

Solution We need to find Rx and L •.

R2 R3 I00 k x 5.1 k
R = -- = = I.O~kn
X Rl 470 k
Lx= R2 R3 C 1
= 5.1 kx JOOkxO.O I !lf
= 5.1 H
The equivalent series circui t is shown in Fig. 11.23.
L, = 5.1 H
R,. =1.09 k
a - -JVWL---__J

fig. ll.23

Example 11.8 (b) The amrs of an ac J\llaxwe/1 's bridge are arranged as fol-
lows:
AB and BC are non-reac1ive resist01:~ of 100 Q each. DA a standard variable
reactor L 1ofresistance 32. 7 Q and CD consists ofa standard variable resistor
R in serie.~ with n coil ofun/..?ro,vn impedance Z. balance wasjound with Lt =
50 mH and Z = 1.36R- Find the Rand L of coil.

Solution Given: R 1 = 32.7 n, L 1= 50 mH

R2 = 1.36 Q , R3= 100 Q , R4 = 100 Q
Step 1: To find 'r' and L2 where r is the resistance of the coil
Given that R4R1 = R3(R2 + r )
.. 32.7 x 100 = 100 ( 1.36 + r)
· 100(32.7 - 1.36) = I 00 r
r = 32.7 - 1.36
r = 31.34 n
R4 100
Step 2: To find L2 , L2 = L, X - =50 mH X -
R3 100
L2 = 50 mH
342 Elearonic Instrumentation

HAY'S BRIDGE 11.12

The Hay bridge, shown in Fig. 11.24, differs from Maxwell's bridge by having a
resistance R 1 in series with a standard capacitor C1 instead of a parallel. For large
phase angles, R 1 needs to be low; therefore, this bridge is more convenient for
measuring high-Q coils. For Q = l 0, the error is± I%, and for Q = 30, the error is
± 0.1%. Hence Hay's bridge is preferred for coils with a high Q, and Maxwell's
bridge for coils with a low Q.

Detector

fig. 11.24 Hay's Bridge

At balance 2 1 2, = 22 23, where

2 1 = R 1 - j l wC1
22 = Rz
23 = R3
z.= Rx + jmL,
Substituting these values in the balance equation we get

( R1 - _)_) (Rx + jmLx) = Rz R3

mc1

R , Rx+ z-
LX me
I
jR, +jml..x
. ·' R
I
I=
R2 R3

Equating the real and imaginary terms we have

R 1 R., + ~ = R2 R3 (11.16)
I

and ~ =
.t ImL R (1 1.17)
m,C
Solving tor L, and Rx we have, Rx'"' ol L, C1 R1•
Substituting for Rx in Eq. ( 11.16)
2 LX
R1 (m R 1 C1 L,) + G;' = R2 R3

vopynghloo ma!E.nal
 Bridges 343

. .1
(ff
2
RI cl L.. + cLX : R2 R3
I
Multiplying both sides by C 1 we get
at R~ q Lx+Lx = R2R3 c,
There 1iore, LX = I R2 2R3R2
C1
c 2 (11.18)
+W I I
Substituting for Lx in Eq. ( 11.17)
2 2
R = w C1 R1 R2 R3
(11.19)
.• 1+W 2 R2
I
c 2
I

The term w appears in the expression for both L.• and Rx · This indicates that
the bridge is frequency sensitive.
The Hay bridge is also used in the measurement of incremental inductance.
The inductance balance equation depends on the losses of the inductor (or Q) and
also on the operating frequency.
An inconvenient feature of this bridge is that the equation giving the balance
condition for inductance, contains the multiplier 1./( I + !/~). The inductance
balance thus depends on its Q and frequency. '
R R C
2 3 1
Therefore, L
.t
= --''--''---'":-
I+ (I/ Q)2

For a value of Q greaterthan I 0, the tem1 1 /~ will be smaller than 1/ 100 and
can be therefore neglected.
Therefore Lx = R2 R3 C 1, which is the same as Maxwell's equation. But for
inductors with a Q less than 10, the 1 /~ term cannot be neglected. Hence tbis
-bridge is not suited for measurements of coils having Q less than I0.
A commercial bridge measure from I )l H - I00 H with ± 2% error.

Example 11.9 (a)Find the series

eguivalem inductance and 1-esis-
ra nce of the network that causes a11
opposite ang le (Hay bridge) to 11ull
with the Ja!fowing bridges arms.
(See Fig. 11.25.}
Detecto
10 = 3000 rad/s, R2 "' 10 kil.,
R1 = 2 k!l, C 1 = 1 JLF
R; = 1 kil.

Solution We need to find Rx and Lx.

From Eq. (11.19) we have

Fig.11.25

~ p r ted ma
344 E.lectronic Instrumentation

(J) z Rl R l R 3 Cl2
R .• = I+ (1)2 R2 Cl
I I

(3000)2 X 10 k X 2 k X I k X (I X 10- 6 ) 2
=
I+ (3000) 2 X (2 kl X (I X I0- 6 ) 2
180 X 103
=
1+36
= 4.86kQ
and from Eq. ( 11.18) we have,
L = R 2 R3 C I
x I + (1)2 R l2 e ll

10 k X I k X (I X 10- 6 )
= --~~:....:.;___.!.;,........;...;;_..:._...,.....,..
2 2
I + (3000) X (2 k) X
2
(I X I 0~)
I0 10
= = - = 0.27 = 270 mH
I +36 37
Therefore R.• = 4.86 k and Lx = 270 mH

Example 11.9 (b) Four arms of a Hay Bridge are arranged as follows:
AD is coil ofunknown impedance Z, DC is a non-inductive resistimce ofI kn,
CB is a non-inductive resistance of800 in series .with a standard capacitor n
of2 JlF. BA is a non-ilrductive resistan ce of 16500 !1, ifthe supply frequen cy
is 50 Hz. Calculate the value ofLand R ofcoil When the bridge is balanced.

Solution Given R2 = 1000 U, R 3 =16500 U, R~ = 800 U , C4 = 2 Vtf,/= 50 Hz

Step I:
• (J) = 2trf= 2 X 3..14 X 50 = 314 and of = (314i = 98596
Step 2:
L = R 2 R 3 C41 R = (J)l Ci R 4 R l R 3
·• I+ (J)2 Ci Ri ' x I+ (1) 2 Ci
RJ
L = (1000) X 16500 X 2 X 10-6 = . H
26 4
I+ 98596 X (2~F) 2 X (800) 2
1

Step 3: R = CJ R4 R2 R 3
(1)2
•
I+ (J) 2 c ~2 R 42

(314) x(2~F/ x16500x800~1000 = . kQ

2
R =
4 18
1+ (314t x(2~F) x (800t
1 2
 Bridges 345

Example 11.9 (c) Find the unknown resiswnce and inducrance having tlze.fo/-
lowing bridge arms
C4 = I J.lF. R1 = RJ = R4 =1000 Q, (tJ = 314 radls
Solution To find R 1 and L1
Step 1: Given
R2 R3C4 R _ w2C] R4 R2 R3
I + w2 CJ R] ' - 1 + w2 CJ RJ
1

lOOOx IOOOx I x 10-6 =0. l H

2 2 2
9
I+ (314} X (I )lf} X (I 000)
2
Step 2:
R = W CJ R4 R2 R3
x I + w2 CJ RJ

R, = (3 14) X (1~ X 100~ X 1000 X 1000 "' . Q

2 2

89 79
1+ (314)- :<(I J.lft x (I 000) 2

SCHERING'S BRIDGE 11.13

A very important bridge used for tl1c
precision measurement of capacitors
and their insulating properties is. the
Schcring bridge. Its basic circuit
arrangement is given in Fig. I L.26.
The standard capacitor C3 is a bigh
quality mica capacitor (low-l.oss) Detector
for general measurements, or an air
capacitor (having a very stable value c.
and a very small electric field} for
insulation measurement.
For balance, the general equation
is

where

as

Copyr ted r'1a

346 Electronic Instrumentation

(
R -
X
_j_)
me,
= R2 (- j} +
R, (mCJ)
~ C,
CJ
Equating the real and imaginary tenns, we get
R2 C1
R =- - (11.20(a)]
_. CJ
and CX = -R, C) [ 11.20(b))
R2
The dial of capacitor C 1 can be calibrated directly to give the dissipation factor
at a particular frequency.
The dissipation factor D of a series RC circuit is defined as the cotangent of
the phase angle.
R
D = -X·' = mCX RX
X:

Also, Dis the reciprocal of the quality factor Q, i.e. D = 1/Q. D indicates the
quality of the capacitor.
Commercial units measure from I 00 pf- I J,lf, with ± 2% accuracy. The dial
of C3 is graduated in terms of direct readings for C.., if the resistance ratio is
maintained at a fixed value.
This bridge is widely used for testing small capacitors at low voltages with
very high precision.
The lower junction of the bridge is grounded. At the frequency nonnally used
on this bridge, the reactances of capacitor C3 and c;:, are much higher than the
resistances of R 1 and R2 • Hence, most ofthe voltage drops across C3 and Cx> and
very little across R1 and R2• Hence if the junction of R1 and R2 is grounded, the
detector is effectively at ground potential. This reduces any stray-capacitance
effect, and makes the bridge more stable.

Example 11.10 {a) An ac .bridge

has the following constants (refer
Fig. /J.27).
AnnAB- capacitor of0.5 J.lF' in
parallel with 1 k!2 resislance
A;m AD - resistance of2 k!2 ~-----1~o~et~e~ct~ot-----~ D
Arm BC - capacitor of 0.5 J.lF'
Arm CD- unknown capacitor C, c.
and Rx in series
Frequency- I kHz
Determine the unknown capaci-
tance and dissipation factor. Fig.lt.27
 Bridges 347

Solution From Eqs 1l.20(a) and 11.20(b), we have

c, 0.51.J.F
R = -
x c3 R2 =
o.s f.LF x 2 k = 2 kQ
C = !i_ xC3 =
X R2
~
2k
x0.5"F
...
= 0.25"~<
t-"'

The dissipation factor is given by

D = mCx Rx
= 2 X 3.142 X I 000 X 2 k X 0.25 ).LF
= 4 X 3. 142 X 0.25
= 3.1416

Example 11.10 {b) A sample ofinsulation was placed in C/1'111 A 8 ofa Schering
bridge, when the bridge was balanced at a frequency of 50 Hz. the other arms
of the bridge were as follows
Arm BC- a non-inductive R of 100 Q
Arm CD- n noll-inductive R of300 Q i11 parallel with a capacitor of0.5 pF
Arm DA -a loss ji"ee capacitor of 100 pf
Determine the capacitance, egui1•alent series resista11ce a11d PF of the
iusulation in test arm AB

Solution Given R3 = 100 Q

R4 = 300 Q, C4 = 0.5 I.J.F
C2 = 100 pf ,f= 50 Hz
Step I:
a>=2l!f= 2 X 3.14 X 50 = 314
Step 2 : From the balance condition, we have
R 300Q
C 1 = - 4 X C2 = X I 00 pf = 300 pf
R3 100 Q
Step 3:
R = c4 x R3 = 0 · 5 I.J.F x 1oo
' c2 100 pr
6
= O.Sxlo- xl00 = 0.5x106 !l=0.5MQ
100 X 100- 12
Step 4: Power factor = mR4C4
= 314 X 300 X 0.5 X ( 0-6
5
= 314 X 309 X I-& X (Q-6

=4710x 10-6= 0.0471

' ·. dma- I
348 £Jectronic lns[IUmentalion

Example 11.1[] (c) .4 condenser bushi11g forms arm BC of a Schering Bridge

and a standard carJacitor of500 pfand negligible loss.forms m1 arm .A B. Ann
CD consists of a non-inductive resistance of 300 Q. When this bridge is
balanced. arm AD has a resistance and capacitor in parallel of I 00 Q and
0. 1pF respeclive!y. The supply freq uency is 50 Hz. Calculate the capacirance
and dielectric loss ofangle of!he bushing.

Solution Given R4 = I 00 Q, C 4 = 0.1 IJ-F

C 2 = 500 pF, R3 = 30() .Q
/ = 50Hz
Step I:
(I)= 2;rf= 2 X 3.14 X 50 =314

Step 2: c, = R:R x C2 =
300
100
x
,
soo x w-'- = 166.6 pF

Step 3: Dielectric loss angle is given by

tan o= toC4R4
. = 3.14 X 0.1 x I0-6 x LOO
= 3.l4 X lOX 10- 6
tan 6 = 0.03140
Hence o=
1.8°

Example 1[10 (d) A sheet of4.5-mm thick Bakelite is tested at 50 Hz between

12 em in diameter. The Sclrering bridge uses a standard air capacitor C2 of
105 pF capacit01: a non-reactive, R~ of IOOOht in parallel with a variable
capacitor and is obtained with C4 = 0.5 J1F and RJ = 260 Q. Calculate the
capacitance, PF and relative pem1ittivity oftire sheet.

Solution It is given that

d = th.ickness of sheet in metre= 4.5 x 10-3
.f= 50 Hz,
w =2'!(=2x3. 14x50=314
A =area of the electrodes in m2 = n-(6 x I0-2 l
- 1' 1000
C2 = LOS x 10 -, R4 = - - , C4 = 0.5~-tF, R3 = 260 Q
n-
R 1000 1000
Step 1: c1 = - 4 x C, = x 105 pF=-- x 105 pf
R3 - 1t X 260 8164
c,128.7 pf
=
Step 2: PF is given by
(J)R4C4 = 2 X 3.14 X 50 X 1000 X 0.5 X 10-6
'It
 Bridges 349

1000
= 2 X :1:-1-+ X 50 X-- X 0.5 X I 0-6
J(
= w- o.5 = o.o5
1x

Step 3: Given that the capacitance is given by C1 = K, K 0 :

Relative permittivity is given by

K = Ctd
r KA
0

128.7pF X 4.5 X 10-3

= 2 2
8.854 X 10 lZ X 1t(6 X 10 )

128.7 X 4.5 X JO- IS

= 12
8.854xl0 x3.14x36 x l0-4
579.15xto-•s
=
1ooo.8s x 1o- •(;
= 5.786

Example II.ID (e) A capacitor is tested by a Schering bridge which .forms one
arm AB ofthe bridge. The other arms are
AD- a non-inductive resistance of I 00 .Q,
DC - a non-1-eactive resistance of300 Q in parallel with a capacitor of0.5 f.1F,
BC- a stm1dard loss fi"ee capacitor of1Q,OpF.
Tlte supplyfl-equency is 50 Hz. The bridge is balanced.
Calculate the capacitor value and /he power factor ofthe capacitor under test.

Solution Given R3 =I 00 n, R4 = 300 n, C2 = I 00 pF, C4 = 0.5 f.lF

Let the desired capacitance of the capa.citor to be tested be C 1 and r 1 is the
resistance representing the loss.
Step I: From the given equatiolll for C 1 we have
R.s
C1 = - x C2 = -
300
x iOOpF
R3 100
c. = 300 pf
Step 2: ,.. = R3 X c4 =100 X o.s J.LF X 500 kn
c2 too pF
Step 3: The power factor can be as follows :
PF = WC4 R4 = 2n;fx C4R4
= 2 X 3.14X 50 X300 X 0.5 X 10- 6
= 0.0471
350 .Electronic lnsi/Umenra!ion

Example IUD (f) A sample Bakelite was tested by the bridge method
(Schering) at I I kV,50 Hz. Balance was obtained atthe jollowings values
AB - dielectric material under test in tlie form of a capacitor
BC- a siandard air capacitor of I 00 pf
CD -capacitor of0.6 p.F in paralle l with a /lOll-reactive resistance of300 n
DA- no~reactive resistance of100 Q
Ca/c;u/ate the capacitance and equivalent series resistance ofthe sample.

Solution The given bridge is of a Schering bridge. To find Rx and C,

Given R 1 = 300 n, R2 = 100 n, C 1 = 0.6JlF, C3 = 100 pf

Step I : R = R2 x ~ = 100 x 0 6 10
· x -<i 6 MQ
X CJ 100 X 10-12

R. 300 -P
Step 2: C, = - x C3 = - x I00 x I0 - = 300 pF
· R2 100

Example IUO(g} An ac bridge has the following constants:

Arm AB- capacitor ofO. 1 J.IF' in parallel with 2 kQ resistor
Arm AD- resistance of5 kQ
Arm BC- capacitor of0.25 p.F
Arm AB- unknown capacitor C.. and Rx in series
f=2kHz
Determine the unknown capacitance and dissipation factor.

Solution From the balance equation for a Schering bridge, we have

C, O.IJlF 5 o.n
Step I · R = - x R2 = x ""'
· x C2 0.25 JlF

= ~x5kQ =2ill
25
R 2ill
Step 2: CX = -R1 x c,, = - - x 0.25 "J::
Sill 1-'-'
2

= ~x 25JlF =O. I!!F

5 100
Step 3 : Dissipation factor (D)= m Cx R.r
=2x3.142x2000xO.I!!Fx2kQ
= 2 X 3.142 X 4 X 0.1
=8 x 3.142x0.1
D = 2.5136

~cpyr 1100"' a
 Bridges 35 I

WIEN'S BRIDGE 11. 14

The Wien bridge shown in Fig. 11.28
has a series RC combination in one
arm and a parallel combination in the
adjoining ann. Wien 's bridge in its
basic form, is designed to measure
frequency. It can also be used for the
measurement ofan unknown capacitor Detector
with great accuracy.
The impedance of one arm is
Z, = R 1 -j/roC~;
T11e admittance of the parallel arm
is
flg.IL2B W ein's bridge

R _ R C
Therefore - 2 - - 1 +- 3 (11.21)
R4 R3 C1
l
and - -- = wC3 R 1 (11.22)
we, R3
cJ -;: __1 _

(I)= ---;=:====:=~
Jc,R,C3 R3
as w=2 7C/
l= 1 ( I 1.23)
· 21e Jc, R, c 3 R3

Copyr ghlec. Male~ ul

352 Electronic Instrumentation

The two conditi\)ns for bridge balance, (1 1.21) and (11.23), result in an
expression determining the required resistance ratio R21R4 and another expression
determining the frequency of lhe applied voltage. If we satisfy Eq. (11.21) and
also excite the bridge with the frequency of Eq. ( 11.23}, the bridge will be
balanced. ·
In most Wien bridge circuits, the components are chosen such that R 1 =
R3 = R and C 1 = C3 = C. Equation ( 11.21) therefore reduces to Ri R4 = 2 and
Eq. (11.23) to/= 112rrRC, which is the general equation for the frequency of the
bridge-circuit.
The bridge is used for measuring frequency in the audio range. Resistances R1
and R3 can be ganged together to have identical values. Capacitors C 1 and C3 are
normally of fixed values.
The audio range is normally divided into 20 - 200 - 2 k - 20 kHz ranges.
In this case, the res-istances can be used for range changing and capacitors C 1
and C 3 -for' fine frequency control within the range. The bridge can also be used
for measuring capacitances. In that case, the frequency of operation must be
known.
The bridge is also used in a harmonic distortion analyzer, as a Notch filter, and
in audio frequency and radio frequency oscillators as a frequency determining
element.
An accuracy of0:5%- I% can be readily obtained using this bridge. Because
it is frequency sensitive, it is difficult to balance unless the waveform of the
applied voltage is purely sinusoidal.

Example 11.11. ·A 'wien bridge cirr:uit consists ofthe following:

R 1 = 4.7 kfl., C1 = 5 nf
R1 =20k D, C1 =JOn/
R 1 = I.Ok!2
R4= JOOkD. ·
Determine thefr;quency ofihe cirr:uit.

Solution The frequency is given by the equation

f= I
2rr Jc, R R 1 3 C3

f= I
2rr Js x 10-9 x 4. 7 x 103 x 1ox 10-9 x 1ox 1oJ

f= I
21C Js X 10- 10 X 4. 7
105
1= = 3.283 kHz
2TC Js X 4.7

C-opyr ted male

 Bridges 353

Example11.12 Find the equivalent parallel resistance and capacitance

that causes a Wien bridge to null with the following component values.
R1 = 3.1 kil
C 1 = 5.2 J.LF
R2 = 25 kfl
f= 2.5 kHz
R~ = JOOkil
Solution Given liJ= 2 ref= 2 x 3. 14 x 2500 = 15.7 1 k rad/s.
Substituting the value of C3 from Eq. ( 11.12) in Eq. (11.21) we get,

RJ = R4
R2
(R, + w 2RI C2)
1 1

= 100 k ( 3 J k + I )
25 k . (15.7 1 k )2 X 3.1 k X {5.2 X I 0- 6 ) 2
= 12.41ill

The value of C3 can also be found out by using equation C 3 = r .

liJ2 '1 R1 R3

Example 11.13 An ac bridge with terminals ABCD has in

Arm AB n resistance of800 n in paralle·l with a capacitor o/0.5 JlF'.
Arm BC- a resistance of400 Q in series with a capacitor of I pF.
Ann CD - a resistance of 1000 Q, Al7n DA - a pure resistance R.
(a) Determi11e the value offi'equencyfor which the bridge is balanced
(b) Calculate the value ofR required to produce balance.

Solution The bridge configuratj.on is of Wien Bridge.

Given : c,=0.5 J.lF, R I = 800 n
C2= 1.0 J.lF, R2 = 400 n
R4= I000 !l, R3 = R = ?
354 Electronic Instrumentation

Step I : Frequency calculated by

I= I
2n~R1 C1 R2C2

= -=-2n-_J's===o==o=x=o=.5=J.l=:F=x=4==o=='o=x=t=J.L:==-
F

I
=--r============
2nJsoo x 400 x o.s x 10-
12

106
= -:-
2n- -/t:8700:=x=2:=:070
6
= 10 = 1000kHz = 1000 _ 0.398 kHz
2nx400 2x3.14x400 314x8
Step 2 : Also given,
R 4 C, R
-2+ - = -
RI c2 R3
400 0.5 J.lF 1000
- + = --
800 I J.lF R

0.5+0.5= 1000
R
R = IOOOQ

WAGNER'S EARTH (GROUND) CONNECTION 11.15

When performing measurements at high frequency, stray capacitances between
the various bridge elements and ground, and between the bridge anns themselves,
becomes significant This introduces an error in the measurement, when small
values of capacitanc-e and large values of inductance are measured.
An effective method of controlling these capaciiances, is to enclose the
elements by a shield and to ground the shield. This does not eliminate the
capacitance, but makes it constant in value.
Another effective and popular method of eliminating these stray capacitances
and the capacitances between the bridge arms is to use a Wagner 's ground
connection. Figure 11 .29 shows a circuit of a capacitance bridge. C 1 and c; are
the stray capacitances. In Wagner's ground connection, another arm, consisting
of Rw and C,.. forming a potential divider, is used. The junction of R,., and C,.,
is grounded and is called Wagner's ground connection. The procedure for
adjustment is as follows.

Copyr ·ti!d ma· r ~

 Bridges 355

.- Rg_ ll.29 Wagner's earth connection

The detector is connected to point 1 and R 1 is adjusted! for null or minimum

sound in the headphones. The switch S is then connected to point 2, which
connects the detector to the Wagner ground point. Resistor R.., is now adjusted
for minimum sound. When the sw:itch 'S' is connected to point I, again there
will be some imbalance. Resistors R1 and R3 are then adjusted for minimum
sound and this procedure is repeated until a null is obtained on both switch
positions I and 2. This is the ground potential. Stray capacitances C 1 and C2
are then effectively short-circuited and have no effect on the normal bridge
balance.
The capacitances from point C to D to ground are also eliminated by the
addition of Wagner's ground connection, since the current through these
capacitors enters Wagne-r's ground connection.
The addition of the Wagner ground connection does not affect the balance
conditions, since the procedure for measurement remains unaltered.

RESONANCE BRIDGE 11.16

One arm of this bridge, shown in Fig. 11.30, consists of a series resonance circuit.
The series resonance circuit is formed by R11, C11 and L11 in series. All the other
arms consists of resistors only.
Using the equation for balance, we have Z 1 Z4 "' 4 Z3,
where Z 1 "'Rb, 4 = Rc> Z3 = R0 , and Z4 = R11 + jillL11 - j /(J) Ca.

Therefore Rb (Rd + j(J)Ld- _1_)

(J)Cd
= R0 Rc

jRb
RbRd+j (J)LdRb- (J)C =RaRe
d
356 Electtonic lnsl/llmenta!ion

Ag.ll.30 Resonance bridge

Equating the real and imaginary terms

we get Rb Rd= R0 Rc andj wLd- - 1-· - = 0
w cd
There.r.ore Rd = - Rc and w Ld = -l- .t.e. o:r, = - - -
Ra -
Rb wed LdCd

Therefore f= I (1 1.24)
· 21r ~Ld cd
The bridge can be used to measure unknown inductances or capacitances. The
losses Rd can be determined by keeping a fixed ratio Rj Rh and using a standard
variable resistance to obtain balance. If an inductance is being measured, a
standard capacitor is varied until balance is obtained. lf a capacitance is being
measured, a standard inductor is varied until balance is obtained. The operating
frequency of the generator must be known in
order to calculate the unknown quantity. Balance B
is indicated by the minimisation of sound in the
headphones.
A
MAXWELL-WIEN BRIDGE 11.17
As seen before, a positive phase angle of
inductive impedance can be compensated by the
negative phase angle of capacitive impedance, D

which is placed in the opposite arms CD. As L..,__ -i"--1---..J

shown in Fig. 11.31 , the unknown inductance
can be determined in terms of capacitance. Fig 11.31 Maxwell's-Wein bridge

Copyr ·ti!d ma· ~

 Bridges 357

Balance condition is obtained when

z,z3 =Z2Z4
But
. I
I I 1 . I+ j(J)C1R1
Z1 = R//;Xc1, - =- + -.- = - + J{J)C1 = _.::....__,__,_
zt Rt ]XCI Rt Rl

R,
Therefore, Z 1= - - - ' - - - -
1+ }ID c, R,
Z2 = R2, Z4 = R4 and Z 3 = R3 + jOJL3
Using balance condition, Z 1Z3 =Z2 Z4

Therefore, ( . R, ) (R3 + j(J)L.; ) =R1 R4

I+ J{J) C1 R1
Therefore, R 1R3 +j~R 1 = R2R4 (I + jWC1R 1)
R 1R3 + j(J)L3R1= R2R4 +}WC1R, R2R4
Equating the real and imaginary tenns, we have
R2 R~
R 1R3 = R2R4 therefore R3 = --
and j(J)L3R 1= jwC1R 1 R2R4 R,

Therefore, L3 = C1R2R4
H ence the unknown resistance R3 and unknown inductance L3 can be
determined

Example 11.11
Prom F ig. 11.3 1' R2 R~ 600 x 400
RIRJ = R2R,j, therefore R, "' T "' 1000 240 n

LJ = C1 R2R4= 0.5 X I0-6 x 600 X 400 = 12 X 10-2 ff= 0.12 mH.

Hence RJ = 240 Q and L:J = 0. 12 mH

fig. ll.31(a)
 c

oc oc

Cold Junction
c
ficure 4-35 Bridge-type thermocouple instrument.

Self-contained thermoelectric instruments of the compensated type are

available in the 0.5-2~-A range. Higher current ranges are available, but in this
case the heating element is external to the indicator. Thermoelements used· for
current ranges over 60 A are generally provided with air cooling fins.
Current measurements in the 1ower ranges, from approximately 0.1-0.75 A,
use a bridge-type rhermoelement, shown schematically in Fig. 4-35. This arrange- .
ment does not use a separate heater: the current to be measured passes directly
through the thermoelements and raises their temperature in proportion to J2R.
The cold junctions (marked c) are at the pins which are embedded in the insulating
frame. and the hot junctions (marked h) are at splices midway between the pins.
The couples are arranged as shown in Fig. 4-35, and the resultant thermal voltage
generates a de potential difference across the indicating instrument. Since the
bridge arms have equal resistances, the ac voltage across the meter is 0 V. and no
ac passes through the meter. The use of several thermocouples in series provides
a greater output voltage and deflection than is possible with a single element.
resulting in an instrument with increased sensitivity.
Thermoinstruments may be converted into voltmeters using low-current
thermocouples and suitable series resistors. Thermocouple voltmeters are avail-
able in ranges of up to 500 V and sensitivities of approximately I00 to 500 0/V.
A major advantage of a thermocouple instrument is that its accuracy can be
as high as I per cent, up to frequencies of approximately 50 MHz. For this
reason, it is classified as an RF instrument. Above 50 MHz, the skin effect tends
to force the current to the outer surface of the conductor, increasing the effective
resistance of the heating wire and reducing instrument accuracy. For small cur-
rents (up to 3 A), the heating wire is solid and very thin. Above -3 A the heating
element is made from tubing to reduce the errors due to skin effect.

4-13 ELECTRODYNAMOMETERS IN POWER

MEASUREMENTS

The electrodynamometer movement is used extensively in measuring power.

It may be used to indicate both de and ac power for any waveform of voltage
and current and it is not restricted to sinusoidal waveforms. As described in

Sec. 4-13 Electrodynamometers in Power Measurements 87

 +
PotenttOI Coil
/
·'
~-
-- .....
I

~~
IC A
o-----~~-=--4
8 ..-

Current Coil
Ltne R e

o - - - - - - - -- - -- ·----4----'----<l __j
Figure 4-36 Diagram of an electrodynamometer wattme!er connected to mea!>ure
the power of a single-phase load .

Sec. 4-1 I .I, the electrodynamometer used as a voltmeter or an ammeter has the
fixed coils and the movable coil connected in series, thereby reacting to the effect
of the current squared. When used as a single-phase power meter, the coils are
connected in a different arrangement (see Fig. 4-36).
The fixed coils, or field coils, shown here as two separate elements, are
connected in series and carry the total line current (iJ. The movable coil. located
in the magnetic field of the fixed coils, is <::onnected in series with a current-
limiting resistor across the power line and carries a small current (ip). The instan-
taneous value of the current in the movable coil is ip = e/Rp, where e is the
instantaneous ·voltage across the power line, and Rp is the total resistance of the
movable coil and its series resistor. The deflection of the movable coil is propor-
tional to the product of these two currents, ir: and ip, and we can write for the
average deftection over one period:

8av = K ~ J: ic:ip dt (4-28)

where 6av = average angular deflection of the coil

K = instrument constant
ir: = instantaneous current in the field coils
iP = instantaneous current in the potential coil
Assuming for the moment that ic is equal to the load current, i (actually, ir = ip +
i), and using the value for ip::: e/Rp,'we see that Eq. (4-28) reduces to

1 rr e I (T (4-29)
9av = K T Jo i Rp dt = K2 T Jo ei dt

88 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Chap.4

 By definition, the average power in a circuit' is
I (T
Pav = T Jo ei dr (4-30)

which indicates that the electrodynamometer movement, connected in the config-

uration of Fig. 4-36, has a detlection proportional to the average power. If e and i
are sinusoidally varying quantities of the forme =Em sin wr and i = 1m sin (wt :t
9), Eq. (4-29) reduces to
(4-3 I)
where E and I represent the rms values of the voltage and the current, and fJ
represents the phase angle between voltage and current Equations (4-29) and
(4-30) show that the electrodynamomcter indicates the average power delivered to
the load.
\Vattmeters have one voltage terminal and one current terminal marked
":::." When the marked current terminal is connected to the incoming line. and
the marked voltage terminal i~ connected to the line side in which the current cui!
is connected, the meter ~··ill alway\ read up-scale::\\ hen rower is connected to the
load. If for any reason (as in the two-wall meter m~:th~lJ (lf mea-,uring lhrce-pha:-.l'
pov.er), the meter should rtad hackw::trd. the c urrcnt c~.mnections (not the volta!!c
connectiOns) should he reversed.
The electrodynamometer wattmeter consumes some power for maintenance
of its magnetic field. but thts is u~ually ~o smali. comp.m::d to the load power. that
it may be neglected. If a correct reading of. the k1ad pov..·cr ,.., required. the current
coil should carry exactly the load current ."'\ind the potent tal coil c;hould he con-
nected across the load terminals. With the potential coil connected to point A. a.,
in Fig. 4-36. the load voltage is properly mrtcrcd. hut the current through the field
coils is greater by the amount 1,. The \1\al!mttcr therefore reads high by the
amount ofaddittonal power Joss in the putenttal ctrcutt. If. however, the pott:ntial
coil is connected to point B in Fig. 4-3~. the tield coih meter the correct load
current. but the voltage acrC'ss the potential coil i~ higher by the amount of the
drop across the field coils. The wattmeter wtll agam read high. but now by the
amount of the l~R losses 111 the field windtngs. Choice of the correct con'ncction
depends on the situation. Generally. connection ~f tfie potential coil at point A js
prelerred for high-current, low-voltage loads; connection at B is preferred for low-
current, high-voltage loads.
The difficulty in placing the connection of the potential coil is overcome in
the compensated wattmeter, -,hown ~chematically in Fig. 4-37. The current coil
consists of two windings, each winding having the same number of turns. One
winding uses heavy wire that carriec; the l0ad current plus the current for the
potential coil. The other winding uses thin wire and carnes only tne cur.rent to the
voltage coil. This current. however. is in a direction opposi~e to the current in the
heavy winding, causing a flux thtlt opposes the main flux . The effect of ip is
therefore canceled out, and the wattmeter indicates Lhe correct power.

Sec. 4-13 Electrodynamometers in Power Measurements 89

 +

Line R Lood
Current Cotl

Fipre 4-37 Diagram of a ccmpensaled wattmeter in which the effect of the

current in the potential coil is canceled by the current in the compensating
winding.

4·14 WATTHOUR METER

The watthour meter IS not often found in a laboratory situation but it is widely
used for the commercial measurement of electrical energy. In fact, it is evident
wherever a power company supplies the industrial or domestic consumer with
electrical energy. Figure 4-38 shows the elements of a single-phase watthour
meter in schematic form.

lI
1

Shaft

/
Magnet

Magnetic I

Core Currer.!
Cod
Lood

F1pre 4-38 Elements of a single-phase watthour meter.

so Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Chap.4

 The current coil is connected in series with the line, and the voltage coil is
connected across the line. Both coils are wound on a metal frame of special
design, providing two magnetic circuits. A li'ght aluminum disk is suspended in
the air gap of the current-coil field, which causes eddy currents to flow in the
di~k. The reaction of the eddy currents and the field of the voltage coil creates a
torque (motor action) on the disk, causing it to rotate. The developed torque is
proportional to the fieldstrength of the voltage coii and the eddy currents m the
disk which are in turn a function of the fieldstrength of the current coil. The
number of rotations of the disk is therefore proportional to the energy consumed
by the load in a certain time interval, and is measured in terms of kilowatthours
(kWh). The shaft that supports the aluminum disk is connected by a gear arrange-
ment to the clock mechamsm on the front of the meter, providing a decimally
calibrated readout of the number of kWh .
Damping of the disk is provided by two small permanent magnets located
>pposite each other at the rim of the disk. Whenever the disk rotates, the perma-
n·~nt magnets mduce edd; currents in it. These eddy curre•1ts react with the
rnagnetic fields of the small permanent n agnets. damping the motion of the disk.
A typical single-pha~e watthour meter is shown in Fig. 4-39.

Figure 4-39 Watthour meter for industrial or domesti~ application.

(Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation.)

S ~c. 4-14 Watthour Meter 91

 Calibration of the watt hour meter is performed under conditions of full rated
load and 10 per cent of rated lo~d. At full load, the calibration consists of adjust-
ment of the position of the small permanent magnets until the meter reads cor-
rectly. At very light loads, the voltage component of the field produces a torque
that is not directly proportional to the load. Compensation for the error is pro-
vided by inserting a shading coil or plate over a portion •of the voltage coil, with
the meter operating at I0 per cent of rated load. Calibration of the meter at these
two positions usually provides satisfactory readings at all other loads.
Theflonring-shafr watthour meter uses a unique design to <;uspend the disk.
The rotating shaft has a small magnet at ea~h end. The upper magnet of the shaft
is attracted to a magnet in the upper bearing, and the lower magnet of the shaft is
attracted to a magnet in ihe lower bea ring. The movement thus floats without
touching either bearing surface, and 1he only contact with the movement is that of
the gear connecting the shaft with the gear train.
Measurements of energy in" three phase sys1ems are performed with poly-
phase watthour meters. Each phase cf the wat1hour meter has its own magnetic
circuit and its own di~k. but all the r.li~;ks are muunt~d on a common shaft. The
developed torque on each disk is mechanica:Jiy summed and the total n11mber of
revolutions ptr minute <.,f the shaft i~ pt~'~ p0n i .);wl [O the totul three-phase energy
consumed.

4-15 POWER-FACTOR METERS

The power factor, by definition, is the cosine of the phase angle between voltage
and current, and power-factor measurements usually involve the determination of
this phase angle. This is demonstrated in the operation of the crossed-coil po wer-
factor meter. The instrument is basically an electrudynamomeler moverne.nt.
where the moving element consists of two coils, mounted on the same s haft but at
right angles to each other. The moving coils rotate in the magnetic field provided
by the field coil that carries the line current.
The connections for this meter in a single-phttSe circuit arc shown in the
circuit diagram of Fig. 4-40. The field coil is connected as usual in series with the
line and carries the line current. One coil of the movable elemenlisconnecred in
series with a resistor across the lines ~nd receives its current from the applied
. ------
potenttal difference. The second coiTOTll1Cmovable element is connected in
senes with an inductor across the lines. Since no control springs are used. the
balance position of the movable element depends on the resulting torque devel-
oped by the two crossed coils. When the movable element is in a balanced posi-
tion, the contribution to the total torque by each element must be equal but of
opposit~ sign. The developed torque in each coil is a function of the current
through the coil and therefore depends on the impedance of that coil circuit. The
torque is also proportional to the mutual inducta nce between each part of the
crossed coil and the stationary field coil. This mutua l inductance depends on the
angular position of the crossed-coil elements with respect to the position of the
stationary field coil. When the movable element is at balance, it can be shown that

92 Electro mechanical Indicating Instruments Chap.4

 Line

Field Coil
Field Cot!
---
Load

filcare 4-40 Connections for a single-phase crossed-coil power-factor meter.

its angular displacement is a funrlion of the pha~e angle between line current (field
coil) and line voltage (crossed coils). The indication of the pointer, which · is
connected to the movable element, is calibrated directly in terms of the phase
angle or power factor.
The polarized-vane power-faclor meter is shown in the construction sketch
of Fig. 4-41. This instrument is used primarily in three-phase power systems,
because its operating principle depends on the application of three-phase voJt-
aie. The outside coil is the potential coil, which is connertrd to the three phase

Moving Vane

f'fave 4-41 Polarized-vane power-factor meter.

Sec. 4-15 Power-Factor Meters

93
 lines of the system. The application of three-phase voltage to the potential coil
causes it to act like the stator of a three-phase induction motor in setting up a
rotating magnetic flux. The central coil, or current coil, is connected in series
with one of the phase Jmes, and this polarizes the iron vanes. The polarized vanes
move in a rotating magnetic field and take up the position that the rotating field has
at the instant that the polarizing flux is maximum. This position is an indication of
the phase angle and therefore the power factor. The instrument may be used in
single-phase systems, provided that a phase-splitting network (similar to that used
in single-phase motors) is used to set up the required rotating magnetic field.
Both types of power-factor meter are limited to measurement at compara-
tively low frequencies and are typically used at the powerline frequency (60 Hz).
Phase measurements at higher frequencies often are more accurately and ele-
gantly performed by special electronic instruments or techniques.

4-16 INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMERS

Instrument transformers are used to measure ac at generating stations. trans-

former stations, and at transmission li:-~es, in conjunction with ac measuring in-
struments (voltmeters. ammeters. wattmeters, VARmeters, etc.). Instrument
transform~rs are classified according to their usc and are referred to as curre,a
transformers (CT) and potential transformers (PT).'
Instrument transformers perform two important functions: They serve to
extend the range of the ac measuring instrument, much as the shunt or the multi-
plier extends the range of a de meter; they also serve to isolate the measuring
instrument from the high-voltage power line.
The range of a de ammeter may be extended by using a shunt that divides the
current under measurement between the meter and the shunt. This method is
satisfactory for de circuits, but in ac circuits current division depends not only on
the resistances of the meter and the shunt but also on their reactances. Since ar. '
measurements are made over a wide frequency range, it becomes difficult to
obtain great accuracy. A CT provides the required range extension through its
transformation ratio and in addition produces almost the same reading regardless
of the meter constants (reactance and resistance) or, in fact. of the number of
instruments (within limits) connected in the circuir.
Isolation of the measuring instrument from the high-voltage power line is
important when we consider that ac power systems frequently operate at voltages
of several hundred kilovolts. It would be impractical to· bring the h,gh-voltage
lines directly to an instrument panel in order to measure voltage or current, not
onty because of the safety hazards involved but also because of the insulation
problems connected with high-voltage lines running closely together in a confined
space. When an instrument transformer is used, only the low-voltage wires from
the transformer secondary are brought to the instrument panel and only low
voltages exist between these wires and ground, thereby minimizing safety hazards
and insulation problems.
Many textbooks develop in detail the theory underlying the operation of

94 Electromechanical Indicating Instruments Chap.4

Voltmeters and
Multimeters

INTRODUCTION! 4.1
The most commonJy used de meter is based on the fundamental principle of the
motor. The motor action is produced by the flow of a small amount of current
through a moving coil which is positioned in a permanent magnetic field. This
basic moving system, o ften called the D' Arsonval movement, is also referred to
as the basic meter.
Di fferent instrument fonns may be obtained by starting with the basic meter
movement and adding various elements, as follows.
1. Tbe bas ic meter movemem becomes a de instrument, measuring
(i) de current, by adding a shunt resistance, forming a microammeter, a
milliammeter or an ammeter.
(ii) de voltage, by adding a multiplier resistance, forming a milli
voltmeter, volt meter or kilovoltmeter.
(iii) resistance, by adding a battery and resistive network, forming an
ohm meter.
2. The basic meter movement becomes an ac instrument, measuring
(i) ac voltage or current, by adding a rectifier, forming a rectifier type
meter for power and audio frequencies.
(ii) RF voltage or current, by adding a thermocouple-type meter for RF.
(iii) Expanded scale for power line voltage, by adding a thermistor in a
resistive bridge network, forming an expanded scale (100 - 140 V)
ac meter for power line monitoring.

BASIC METER AS A DC VOLTMETER 4.2

To use the basic meter as a de voltmeter, it is necessary to know the amount of
current required to defiect the basic meter to full scale. This current is known
as full scale deflection current (/pd). For example, suppose a 50 IJA current is
required for full scale deflection.
This full scale value will produce a voltmeter with a sensitivity of 20,000 n per V.
The sensitivity is based on the fact that the full scale current of 50 IJA results
whenever 20,000 n of resistance is present in the meter circuit for each voitage
applied.

Copynqhted Mater al
80 Elearonic lnstrumenrarion

Sensitivity= ll fpd = J/50 J1A = 20 knN

Hence, a 0 - I mA would have a sensitivity of I VI I mA = I kQN or I000 n.

Example 4.1 Calculate the sensitivity ofa 200·p.A /neter movem; ,;t 1vhich
is to be used as a de voltmeter.

Solution The sensitivity

S= 1 =--~­
(/Jid ) 200 f.lA

Therefore S = 5 knN

DC VOLTMETER 4.3
A basic 0 ' Arson val movement can be converted into a de voltmeter by adding
a series resistor known as multiplier, as shown in Fig. 4.1 . The function of the
multiplier is to limit the current through the
movement so that the current does not exceed Multiplier
+
the full scale deflection value. A de voltmeter
measures the potential difference between two
points in a de circuit or a circuit component. I
v
To measure the potential difference be·
tween two points in a de circuit or a circuit
component, a de voltmeter is always connect·
cd across them with the proper polarity.
The value of the multiplier required is Fig. 4.1 Basic de voltmeter
calculated as follows. Referring to Fig. 4.1,
lm = full scale deflection current of the movement (f;:,d)
R,. = internal resistance of movement
R, = multiplier resistance
V= full range voltage of the instrument
From the circuit of Fig. 4 .1

v
Therefore R_, =~- Rm
m
The multiplier limits the current through the movement, so as to not exceed
the value of the full scale deflection f;:wl·
The above equation is also used to further extend the range in DC voltmeter.

Copyr grted matenal

 Voltmeters and Multimeters 81

Example 4.2 (a) A basic D 'Arson val movement witlr a full scale deflection
of 50 J.1A and internal resis tance of500 f2 is used as a voltmete1: De/ermine rhe
value of tire multiplier resistance needed to measure a voltage range ofO- 10 V.
Solution Given
R = ~-R = IO -500
• Im m 50 "A
~
6
= 0.2 x L0 - 500=200k - 500
= 199.5kQ

Example 4.2 (b) Calculate tlze value of multiplier resistance on the 50V
range of a de voltmeter /hat uses a 500 pA meter movement with an internal
resistance of I kf2.

Solution
Step I: The sensitivity of 500 11A meter movement is given by
S = Ill.,= 11500 11A = 2 kQ/V.
Step 2: The value of the multiplier resistance can be calculated by
R_. = S x range - R,.
Rs = 2 kQ/V X 50 V - I kQ
= 100 kQ - I kQ = 99 kQ

MULTI RANGE VOLTMETER 4.4

As in the case of an ammeter, to obtain a multi range ammeter. a number of shunts
are connected across the movement with a multi-position switch. Similarly,
a de voltmeter can be converted into a multirange voltmeter by connecting a

__
number of resistors (multipliers) along
with a range switch to provide a greater
number of workabl e ranges. ...
Figure 4.2 shows a multirangc
voltmeter using a three position switch +
and three multipliers R 1, R2.• and R3 for / Rm
voltage values v,, v2, and v3.
Figure 4.2 can be further modified
to Fig. 4.3, which is a more practical
arrangement of the multipUer resistors Fig. 4.2 Multirange voluneter
of a multirange voltmeter.
ln this arrangement, the multipliers are connected in a series string, and the
range selector selects the appropriate amount of resistance required in series with
the movement.

Copynghte<l rnter al
82 Electronic Instrumentation

R R

v,
/ Rm

Fig. 4.3 Multipliers connected in series string

This arrangement is advantageous compared to the previous one, because all

multiplier resistances except the first have the standard resistance value and are
also easily available in precision tolerances.
The first resistor or low range multiplier, R4, is the only special resistor which
has to be specially manufactured to meet the circuit requirements.

Example 4.3 A D 'Arsonvalmovement with a f ull scale deflection current

n
of50 j1A m1d inrernal resistance of500 is to be converted into a multirange
voltmeter. Determine the value of multiplier required fo r 0-20 V, 0-50 Vand
0-/ 00 v.

Solution Given /"' = 50 JiA and Rm = 500 Q

Case I: For range 0 - 20V
v 20
R, = ~- Rm - -<> - 500 = 0.4 x 106 - 500 = 400 K - 500 = 399.5 k!2
• nr 50 X 10
Case 2: For range 0- 50 V

R, = -
v - Rm =
50
-<> - 500 = I x 106 - 500 = I 000 K - 500 = 999.5 k!2
lm 50 xtO
Case 3: For range 0- 100 V

R = !:._ _ R = IOO - 500 =2x I06 -S00=2000K - 500= 1999.5k!l

s Im m 50 X 10-<>

Example 4.4 A D 'Arsonval mo1·ement with a f ull scale d f;f/ection current

of10 mA and internal resistance of500 n is to be Converted into a multirange
voltmete1: Determine the value of multiplier required for 0-20 V, 0-50 V and
0-100 v.

Solution Given lm = I0 rnA and Rm = 500 Q

Case 1: For range 0 - 20V
20
R = .!:.._ - R = - 500 = 2 x 103 - 500 = 2000 - 500 = 1.5 k!2
s lm m IOxl0-3

Copy ed ...,ale
 Voltmeters and Muhimeters 83

Case 2: For range 0 - 50V

R = !.._ - R - SO 3 - 500 = 5 x I 03 - 500 = 5000 - 500 = 4.5 k.Q

s 1m m I0 X I0-
Case 3: For range 0- I OOV
v
R,= - - R,. =
100
-500 = lOx 103 - 500= IOK - 500=9.5k.Q
I,. lO x 10- 3

Example 4.5 Convert a 'basic D 'A rson val movement with an internal
resistance of 100 Q and aful{ scale deflection of 10 mA into a muliirange de
voltmeter with ranges from 0 - 5 V. 0 - 50 V and 0- 100 V.

Solution Given I,.= I 0 rnA, R,. = 100 .Q

Step 1: For a 5 V (V3) the total circuit resistance
IS
v
R, = - =
5
= 0.5 k.Q
J ftd 10 rnA
Therefore R3 = R, - R,. = 500 .Q - I 00 .Q Fig. 4.3(a)
= 400 .Q
Step 2: For a 50 V (V2) position

R =~= 50
5k.Q
I [ ftc! 10 rnA
Therefore. R2 = R, - (R3 + R,.) = 5 k.Q - (400 .Q + I 00 .Q)
= 5 k.Q- 500 .Q = 4.5 K.Q
Step 3: For a I 00 V range (V1) position

R =~ = lOO = IOk.Q
r I fttl lOrnA
Therefore R 1 =R, - (R 2 + R3 + R,.) = 10 k.Q - (4.5 k.Q + 400 .Q + 100 .Q)
= l0k.Q - 5.Q = 5 k.Q
Hence it can be seen that R3 !bas a non-standard value.

Example 4.S Convert a basic D 'A rsonval movement wiJh an intemal

resistance of50 nand a fu ll scale deflection current of2 mA into a multirange
de voltmeter with voltage ranges ofO - 10 V. 0 - 50 V. 0 - 100 V and 0 - 250
V. Refer to Fig. 4.3.

Solution For a 10 V range (V4 position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

R =~= 10 =5 k.Q
' 2mA
Iftd
Therefore R4 = R1 - R,. = 5 k - 50 = 4950 .Q.

Copynghte<l Moler al
84 Electronic Instrumentation

For 50 V range ( V3 position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

R =-=
v 50
=25kQ
' I fs.t 2 rnA

Therefore R3 = R1 - (R4 + Rm)" = 25 k - (4950 + 50) = 25 k - 5 k

For I00 V range ( V2 position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

R =~= IOO =50kQ

' I ftd 2mA
Therefore, R2 = R1 - (R3 + R4 + Rm)
= 50 k - (20 k + 4950 + 50)
R2 = 50 k - 25 k = 25 kQ
For 250 V range, ( V 1 position of switch), the total circuit resistance is

R =~=
250
125 kQ
' l ftd 2mA
Therefore R1= R, - (R2 + R3 + R4 + Rno)
= 125 k- (25 k + 20 k + 4950 + 50)
= 125 k- 50 k
=75 kQ
Only the resistance R4 (low range multiplier) has a non-standard value.

EXTENDING VOLTMETER RANGES 4.5

The range of a voltmeter can be extended to measure high voltages, by using
a high voltage probe or by using an external multiplier resistor. as shown in
Fig. 4.4. In most meters the basic movement is used on the lowest current range.
Values for multipliers can be determined
using the procedure of Section 4.4. Meter Set ''
Extemal
The basic meter movement can be used to to Multiplier Test
measure very low voltages. However, great Lowest Leads
Current
care must be used not to exceed the voltage Range
drop required for full scale deflection of the
basic movement. Fig. 4.4 Extending voltage range

Sensitivity The sensitivity or Ohms per Volt rating of a voltmeter is the ratio of
the total circuit resistance R, to the voltage range. Sensitivity is essentially the
reciprocal of the full scale deflection current of the basic movement. Therefore,
S = J/Ip d QJV.
The sensitivity · S' of the voltmeter bas the advantage that it can be used to
calculate the value of multiplier resistors in a de voltmeter. As.

Copyr.9nted mater al
 Voltmeters •Ond Multimeters 85

R, = total circuit resistance [R, = R. + R111 ]

S = sensitivity of voltmeter in ohms per volt
V = voltage range as set by range switch
R,. = internal resistance of the movement
Since R, = R, - Rm and R, = S x V
R_. = (Sx V)-Rm

·._.Example 4.7 Calculate the value ofthe multiplier resistance on the 50 V

rimge of a de voltmeter, that uses a 200 f1A meter movement with an internal
resistance of I 00 !2

Solution As R, = S x Range- internal resistance, and S = 1/f;-.J·

.. TI1e sensiti vity of the meter movement is
S = IIf_t.,d= 1/200 llA = 5 k.Q/V.
The value of multiplier Rs is calculated as
Rs = S X Range - internal resistance = S x V - Rm
= 5 k X 50 - 100
= 250 k - 100
= 249.9 kQ

, Example 4.8 Calculate the value ofmultip/ier resistance for the multiple
range de voltmeter circuit shown in Fig. 4.5 (a).

SolutionThe sensitivity ofthe meter r=-r=-r=--- --< I r-------.

movement is given as follows. ltsd= 50 j1A
Rm= 1 1<0
S =11/fsJ = 1/50 J.IA = 20 k.Q/V
The value of the multiplier resistance can be
calculated as follows. c___ _
+-
.. · - - - - - '
For 5 V range
R,,= Sx V -R., Ag. 4.5 (a)
= 20 k X 5 - I k
= I 00 k - I k = 99 kQ
For 10 V range
R, 2 = Sx V-Rm
= 20 kx 10 - I k
= 200 k - 1 k = 199 kn
For 50 V range
R'> =SxV- Rm
= 20 k X 50 - I k
= I 000 k - I k = 999 kQ

Copynghled mater al
86 Electronic Instrumentation

Example 4.9 Calculate the value of multiplier resistance for the

multirange de voltmeter as shown in Fig 4.5(b).

Solution
Step I : The sensitiVIty of 50 J.IA meter
Rs 1
movement is given by
S = Ill., = 1/ 50 J.IA = 20 ill!V. 10 v 30 v
The value of the multipHer resistance can be
calculated by 3V~ o-----'
Step 2: The value of the multiplier for 3 V range Fig. 4.5 (b)
Rs = S X range - R,
R, = 20 k.Q/V X 3V - I k.Q
= 60 k!l - I kQ = 59 k!l.
Step 3: The value of the multiplier resistance For 10 V range can be calculated by
R, = Sx range - Rm
Rs = 20 k.Q.N x lO V - I k.Q
= 200 k.Q - I kQ = 199 k.Q.
Step 4: The value of the multiplier resistance For 30V range can be calculated by
Rs = S x range -Rm
Rs = 20 illiV X 30 V - I kil
= 600 kn - I kQ = 599 kn

Example4.1[] A moving coil instnunent gives a full scale deflection of20

mA when the potential difference across its terminals is 100m V. Calculate
(a) Shunt resistance for a full scale deflection corresponding of50 A.
(b) The series resistance for a full scale reading with 500 V. Also calculate the
power dissipation in each case.

Solution Given meter current Im = 20 rnA and voltage = I 00 m V

. IOOmV
Step I: Meter resistance Rm = = 5Q
20mA
Step 2: Shunt resistance is given by
R _ I.,R111 _ 20mAx5Q IOOmA = .002 n
'" - I - I m 50000 rnA - 20 rnA - 49980 rnA
Step 3: Voltage Multiplier
500
n.. = !_
J" f
-R =
m
v - 5 n = 25 x 103 - 5 n
20 rnA
m
= 24995 n = 25 kn
Power= Vm·l,.=500x20mA= lOW
 Voltmeters and Multimeters 87

LOADING 4.6
When selecting a meter for a certain voltage measurement, it is important to
cons ider the sensitivity o f a de voltmeter. A low sensitivity mete1r may give a
correct reading when measuring voltages in a low resistance circuit, but it is
certain to produce unreliable readings in a high resistance circuit. A Voltmeter
when connected across two points in a highly resistive circuits, acts as a shunt for
that portion of the circuit, reducing the total equivalent resistance ofthat portion
as shown in Fig. 4.6. The meter then indicates a lower reading than what existed
before the meter was connected. This is called the loading effect of an instrument
and is caused mainly by low sensitivity instruments.

Example 4.11 Figw-e 4.6 shows a sim- +

p le series circuit of R1 a11d R1 connected to
a /00 V de source. If the voltage across R1 1 10
k R,
is to be measured by voltmeters having 100 v 1--- ---,
(a) a sensitivity of /000 WV. and
(b) a sensitivity of 20.000 WV, find which 1 10
k R2
voltmeter will read the accurate value of
vollage across Rz- Both the meters are used
f iQ. 4.G Example on loading effect
on the 50 V range.

Solution Inspection of the circuit indicates that the voltage across the R2
resistance is
10 k
k + k X 100 V =50 V
10 10
This is the true voltage across R1 .
Case I
Using a voltmeter having a sensitivity of I 000 QJV.
It has a resistance of 11)00 x 50 = 50 kQ on its 50 V range.
Connecting the meter across R2 causes an equivalent parallel resistance given
by
R =10kx50k SOOM
8.33 kQ
ey 10 k +so k 60k
Now the voltage across the total combination is given by
R
V.= "" xV
R1 + R..,

8 33
V. = · k X I00 V = 45.43 V
I 10 k +8.33 k

Hence this voltmeter indicates 45.43 V.

Jm
88 Electronic Instrumentation

Case2
Using a vohmeter having a sensitivity of20,000 nN. Therefore it has a resistance
of
20,000 x 50 = 1000 k = I Mfl
This voltmeter when connected across R2 produces an equivalent parallel
resistance given by
9
R =IOkxiM_ 10 tOk=9.9kn
··q IOk+IM l.OIM 1.01

Now the voltage across the total combination is given by

99
V,= · k xl00V=49.74V
• 10k+9.9k

Hence this voltmeter will read 49.74 V.

This example shows that a high sensitivity voltmeter should be used to get
accurate readings.

Example 4.12 1\vo different voltmeters are used

to measure the voltage across Rb in the circuit o.fFig.
4.7.
The meters are as follows. V --'- 30V
Meter 1: S = 1 kO/V. R111 = 0.2 k, range 10 V
Meter 2: S = 20 kfl/V. R, = 1.5 k, range 10 V
Calculate (i) voltage across Rb without any meter
across it, (ii) voltage across Rb when the meter I is fig. 4.7
used (iii) voltage across Rb when the meter 2 is used,
and (iv) error in the voltmeters.

Solution (i) The voltage across the resistance Rb, without either meter connected,
is calculated using the voltage divider fonnula.
150
Therefore, VR = Sk x 30 = k - 5V
b 25 k + 5 k 30 k
(ii) Starting with meter I, having sensitivity S = I kflN
Therefore the total resistance it presents to the circuit
R111 = S X range = I kn!V X I 0 = I 0 kQ
I
The total resistance across R" is, Rb in parallel with meter resistance R,. 1

=5kx10k= 3 .33 kn
5k+IOk

Therefore, the voltage reading obtained with meter I using the voltage divider
equation is

Copyr ghted mater al

 Voltmeters and Mullimelers 89

R,q 3.33 k
VRb = X v= X 30 = 3.53 v
R,"' + Ra 3.33 k + 25 k

(iii) The total resistance that meter 2 presents to the circuit is

Rm2 =Sxrange=20kntVx IOV=200kfl
The parallel combination of Rb and meter 2 gives
5 k X 200 k = 1000 k X I k _ _ kfl
4 88
5 k + 200 k 205 k

Therefore the voltage reading obtained with meter 2, using the voltage divider
equation is
VR = 4.88 k X 30 = 4.88 k X 30 = 4.9 V
b 25 k + 4.88 k 29.88 k

(iv) The error in the reading of the voltmeter is given as:

0, E Actual voltage- Voltage reading observed in meter I ooo'
"o rror = x ,o
Actual voltage

5 v -3.33 v
voltmeter
. I error = sv x I 00% =33.4%
5 V -4.9V
Similarly voltmeter 2 error = x 100% = 2%
SV

Example 4.13 Find tire voltage reading and

% envr of each reading obtained with a voltmeter R. ; 451<0
on (i) 5 Vrm~ge, (ii) 10 Vrangeand(iii) 30 Vrange, v --- sov
if the instnmzent has a 20 kWV sensitivity and is
connected across Rb ofFig. 4.8 (a). Rb 5 kO

Solution The voltage drop across Rh without the

Fig. 4.8 (a)
voltmeter connected is calculated using the voltage
equation

VRh = Rh X Jl = 5k X SO= 50 X 5 k SV
Ra + Rh 45 k + 5 k 50 k
On the 5 V range
R,. = S X range = 20 kfl X 5 V = I00 kfl

R = R., X Rb - I 00 k X 5 k = 500 k 4.76 kQ

eq R., + Rb I 00 k + 5 k 105 k

Copy• r od --,ate a
90 Electronic lnsuumenta!ion

The voltmeter reading is

4 76
VRb = R,q xV= · k x50=4.782V
R., + R«t 45 k + 4.76 k

The % error on the 5 V range is

/ E Actual voltage- Voltage reading in meter
0
/o rror = -----=------'=---=-- - -
Actual voltage

=5V - 4.782V xi00=0.217V xi00= 4 .34 %

5V 5V
On 10 V range
Rm = Sx range =20 kQN x 10 V = 200kQ
R = R,. X Rb = 200 k X 5 k = 4.87 k.Q
cq Rm + Rb 200 k + 5 k
The voltmeter reading is
4 87
VRb = R'"'l XV= " k X 50= 4.88 V
R,q + R., 4.87 k + 45 k

5 V - 4.88V
The% error on the 10 V range = V x I00 =2.34%
5
On 30 V range
Rm = S x range = 20 illN x 30 V = 600 k
R = R, X Rb = 600 k X 5 k = 3000 k X I k = 4.95 k
•q Rm + Rb 600 k + 5 k 605 k
The voltmeter reading on the 30 V range
4 95
VRb = R,q XV= · k X 50= 4.95 V
R,q + R0 45 k + 4.95 k

The% error on the 30 V range

= 5 V -4.95 V X 100 = 0.05 X 100= I%
5Y 5v
In the above example, the 30 V range introduces the least error due to loading.
However, the voltage being measured causes only a I0% full scale deflection,
whereas on the I 0 V range the applied voltage causes approximately a one third
of the full scale deflection with less than 3% error.

Example 4.14 A current meter that has an imernal resistance of 100 n

is used to measure the current thro resistor R3 in Fig 4.8(b) given below.
Determine the% ofthe reading due to ammeter loading.

Copyngl'led mater a!
 Voltmeters ond Multimeters 91

Solution
Step 1: The current meter will be connected in to the circuit as shown in Fig 4.8
(a).

3V

(b)

Fig.4.8
Looking back into terminals x and y and using Thevinin's equivalent
resistance,
R = R + R2 x R3 = I k + I k x I k = l. 5 kQ
I I R2 +R3 lk

Step 2: The ratio of the meter current to the expected current is

fm R,
-= - --'---
/ R, + Rm
I = l.5kQ 5
Therefore 1. k =0.938
m 1.5 kQ + I 00 Q 1.6 k

Therefore fm = 0.938 X J
The current thro the meter is 93.8% of the expected current, therefore the
meter current caused a 6.2% error due to effects of loading .

TRANSISTOR VOLTMETER (TVM) 4.7

Direct coupled amplifiers are economical and hence used widely in general
purpose low priced VTVM's. Figure 4 .9 gives a simplified schematic diagram of
a de coupled amplifier with an indicating meter. The de input is applied to a range
attenuator to provide input voltage levels which can be accommodated by the de
amplifier. The input stage of the amplifier consists of a FET which provides high
input impedance to effectively isolate the meter circuit from the circuit under
measurement. The input impedance of a FET is greater than 10 MQ. The bridge
is balanced, so that for zero input the dial indicates zero.
The two transistors, Q1 and Q2 forms a de coupled amplifier driving the meter
movement. Within the dynamic range of the amplifier, the meter deflection is
proportional to the magnitude of the applied input voltage. The input overload
does not bum the meter because the amplifier saturates, limiting the maximum
current through the meier. The gain of the de amplifier allows the instrument
to be used for measurement of voltages in the mV range. Instruments in the

Copynghled mater al
 I I

. .

3
DC AMMETER·· 3.1
The P?HMC galvanometer constitutes the basic movement of a de ammeter.
Since the coil winding of a basic movement is small and light, it can carry only
very smaLL curtt..'lltS. When large currents are to be measured, it is necessary to
bypass a major part of the current through a resistance called a shunt, as shown
io Fig. 3. I. The resistance of shunt can be calculated using conventional circuit
analysis.
Referring. to Fig. 3. I
R,. = h' temal resista nce o f the movement.
1, 1,"' shunt current

·•
I.

•.-
l, "'' full scale cleflcctitm current of the movement
l = ful i scale current of the ammeter+ shunt (i.e. total current)

' .

·. O'Arsonval
Movement
. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __J

fig. 3.1 Basic de Ammeter

'· Since the shtmt resistance is in parallel with the meter movement, the voltage
drop across the shunt and movement must be the same.
Therefore Vsh. = V,,
lsi: Rsh =- 1 R.,..
111

But / s11 = 1 - !,,

hence R = ' "' R.,
·sh 1--f
m
For each required value of full scale meter current, we can determine the value
:' .. of !;hunt resistance.
Copyr ghted mateml
 Ammeters 65

Example 3J (a) A I mA meter movement wilft m1 imemal resistance of

100 Q is ro be converted into a 0 ·_ I 00 mA. Calculate the value of shunt
resistance required.

Solution GivenR,= IOOQ,l, = 1 rnA,] = lOOmA

R = l,Rm =1mAxi00!2 _ IOOn1Afl_I00!2=l.OIQ
sh I - I, 99 rnA 99 rnA 99
The shunt resistance used with a basic movement may consist of a length
of constant temperature resistance wire within the case of the instrument.
Alternatively, there may be an external (manganin or constantan) shunt having
very low resistance.
The general requirements of a shunt are as follows.
I. The temperature coefficients of the shunt and instrument should be low
and nearly identical.
2. The resistance of the shunt should not vary with time.
3. It should carry the current without excessive temperature rise.
4. It should have a low thermal emf.
Manganin is usually used as a shunt for de instruments, since it gives a low
value of thermal emf with copper.
Constantan is a useful material for ac circuits, since it's comparatively high
thermal emf, being unidirectional, is ineffective on the these circuits.
Shunt for low current are enclosed in the meter casing, while for currents
above 200 A, they are mounted separately.

Example 3J (b) A 100 pA meter movement with an internal resisUJnce of

500 Q is to be used in a 0- 100 mA Ammeter. Find the value oftlte required
shunt.
Solution T he shunt can also be determined by considering current I to be 'n'
times larger than Jm. This is called a multiplying factor and relates the total
current and meter current.
Therefore I = 11 I m
Therefore the equation for
_ l , R'" I.,R., l,R,
Rsh -
l-Im nl,. -1,. l,..(n-1)
- (n-1)
Given: 1,= JOO~andR, = soon
I 100 rnA
Step I: n= - = 1000
1, 100~

Step 2: R _ R, = 500Q 500 =0.50Q

sir - (11 - I) 1000 - I 999

Copyr rtoo r1a or a

66 Elearonic Instrumentation

MULTI RANGE AMMETERS 3.2

The current range of the de ammeter may
be further extended by a number of shunts, +
selected by a range switch. Such a meter
is called a multirange ammeter, shown in +
Fig. 3.2. t Rm
The circuit has four shunts R1, R2, R3 D'Arsonval
and R4 , which can be placed in parallel with s Movement
the movement to give four different current
ranges. Switch S is a multiposition switch, Fig. 3.2 Multi range ammeter
(having low contact resistance and high
current carrying capacity, since its contacts arc in series with low resistance
shunts). Make before break type switch is used for range changing. This switch
protects the meter movement from being damaged without a shunt during range
changing.
If we use an ordinary switch for range changing, the meter does not have any
shunt in parallel wh ile the range is being changed, and hence full current passes
through the meter movement, damaging the movement. Hence a make before
break type switch is used. The switch is so designed that when the switch position
is changed, it makes contact with the next tenninal (range) before breaking
contact with the previous terminal. Therefore the meter movement is never left
unprotected. Multirange ammeters are used for ranges up to 50A . When using a
multirange ammeter, first use the highest current range, then decrease the range
until good upscale reading is obtained. The resi stance used for the various ranges
arc of very high precision values, hence the cost of the meter increases.

Example 3.2 A 1 mA meter movement having an intemal resistance of

100 n is ~,~Sed to convert into a multirange ammeter having the range 0- 10
mA, 0-20 mA and 0-50 mA. Determine the value of the shunt resistance
required.

Solution Given 1., = I rnA and R., = 100 Q

Case I: For the range 0 - I 0 rnA

a·IVeO Rsh l = 11m- ·Rm

1
I rnA X 100 = 100 = ll.ll Q
m IOmA-ImA 9
Case 2: For the range 0 - 20 mA
1 ·R lmAxlOO 100 =5.2Q
Given R . , = '" m =
·'h- 1- 1 20 mA - I rnA 19
"'
Case 3: For the range 0 - 50 rnA

GivenR =lm·Rm= ImAxiOO =100=2.041Q

shJ 1 - 1m 50 rnA - I rnA 49

Copynghled mater al
 Ammeters 67

Example 3.3 Design a multirange ammeter with range of0- 7 A, 5 A and

10 A employing individual shunt in eachA D'Arsonval movement with an
internal resistance of500 Q and a full scale deflection of10 mA is available.
Solution
Given /m = 10 rnA and Rm = 500 0
Case 1 : For the range 0 - 1A, i.e, 1000 rnA

Given R = 1"' ·R,, _ 10 mAx 500 = 5000 = 5.0S O

shl 1- 1 1000 rnA - I 0 rnA 990
'"
Case 2 : For the range 0 - SA, i.e, 5000 rnA
G' R _lm·Rm_ IOmAxSOO _5000_
10020
IVen sh 2 - 1 - /m -SOOOmA-IOmA -4990-.

Case 3 : For the range 0 - I OA, i.e, I0000 rnA

GivenR, = l.,·R.,-= IOmAxSOO = 5000 0.0500
hJ I-!., 10000 rnA -10 rnA 99990
Hence the values of shunt resistances are 5.05 0 , 1.002 0 and 0.050 0.

THE ARYTON SHUNT OR UNIVERSAL SHUNT 3.3

The Aryton shunt eliminates the possibility of having the meter in the circuit
without a shunt. This advantage is gained at the price of slightly higher overall
resistance. Figure 3.3 shows a circuit of an
Aryton shunt ammeter. ln this circuit, when
the switch is in position " 1" , resistance Ra
is in parallel with the series combination 3
of Rb, Rc and the meter movement. Hence + s 12 Rb (~_· Rm
the current through the shunt is more than ,, : :,;
1
the current through the meter movement, L-- --+
L D'Arsonval
thereby protecting the mete r movement Movement
and reducing its sensitivity. If the switch
is connected to position "2 ", resi stance
R0 and Rb are together in parallel with the
Fig. 3.3 Aryton shunt
series combination of Rc and the meter
movement. Now the current through the
meter is more than the current through the shunt resistance.
lf the switch is connected to position "3" R0 , Rb and Rc are together in parallel
with the meter. Hence maximum current flows through the meter movement and
very little through the shunt. This increases the sensitivity.

opy g f'-j mate I

68 Electronic Instrumentation

Example 3.4 (a) Design an Aryton shunt (Fig. 3.4) to provide an ammeter
with a current range of0 - 1 mA, 10 mA, 50 mA and 100 mA. A D 'Arsonval
movement with an internal resistance ofI 00 Q andfull scale current of50 p.A
is used.
+ 1mA

SOmA
1OOmA 10mA R.

R3
+
t- D'Arsonval
Movement
R2

R1

-
Fig. 3,4(a) For Example 3.4(a)

Solution Given Rm = 100 n, 1., =50 JlA.

For 0 - I rnA range

(3.1)

ForO-lOrnA
(3.2)
ForO - SOmA

ForO-IOOrnA
99950 JlA (R1) =50 JlA ( 100 + R2 + R3 + R4) (3.4)
But R 1 + R2 + R3 = 5.26 - R4 • Substituting in Eq. 3.2, we have
9950 !lA (5.26- R4 ) = 50 JlA (I 00 + R4 )
9950 !lAx 5.26 - 99SO JlA x R4 = SOOO jl.A + SO JlA R4
(9950 JlA x S.26 - 5000 J.!.A) = 9950 JlA R4 + SO JlA R4
9950 JlA X S.26 - SOOO JlA 47377 JlA
Therefore R =
4 lOrnA 10
rnA = 4.737 n

Copy rted mate

 Ammeters 69

R4 =4.74 Q
In Eq. 3.1, substituting for R4 we get
R 1 + R2 + R3 = 5.26 - 4.74 = 0.52

Substituting in Eq. 3.3, we have

49950 J.1.A (0.52 - R3) = 50 JlA (R3 + 4.74 + 100)
49950 JlA X 0.52- 49950 JlA X R3
= 50 J.I.A X R3 + 50 J.I.A X 4. 74 + 50 J.I.A X I 00
49950 JlA x 0.52- 50 JlA x 4.74 = 49950 J.I.A X R3 +50 JlA X R3 + 5000 J.I.A
(25974- 237) JlA = 50 mAX R3 + 5000 JlA
25737 JlA = 50 rnA x R3 + 5000 J.I.A
R. = 25737 J.lA- 5000 )lA = 20737 ).lA
o SOmA SOmA
R3 = 0.4147 = 0.42 Q
But RI + R2 = 0.52 - RJ
R1 + R2 = 0.52-0.4147 = 0.10526
Therefore. (3.5)
From Eq. 3.4
99950 J.1.A (R 1) = 50 JlA x (100 + R2 + R3 + R4)
But R2 + R3 + R4 = 5.26- R1 (from Eq. 3.1)
Substituting in Eq. 3.4
99950 JlA x R 1 = 50 JlAX (100 + 516 - R 1)
99950 JlA x R 1 = 5000 JlA +(50 JlA x 5.26) - (R 1 x 50 JlA)
99950 JlA X R I + 50 JlA X R I = 5000 JlA + 50 JlA X 5.26
(99950 JlA +50 JlA) R 1 = 5000 J.1A + 263 J.1A
100 rnA x R 1 = 5263 JlA
5263 J.LA
R 1 = LOO mA = 0.05263

Therefore R 1 = 0.05263 Q
From Eq. 3.5, we have
R2 = 0.10526 - R 1 = 0.10526 - 0.05263 = 0.05263 Q
Hence the value of shunts are
R 1 = 0.05263 Q ;R2 = 0.05263 Q
R3 = 0.4147U; R4 = 4.74Q

Copyrghted Mater al
70 Electronic Instrumentation

Example 3.4 (b) Calculate the value _of the shunt resistors for the circuit
shown below.
Rm= 1kn
r - - - - { ;f } - - - - . ,

1A
10mA
Fig. 3.4(b) For Example 3.4(b)

Solution The total shunt resistance Rsh is determined by

R = Rm where n = I II,.
sh (n- I) ..

Given lm = 100 )lA and R,. = I 000 Q

Step I: For I0 rnA range:
n = !_ = I 0 mA I 00
lm 100J.1A

Step 2: When the meter is set on the I 00 rnA range, the resistance R, and Rc
provides the shunt.
The shunt can be found from the equation
R. =(R +R )=lm(Rm+R.,h)=100J.1A(IO. I +1000) = l.OIQ
slrz b c l 100 nlA

Step 3: The resistor which provides the shunt resistance on the lA range can be
found from the equation
100 J.lA (10. 1 + 1000) = 0.101 Q
IOOOmA

Step 4: But Rb + Rc = 1.01 Q

R, = 1.01 -Rc = 1.01-0.101 Q =0.909 Q
Step 5: Resistor R0 is found by
Ra = Rs, - (R, + Rc) = 10.1 - (0.909 + .101) Q
= 10.1- 1.01 Q

Copynghted mater al
 Ammeters 71

=9.09!1
Hence Ra = 9.09 Q, Rb = 0.909 Q and Rc= 0.101 Q

REQUIREMENTS OF A SHUNT 3.4-

The type of material that should be used to join the shunts shouldl have two main
properties.
1. Minimum Thermo Dielectric Voltage Drop
Soldering ofjoint should not cause a voltage drop.
2. Solderability
Resistance of different sizes and values must be soldered with minimum change
in value.
The following precautions should be observed when using an ammeter for
measurement.
I. Never connect an ammeter across a source of emf. Because of its low
resistance it would draw a high current and destroy the movement.
Always connect an ammeter in series with a load capable of limiting the
current.
2. Observe the correct polarity. Reverse polarity causes the meter to deflect
against the mechanical stopper, which may damage the pointer.
3. When using a multirange meter, first use the highest current range, then
decrease the current range until substantial deflection is obtained. To
increase the accuracy use the range that will give a reading as near full
scale as possible.

EXTEND! NG OF AMMETER RANGES 3.5

'
The range of an ammeter can be extended to measure high current values by
using external shunts connected to the basic meter movement (usually the lowest
current range), as given in Fig. 3.5.

Test
Meter Set Leads
to
Lowest External
Current Shunt
Range

Fig. 3.5 Extending of ammeters

Note that the range of the basic meter movement cannot be lowered. (For ex-
ample, if a I 00 flA movement with I00 scale division is used to measure I ~A,
the meter will deflect by only one division. Hence ranges lower than the basic
range are not practically possible.)

Copynghled mater al
Indicators and
Display Devices 2
INTRODUCTION 2.1
Analogue ammeters and voltmeters are classified together, since there is no
basic difference in their operating principles. The action of all ammeters and
voltmeters, except those of the electrostatic variety, depends upon a deflecting
torque produced by an electric current. In an ammeter this torque is produced
by the current to be measured, or by a definite fraction of it. In a voltmeter it is
produced by a current that is proportional to the voltage to be measured. Hence
both voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.
The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are (a) that its
introduction into the circuit where measurements are to be made, should not alter
the c ircuit conditions, and (b) the power consumed by it be small.

2.1.1 Types of Instrument

The following types of instrument are mainly used as ammeters and voltmeters.
I. PMMC 2. Moving Iron
3. Electrodynamometer 4. Hot wire
5. Thermocouple 6. Induction type
7. Electrostatic 8. Rectifier
Of these, the PMt\lfC type can be used for de measurements only, and the
induclion type for ac measurements only. The other types can be used for both.
The moving coil and mov ing iron types depend upon the magnitude effect of
current. The latter is the most commonly used form of indicating instrument, as
well as the cheapest. it can be used for both ac and de measurements and is very
accurate, if properly designed.
The PMMC instrument is the most accurate type for de measurement.
Instrument of this type are frequently constructed to have substandard accuracy.
The calibration of the electrodynarnometer type of instrument is the same
for ac and de. The same situation prevails for thermal instruments. These are
particularly suitable for ac measurements, since their deflection depends directly
upon the beating .effect of the ac, i.e. upon the nns value of the current. Their
readings are therefore independent of the frequency.
Electrostatic instruments used as voltmeters have the advantage that their
power consumption is exceedingly small. They can be made to cover a large
range of voltage and can be co~structed to have sub-standard accuracy.
...opyr 'ted Male a
2~ EJecuonlc Instrumentation

The induction principle is most generally used for Watt-hour meters. This
principle is not preferred for use in ammeters and voltmeters because of the
comparatively high cost and inaccuracy of the instrument.

BASIC METER MOVEMENT 2.2

The action of the most commonly de meter is based on the fundamental principle
of the motor. The motor action is produced by the flow of a small current through
a moving coil, which is positioned in the
field of a permanent magnet. This basic

3 E
moving coil system is often called the
D' Arsonval galvanometer.
The D'Arsonval movement shown
in Fig. 2.1 employs a spring-loaded
coil through which the measured cur- N s
rent flows. The coil (rotor) is in a nearly s
homogeneous field of a permanent mag- +
net and moves in a rotary fashion. The Fig. 2.1 D'Arsonval principle
amount of rotation is proportional to the
amount of current flowing through the coil. A pointer attached to the coil indi-
cates the position of the coil on a scale calibrated in terms of current or voltage.
It responds to de current only, and bas an almost linear calibration. The magnetic
shunt that varies the field strength is used for calibration.

2.2.1 Permanent Magnetic Moving Coil Movement

In this instrument, we have a coil suspended in the magnetic field of a permanent
magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe. The coil is suspended so that it can rotate
freely in the magnetic field . When current flows in the coil, the developed
(electromagnetic) torque causes the coil to rotate. The electromagnetic (EM)
torque is counterbalanced by a mechanical torque of control springs attached
to the movable coil. The balance of torques, and therefore the angular position
of the movable coil is indicated by a pointer against a fixed reference called a
scale. The equation for the developed torque, derived from the basic law for
electromagnetic torque is
r:=BxAxlxN
where -r:= torque, Newton-meter
B = flux density in the air gap, Wb/m2
A = effective coil area (m2)
N = number of turns of wire of the coil
I= current in the movable coil (amperes)
The equation shows that the developed torque is proportional to the flux
density of the field in which the coil rotates, the current coil constants (area and
number of turns). Since both flux density and coil constants are fixed for a given
instrument, the developed torque is a direct indication of the current in the coil.
The pointer deflection can therefore be used to measure current.
Copyrgrted mater all
 Indicators and Display Devices 27

Example 2.1 (a) A moving coil instrumem has the following data.
Number ofturns= 100
Width ofthe coil = 20 mm
Depth ofthe coil= 30 mm
Flll.x density in the gap = 0.1 Wb!nl
Calculate the deflecting torque when carlJ'ing a cumelll of 10 mA. Also
calculate the deflection, if the control spring constant is 2 x 1~ N m/degree.

Solution The deflecting torque is given by

-rd= BxAxNxl
0.1 x30x J0-3 x20x 10- 3 x IOOx lOx 10-3
=
= 600 X 1000 X 0.1 X J0-9
= 600 X 1000 X JO-IO
= 60x l0-6Nm
The spring control provides a restoring torque, i.e. 't'c = K8,
where K is the spring constant
As deflecting torque = restoring torque
6x10-s
-r
c
=6 x 10-s Nm =K6
' :.8= 2xlo-<> = 3xl0 = 30o
Therefore, the deflection is 30°.

Example 2.1(b) A moving coil ins/rumen/ has the following da/0

No. ofturns = 100
Width ofthe coil = 20 mm
Depth ofthe coil= 30 mm
Flux density inlhegap = 0.1 Wb!m 1
The deflection torque = 30 x 1 (T6 Nm
Calculate the current through the moving coil.

Solution The deflecting torque is given by

'fd =BX AX NX1
Therefore 30 X 10-6 = 0. 1 X 30 X 10-3 X 20 X 10- 3 X I00 X 1

I= 30 X 10-<>
0.1 X 30 X J0- 3 X 20 X 10-3 X 100

1= 30 X I0-6. = S rnA
0.1 X 600 X 10-6 X 100

2.2.2 Practical PMMC Movement

The basic PMMC movement (also called a D' Arsonval movement) offers the
_largest magnet in a given space, in the form of a horse-shoe, and is used when
-a1 arge flux is required in the .air gap. The D' Arsonval movement is based on

Copyr g~led mater al

28 E.lectronic lnstrumentotion

the principle of a moving electromagnetic coil pivoted in a unifonn air gap

between the poles of a large fixed permanent magnet. This principle is illustrated
in Fig. 2.1 With the polarities as shown, there is a repelling force between like
poles, which exerts a torque on the pivoted coil. The torque is proportional to the
magnintde of current being measured. This D' Arsonval movement provides an
instrument with very low power consumption and low current required for full
scale deflection (fsd).
Figure 2.2 shows a permanent horse-shoe magnet with soft iron pole pieces
attached to it Between the pole pieces is a cylinder of soft iron which serves to
provide a uniform magnetic field in the air gap between the pole pieces and the
cylindrical core.
The coil is wound on a light metal frame and is mounted so that it can rotate
freely in the air gap. The pointer attached to the coil moves over a graduated
scale and indicates the angular deflection of the coil, which is proportional to the
current flowing through it.

Pointer

Magnet

Core

I
I

Fig. 2.2 Modern D'Arsonval movement

I
The Y-shaped member shown in Fig. 2.3 is the zero adjust control, and is
connected to the fixed end of the front control spring. An eccentric pin through
the instrument case engages theY-shaped member so that the zero position of the
pointer can be adjusted from outside. The calibrated force opposing the moving
torque is provided by two phosphor-bronze conductive springs, normally equal
in strength. (This also provides the necessary torque to bring the pointer back to
its original position after the measurement is over.)

Copyr ghled mater aj

 Indicators and Display Devices 29

--1-- Permanent
Magnet

Coil
~~~1+--1-+- Control
Spring

Fig. 2.3 Simplified diagram of a PMMC movement showing theY-member

The accuracy of the instrument can be m~ntained by keeping spring

performance constant. The entire moving system is statically balanced· at all
positions by three (counterweights) balance weight~. The pointer, springs, and
pivots are fixed to the coil assembly by means of pivot bases and the entire
movable coil element is supported by jewel bearings.
PMMC instmments are constructed to produce as little viscious damping as
possible and the required degree of damping is added.
In Fig. 2.4, Curve 2 is the underdamped case; the pointer attached to the
movable coil oscillates back and forth several times before coming to rest. As
in curve I, the overdamped case, the pointer tends to approach the steady state
position in a sluggish manner. In Curve 3; the critically damped case, the pointer
moves up to its steady state position without oscillations. Critical damping is the
ideal behaviour for a PMMC movement.
Curve
3 [Critical Damped]

Curve
2
[UnderdampedJ

fig. 2.4 Degree of damping

In practice, however, the instmment is usually slightly uoderdamped, causing

the pointer to overshoot a little before coming to rest.
The various methods of damping are as follows.

Copyngrted matcnal
 30 E{earonic Instrumentation

One Of the simplest methods is to attach an aluminium vane to the shaft of the
moving coil. As the coil rotates, the vane moves in an air chamber, the amount
of clearance between the chamber walls and the air vane effective IX controls the
degree of damping.
Some instruments use the principle of electromagnetic damping (Lenz's law), ·
where the movable coil is wound on a light aluminium frame. The rotation of the
coil in the magnetic field sets up a circulating current in the conduct.ive··frame,
causing a reiarding torque that opposes the motion of the coil.
A PMMC movement may also be damped by a resistor across the coil. When
the coil rotates in the magnetic field, a voltage is generated in the coil, which
circulates a current through it and the external resistance. Tills produces an
opposing or retarding torque that damps the motion. In any galvanometer, the
. value of. the external resistance that produces critical damping can be found.
This resistance is called critically damping external. resistance (CDRX). Most
voltmeter coils arc wound on metal fmmcs to provide Eh:ctru-Magm:tic damping. :
The metal frames constitute a short-circuit tum in a magnetic field. ·I
Ammeters coils, are however wound in a non-conductive frame, because the
coil turns are effectively shorted by the ammeter shunt. The coil itself provides
the EM damping.
If low frequency alternating current is applied to the movable coil, the ·
deflection of the pointer would be upscale for half the cycle of the input wave-
form and do\vnscale (in the opposite direction) for the next half. At power line
frequency (50 Hz) and above, the pointer cannot follow the rapid variations in
direction and quivers slightly around the zero mark, seeking the average value of
the ac (which equals zero). The PMMC instrument is therefore unsuitable for ac
measurements, !Jnless the current is rectified before reaching the coil.
Practical coil areas generally range from 0.5 - 2.5 cm2 •
The 1flux density
.
for modem instmments usually ranges from I 500 - 5000
Wb/cm-. ·
The power requirements ofD'Arsonval movements are quite small, typically
from 25 - 200 J.1W.
The accuracy ofthe instrument is generally of the order of2 - 5% of full scale
deflection.
The permanent magnet is made up of Alnico material.
Scale markings of basic de PMMC instruments are usually linearly spaced,
because the torque (and hence the poi'nter deflection) is directly proportional
to the coil current. The basic PMMC instrument is theretore a linear-reading
device . .
The advantages and disadvantages ofPMMC are as follows.
Advantages
I. They can be modified with the help of shunts and resistance to cover a
wide range of currents and voltages.
2. They display no hystersis.
3. Since operating fields of such insimmcnts arc very strong, they are not
significantly affected by stray magnetic fields.
Copyrghted Mater al
 Indicators and Display Devices 3 I

Disadvantages
I. Some errors may set in due to ageing of control springs and the permanent
magnet.
2. Friction due to jewel-pivot suspension.

TAUT BAND INSTRUMENT 2.3

The taut band movement utilises the same principle as the D' Arsonval movable
coil and fixed magnet. The primary difference between the two is the method of
mounting the movable coil.
The taut band movement has the advantage of eliminating the friction caused
by a jewel-pivot suspension. The meter has a coil mounted in a cmdle and
surrounded by a ring-bar magnet, as shown in Fig. 2.5. The cradle is secured
to a support bracket, which in turn is suspended between two steel taut bands
(ribbon), i.e. the movable coil is suspended by means of two taut torsion ribbons.
The ribbons are placed under sufficient tension to eliminate any sag. This tension
is provided by the tension spring, so that the instrument can be used in any
position.

Pofnter

Spring
I...::::::::;:;=:::;;::;;::::=;::;:::.J Taut
Band

"'-cradle

fig. 2.5 (a) Taut band instrument (Side view)

Scale

->n--+--1--- Cradle
-+-- Ring Bar Magnet
~---1'--+-- Coil Assembly

Fig..2.5 (b) Taut band instrument (Top view)

·The current to be measured is passed through the coil, thereby energising it.
The interaction of the magnetic fields deflects the cradle to one side and moves
the pointer along the scale.
The movement of the cradle exerts a twisting Ioree on the steel bands. These
twisted bands supply the torque to return the pointer to zero, when no current
~..opyng~red mater al
32 Elearonic lnsrrumenlotion

Hows. There are no bearings, and there is a constant level of sensitivity throughout
the range of movement.
Taut band instruments have a higher sensitivity than those using pivots and
jewels. In addition taut band instruments are relatively insensitive to shock and
temperature and are capable of withstanding greater overloads than PMMC or
other types.

ELECTRODYNAMOMETER 2.4
The D' Arsonval movement responds to the average or de value of the current
flowing through the coil.
If ac current is sought to be measured, the current would flow through the
coil with positive and negative half cycles, and hence the driving torque would
be positive in one direction and negative in the other. [f the frequency of the ac
is very low, the pointer would swing back and forth around the zero point on the
meter scale.
At higher frequencies, the inertia of the coil is so great that the pointer does
not follow the rapid variations of the driving torque and vibrates around the zero
mark.
Therefore, to measure ac on a D' Arsonval movement, a rectifier has to be
used to produce a unidirectional torque. This rectifier converts ac into de and
the rectified current def. ects the coil. Another method is to use the heating effect
of ac current to produce an indication of ils magnitude. This is done using an
clcctrodynamometer (EDM).
An clectrodynamometcr is often used in accurate voltmeter and ammeters not
only at power line frequency but also at low AF range. The electrodynamometer
can be used by slightly modifying the PMMC movement. It may also serve as a
tmnsfcr instrument, because it can be calibrated on de and then used directly on
ac thereby equating ac and de measurements of voltage and current directly.
A movable coil is used to provide the magnetic field in an clcctrodynamometer,
instead of a permanent ma!,'llCt, as in the D' Arsonval movement. This movable
coil rotates within the magnetic field. The EDM uses the current under
measurement to produce the required field flux. A fixed coil, split into two equal
halves provides lhe magnetic field in which the movable coil rotates, as shown in
Fig. 2.6 (a). The coil halves arc connected in series with the moving coil and are
fed by the current being measured. The fixed coils are spaced far apan to allow
passage for the shaft of the movable coil. The movable coil carries a pointer,
which is balanced by counterweights. Its rotation is controlled by springs, similar
to those in aD' Arsonval movement.
The complete assembly is surrounded by a laminated shield to protect the
instrument from stray magnetic field which may affect its operation.
Damping is provided by aluminium air vanes moving in a sector shaped
chamber. (TI1e entire movement is very solid and rigidly constructed in order to
keep its mechanical dimensions stable, and calibration intact.)

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 India/tors and Display Devices 33

The operation of the instrument may be understood from the expression for
the torque developed by a coil suspended in a magnetic field, i.e.
T=BxAxNxl
indicating that the torque which deflects the movable coil is directly proportional
to the coil constants (A and N), the strength of the magnetic field in which the coil
moves (B), and the current (I) flowing through the coil.
ln an EDM. the flux density (B) depends on the current through the fixed coil
and is therefore proportional to the deflection current (I). Since the coil constants
are fixed quantities for'any given meter, the developed torque becomes a function
of the current squared (l).
lf the EDM is used for de measurement, the square law can be noticed by the
crowding of the scale markings at low current values, progressively spreading at
higher current values.
For ac measurement, the develo~ed torque at any instant is proportional to
the instantaneous current squared (i ). The instantaneous values of;- are always
positive and torque pulsations are therefore produced.
The meter movement, however, cannot follow rapid variations of the torque
and take up a position in which the average torque is balanced by the torque of
the control springs. The meter deflection is therefore a function of the mean of
the squared current. The scale of the EDM is usually calibrated in terms of the
square root of the average current squared, and therefore reads the effective or
rms value of the ac.
The transfer properties of the EDM become apparent when we compare the
effective value of the aJt,e rnating current and the direct current in tenns of their
heating effect, or transfer of power.
· (If the EDM is calibrated with a direct current of 500 rnA and a mark is placed
on the scale to indicate this value, then that ac current which causes the pointer to
deflect to the same mark on the scale must have an nns value of 500 mA.)
The EDM has the disadvantage of high power consumption, due to its
construction. The current under measurement must not only pass through the
movable coil, but also provide the necessary field flux to get a sufficiently strong
magnetic field. Hence high mmf is required and the source must have a high
current and power.
In spite of this high power consumption the magnetic field is still weaker than
that of the D'Arsonval movement because there is no iron in the path, the entire
flux path consisting of air.
The EDM can be used to measure ac or de voltage or current, as shown in
Figs. 2.6 (a) and (b).
Typical values of EDM flux density are in the range of approximately 60
gauss as compared to the high flux densities (1000 - 4000 guass) of a good
D' Arsonval movement. The low flux density of the EDM affects the developed
torque and therefore the sensitivity of the instrument.
The addition of a series multiplier converts the basic EDM into a voltmeter
[Fig. 2.6 (b)] which can be used for ac and de measurements. The sensitivity of

Copynghted mater al
34 Elearonic Instrumentation

the EDM voltmeter is low, approximately I 0 - 30 n!V, compared .to 20 killV of

the D' Arsonval movement. It is however very accurate at power line frequency
and can be considered as a secondary standard.
The basic EDM shown in Fig. 2.6 (a) can be converted into an ammeter (even
without a shunt), because it is difficult to design a moving coil which can carry
more than approximately I 00 rnA.

' - - - -- - - - - - - - - To Load
Toac
Source - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Circuit

Fig. 2.6 (a) Basic EDM as an ammeter

To ac To Load
"i;So"-'u"'rc,e,___ _ _......L_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ___;;,Circuit

Fig. Z.li (b) Basic EDM as a voltmeter

The EDM movement is extensively used to measure power, both de and ac,
for any waveform of voltage and current.
An EDM used as a voltmeter or ammeter has the fixed coils and movable coil
connected in series, thereby reacting toP.
When an EDM is used as a single phase wattmeter, the coil arrangement is
different, as shown in Fig. 2. 7.
The fixed coils, shown in Fig. 2. 7 as separate elements, are connected in series
and carries the total line current. The movable coil located in the magnetic field
of the fixed coils is connected in series with a current-limiting resistor across the
power line. and carries a small current.
The deflection of the movable coil is proportional to the product of the
instantaneous value of current in the movable coil and the total line current. The
EDM wattmeter consumes some power for the maintenance of its magnetic field,
but this is usually small compared to the load power.

Copyr.9nted mater al
 Indicators and Display Devices 35

t
Input

/
1 Current Coil

Fig. 2.7 EDM as a wattmeter

MOVING IRON T YPE'S INSTRUMENT 2.5

. .
Moving iron instruments can be classified into attraction and repulsion types.
Repulsion type instruments are the most commonly used.
Iron vane ammeters and voltmeters depend for their operations on the repulsion
that exists between two like magnetic poles.
The movement consists of a stationary coil of many turns .which carries the
current to be measured. Two iron vanes are placed inside the coil. One vane is
rigidly attached to the coil frame, while the other is connected to the instrument
shaft which rotates freely. The current through the coil magnetises both the vanes
with the same polarity, regardless of the instantaneous direction of current The
two magnetised vanes experience a repelling force, and since only one vane can
move, its displacement is an indicator of the magnitude of the coil current. The
repelling force is proportional to the current squared, but the effects of frequency
and hysteresis tend to produce a pointer deflection that is not linear and that does
not have a perfect square Jaw relationship.
Figure 2.8 shows a radial vane repulsion instrument which is the most sensitive
of the moving iron mechanisms and has the most linear scale. One of these like
poles is created by the instrument coil and appears as ~ iron vane fixed in its
position within the coil, as shown in Fig. 2.8. The other !ike pole is induced on
the movable iron piece or vane, which is suspended in the induction field of the
coil and to which the needle of the instrument is attached. Since the instrument
is used on ac, the magnetic polarity of the coil changes with every half cycle and
induces a corresponding amount of repulsion of the movable vane against the
spring tension. The deflection of the instrument pointer is therefore always in the
same direction, since there is always repulsion between the like poles of the fixed
and the movable vane, even though the current in the inducing coil alternates.
The deflection of the pointer thus produced is effectively proportional to the
actual current through the instrument. It can therefore be calibrated directly in
amperes and volts.
The calibrations of a given instrument will however only be accurate for the
ac frequency for which it is designed, because the impedance will be different at
a new frequency.

Copynghted mater al
l6 Electronic lnstrumentDtion

Control - - --
Spring

Field
Magnetic Coil
Poles Induced ----
by Field Flux

Moving Fixed
Vane Vane

Fig. 2.8 Repulsion type AC meter (Radial vane type)

The moving coil or repulsion type of instrument is usually calibrated to read

the effective value of amperes and volts, and is used primarily for rugged and
inexpensive meters.
The iron vane or radial type is forced to tum witl1in the fixed current carrying
coil by the repulsion between like poles. The aluminium vanes, attached to the
lower end of the pointer, acts as a damping vane, in its close fitting chamber, to
bring the pointer quickly to rest.

CONCENTRIC VANE REPULSION TYPE (MOVING IRON TYPE)

INSTRUMENT 2.6
A variation of the radial vane instrument is the concentric vane repulsion
movement. The instrument has two concentric vanes.
One vane is rigidly attached to the coil frame while the other can rotate
coaxially inside the stationary vane, as shown in Fig. 2.9. Both vanes are
magnetised by the current in the coil to the same polarity, causing the vanes to
slip laterally under repulsion. Because the moving vane is attached to a pivoted
shaft, this repulsion results in a rotational force that is a function of the current in
the coil. As in other mechanisms the final pointer position is a measure of the coil
I
current. Since this movement, like all iron vane instruments, does not distinguish
polarity, the concentric vane may be used on de and ac, but it is most commonly
used for the latter. I
Lopyrg~led materll
 Indicators and Display Devices 17

Pointer
Control Spring - - -

Fixed Vane
Movable Vane

fig. 2.9 Concentric iron vane (Repulsion type)

Damping is obtain ed by a light aluminium damping vane, rotating with small

clearance in a closed air chamber. When used on ac, the actual operating torque
is pulsating and this may cause vibration of the pointer. Rigid (trussed) pointer
construction effectively eliminates such vibration and prevents bending of the
pointer on heavy overloads. The concentric vane moving iron instrument is only
moderately sensitive and has square law scale characteristics. The accuracy -of
the instrument is limited by several factors: (i) the magnetisation curve of the
iron vane is non-linear. (ii) ai low current values, the peak to peak of the ac
produces a greater displacement per unit current than the average value, resulting
in an ac reading that may be appreciably higher than the equivalent de reading at
the lower end of the scale. Similarly, at the higher end of the scale, the knee of
the magnetisation curve is approached and the peak value of the ac produces less
deflection per unit current than the average value, so that the ac reading is lower
than the equivalent de value.
(Hysteresis in iron and eddy currents in the vanes and other metal parts of the
instrument further affect the accuracy of the reading.) The flux density is very
small even at .full sca le values of current, so that the instrument has a low current
sensitivity. There are no current carrying parts in the moving system, hence the
iron vane meter is extremely rugged and reliable. It is not easily damaged even
under severe overload conditions.

Copynghted mater al
38 Electronic lnstromentation

Adding a suitable multiplier converts the iron vane movement into a voltmeter;
adding a shunt produces different current ranges. When an iron vane movement is
used as an ac voltmeter, the frequency increases the impedance of the instrument
and therefore a lower reading is obtained for a given applied voltage. An iron
vane voltmeter should therefore always be calibrated at the frequency at which it
is to be used. The usual commercial instrument may be used within its accuracy
tolerance from 25-125 Hz.

DIGITAL DISPLAY SYSTEM AND INDICATORS 2.7

The rapid growth of electronic handling of numerical data has bought with it a
great demand for simple systems to display the data in a readily understandable
form. Display devices provide a visual display of numbers, letters, and symbols
in response to electrical input, and serve as constituents of an electronic display
system.

CLASSIFICATION OF DISPLAYS 2.8

Commonly used displays in the digital electronic field are as follows.
I. Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
2. Light Emitting Diode (LED)
3. Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
4. Gas discharge plasma displays (Cold cathode displays or Nixies)
5. Electro-Luminescent (EL) displays
6. Incandescent display
7. ElectroPhoretic Image Displays (EPID)
8. Liquid Vapour Display (LVD)
Tn general, displays arc classified in a number of ways, as follows.
I. On methods of conversion of electrical' data into visible light
(a) Active displays
(Light emitters- Incandescent, i.e. due to temperature, luminescence,
i.e. due to non-thermal means or physio-thermal, and gas discharge-
glow oflight around the cathode.)
- CRTs, Gas discharge plasma, LEOs, etc.
(b) Passive displays
Light controllers, LCDs, EPlDs, etc.
2. On the applications
(a) Analog displays - Bar graph displays (CRT)
(b) Digital displays - Nixies, Alphanumeric, LEOs, etc.
3. According to the display size and physical dimensions
(a) Symbolic displays -Alphanumeric, Nixie tubes, LEOs, etc.
(b) Console displays - CRTs, LEOs, etc.
(c) Large screen dis.p lay- Enlarged projection system
4. According to the display format
(a) Direct view type (Flat panel planar) - Segmental, dotrnatrix- CRTs

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1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 MEASUREMENTS

Measurements are made or measurement systems are set up for one or more of
the following functions:
I. To monitor processes and operations
2. To control processes and operations
3. To carry out some analysis
These functions are elaborated now.

1.1.1 Monitorln,g
Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas and electricity meters only
indicate certain quantities. Their readings do not perform any control function
in the normal sense. 1bese measurements are made for monitoring purposes only.

1.1.2 Control
The thermostat in a refrigerator or geyser determines the temperature of the
relevant environment and accordingly switches off or on the cooling or heating
mechanism to keep the temperature constant, i.e. to control the temperature. A
single system sometimes may require many controls. For example, an aircraft
needs controls from altimeters, gyroscopes, angle-of-attack sensors, thermo-
couples, accelerometers, etc.
Controlling a variable is rather an involved process and is therefore a subject
of study by itself. To get an idea of the steps involved, we will consider elements
of control in Chapter 15.

1.13 Analysis
Measurements are also made to
I. test the validity of predictions from theories,
2. build empiric.al models, i.e. relationships between parameters and
quantities associated with a problem, and
3. characterize materials, devices and components.
In general, these requirements may be called analysis.
1

Copynghtod mater at
2 INTROOucnON TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

1.2 INSTRUMENTS

Measurements are made with the help of instruments. Instruments, in general,

q;msist. of a. few. elements. But before we go in!O the contents of a generalized
instrument, let us defme what is meant by an instrument.
An instrument may be defined as a device or a system which is designed
in such a way that it maintains a functional relationship between a p:rescribed
property of a substance and a physical variable, and communicates this
relationship to a human observer by some ways and means. For example, a
mercury-in-glass thermometer is an instrument, because it maintains a linear
relationship between thermal expansion of mercury (prescribed property) and
temperature (physical variable), and coiiDJlunicates this relationship to us through
a graduated scale.
A generalized instrument consists of (i) a transducer, (ii) a signal co nditioner
and transmitter, and (iii) a display/recording device (Fig. 1.1 ).

Trans-
Signal
condi-
Signal
lr3nS-
Display/
Recor-
~
ducer tioning mitter ding -
unit device -
Human
observer
Fig. 1.1 A generalized instrument.

1.2.1 T ransducer
A transducer senses the physical variable to be measured (i.e. measurand) and
converts it to a suitable signal, preferably an electrical one.
One point has to be noted in this context. All transducers extract some
energy from th.e measured medium which implies that the measurand is always
disturbed by the measurement system. Therefore, a perfect measurement is
theoretically impossible.
We will consider transducers in general in Chapter 5 and also study a few
representative transducers for measurement of a few non-electrical quantities in
Chapters 6-10.

1.2.2 Signal Condition er and Transmitter

The signal generated by the transducer may need to be amplified, attenuated,
integrated, differentiated, modulated, convened to a digital signal and so on.
The signal conditioner performs one or more such tasks. Since electrical signals
have distinct advantages in this respect, more so with the development of
electronics, a signal con.ditioner is now basically an electronic gadget. We will,
however, discuss only the basics of signal conditioning in Chapters 11- 13.
Signal transmitters are necessary for remote measurements. Remote
measurements and control, called telemetry, constitute a highly-developed subject.
We will exclude this topic from our consideration.
 INTRODUcnON 3

1.2.3 Display/Recording Device

The purpose of this element of an instrument is obvious-to communicate the
information about the measurand to the hwnan observer or to present it in an
intelligible form. This aspect of instrum'entation is discussed in Chapter 14.
We will study the subject element·wise. But before 4oing that.we need to
study the ·static (Olapter 2) and dynamic.(Chapter 4) characteristics of instrumentS,
and estimation of errors (Chapter 3), because these parameters determine lhe
perfonnance of an instrumentation system.

Copyrgrtod matecal
2

STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
INSTRUMENTS

By static characteristics we mean attributes associated with static measurements

or measurement of quantities which are constant or vary very slowly with time.
For example, the measurement of emf of a cell and that of resistance of a
resistor at constant temperature are both static measurements.
Static characteristics of instruments can broadly be divided into two catego-
ries-desirable and undesirable-each consisting of three characteristics as shown
in Fig. 2.1.
Static characteristics

Desirable ' ill Undesirable

Dead rone Static CITOr

Fig. l .J Static characteristics tree.

The nature of these characteristics is discussed below.

2.1 ACCURACY

Accuracy determines the closeness of an instrument reading to the true value of/
the measurand. Suppose, a known voltage of 200 V is being measured by a
voltmeter and the successive readings are 204, 205, 203, 203 and 205 volts. So,
the accuracy is about 2.5%. Here, though the repeatability of readings is not too
bad, the accuracy is low because the instrument may be having a large calibration
error. Hence, the accuracy can be improved upon by better calibration of the
instrument.

2.1.1 Precision
Precision is another term which is often used in the same connotation as the
accuracy. But in reality precision is different from accuracy. In the above example,
4

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 STATIC CHARACTER.ISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS s
the reading can be expressed as 204 :1: 1 V, which means precision is a little less
than 0.5% in this case.
Precision is, therefore, related to the repeatability of the instrument reading
and is a characteristic of the insttuinent itself. To improve the precision of an
insttuinent, its design and construction have to be improved upon.
Symbolically, therefore, if a denotes accuracy, p the precision and c the
calibration error, then a = p + c.
Precision of a meaSurement also depends on what is called the number of
significant figures. An example will perhaps make the point clear. Suppose the
resistance of a conductor is being measured by an analogue ohnuneter. The
ohmmeter indicates the true value, but the observer is unable to read the exact
value because of lack of graduation beyond a certain number of decimals. Thus,
though the instrument is showing the correct value, the precision of the
measurement depends upon the number of significant figures to which the ob-
server can read the value. And in an involved measurement where many meas-
urands are combined, the number of sigilificant figures plays a crucial role in
determining the precision of the ultimate measurement. We discuss below this
aspect in somewhat greater detail.

2.1.2 Significant Figures

Significant figures convey information regarding the magnitude o( precision of
a quantity. For example, if a measurement reports that the line voltage is 220 V,
it means that the line voltage is closer to 220 V than it is to 219 V or 221 V.
Alternatively, if the reported value is 220.0 V, it means that the value is closer
to 220.0 V than it is to 219.9 V or 220.1 V. Talking in terms of significant
figures, it is 3 in the former case and 4 in the latter case.
Significant figures play an important role in figuring out the final value in
an involved measurement. Suppose, four resistors of values 2j!.4, 4.25, 56.605
and 0.76 ohms are connected·in series.
28.4
4 .25
56.605
0.76
90.015
What should we take as the value for the total resistance? The general
tendency is to report the result obtained by a straightforward addition, i.e. 90.015
ohms. But a close look reveals that this result conveys a wrong information
regarding the precision of the measurement. If we signify the doubtful digits by
italics, it will be evident from the calculation shown above that the value when
reported as 90.0 ohms would convey the right information regarding its precision.
The simple rules for arriving at such figures in mathematical manipulation of
data are now enumerated.
Addition an d subtraction. After performing the operation, write the result
rounded to the same number of decimal places as the least accurate figure.

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6 IN"m.ODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CON"m.OL

MultipUc:ation and division. After performing the operation, the result is

rounded to the same number of significant figures as the least accurate number.

Example 2.1 Four capacitoxs of values 45.1, 3.22, 89.309 and 0.48 JlF are
connected in parallel. Fimd the value of the equivalent capacitor to the appropriate
number of significant figures.

Solutio11 The straightforward addition yields 138.109 J.LF. Rounding it off to

the same number of decimal places as the least accurate figure, namely 45.1 J.LF,
the acceptable value is 138.1 J.LF.
Example 2.2 A current of 3.12 A is flowing through a resistor of 53.635 Q .
Find the value of the voltage drop across the resistor to the appropriate number
of significant figures.

Sollltio11 The straightforward mUltiplication yields 167.3412 V. Rlilunding it

off to three significant figures-the same as that of 3.12-the value to be reponed
is 167 V.

2.2 SENSITIVITY

Sensitivity is defmed as the absolute ratio of the increment of the output signal
(or response) to that of the input signal (or measurand). Stated mathematically,
S : !iq.J!iq1 where q1 and q0 are the input and output quantities respectively.
Suppose in a mercury-in-glass thermometer the meniscus moves by I em
when the temperature changes by 1o•c. The sensitivity of the thennometer is
therefore 1 mmf'C.
If the functional relationship between the input quantity and the output
reading of an instrument is linear, we call it a linear instrument For example,
a mercury-in-glass thermometer is a linear instrument while a simple thennoc:ou-
ple arrangement for measuring temperature is nonlinear.
The sensitivity of a linear instrument is constant while that of a nonlinear
one varies from one range to another as will be evident from Fig. 2.2 .

.,;. linear characteristics :; Nonlinear

&.
:;
g. characteristics
0 0" l!.q- t>q•
._.JAq. I

llq,

In;put q1 Input q1

(a) (b)
Fl.g. 2.2 Sensitivity: (a) linear instrument where the sensitivity is constant over the
entire range; (b) nonlinear instrument where sensitivity varies from one range
to another.
 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 7

2.2.1 Unearlty and Nonlinearity

A perfectly linear instnunent is impossible to realize, because almost all the so-
called linear instruments show some deviation from linearity. This deviation
may be one of the following three forms (Fig. 2.3). ·
q

q, q, q,
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 2.3 Deviation from linearity: (a) oscillation with fiXed amplitude; (b) oscillation
with varying amplitude; (c) combined-type osciUation arowxl the best-fit straight
line.

1. The actual output of the instrument may oscillate with a constant amplitude
around the best-fit straight line. In this case, the nonlinearity is expressed
in terms of the amplitude (or maximum deviation). The amplitude is
calculated as the :1: of the full scale deflection (FSD).
2. The actual output of the instrument may oscillate around the best-fit
straight line, but the amplitude of oscillation varies with the input value.
Here, the nonlinearity is expressed as a function of the input value.
Actually, the slopes of lines connecting positive and negative deviations
are determined and the one with a higher deviation from the best-fit line
is used to express the per cent nonlinearity with respect to the input
value.
3. The actual output may oscillate with a fiXed amplitude around the best-
fit straight line over a certain range and then the amplitude may become
a function of the input over the rest. In that case, two computations arc
mad~ne for the fiXed amplitude part, expressed as :!:% of the FSD,
and another for the varying amplitude part, expressed as :!:% of the input
value. Nonlinearity is expressed in terms of the higher value.

Example 2.3 The output of a temperature transducer is recorded over its full-
scale range of 25°C as shown below:

CAlibration
temperature ( 0 C) 0.0 5.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0
Output
reading ( 0 C) 0.0 5.0 9.8 14.8 19.9 25.0
Determine
(a) the static sensitivity of the device, and
(b) the maximum nonlinearity of the device.

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8 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Solution Let
q; be the calibration temperature in oc
q. be the output reading in oc
S be the sensitivity = luj/ luj;
D be the deviation from the calibration temperature
61 be the nonlinearity = 100D/FSD = 4D, since FSD = 25• c
Then, we have

q; /uj; q. luJ. s D 61
c·q c•q c·q c·q c•q (%)
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
5.0 5.0 5.0 5.0 1.0 0.0 0.0
10.0 5.0 9.8 4.8 0.96 -0.2 0.8
15.0 5.0 14.8 5.0 1.0 - 0.2 0.8
20.0 5.0 19.9 5.1 1.02 -0.1 0.4
25.0 5.0 25.0 5.1 1.02 0.0 0.0
Thus s = 0.96 and maximum nonlinearity a 0.8%.

2.3 REPRODUCIDILITY

Reproducibility is defmed as the degree of closeness with which a panicular

reading of an instrumen~ taken at different times, repeats itself. Reproducibil-
ity, therefore, determines the precision of an instrument. The related undesirable
characteristic is drift.

2.4 DRIFT

Drift d~notes the change in the indicated reading of an instrument over time
when the value of the measurand remains constant. If there is no drift, the re-
producibility is 100%.
Several causes contribute to the dri~. Stray electromagnetic fields,
mechanical vibrations, changes in superincumbent temperature or pressure, Joule
heating of the components of the instrumen~ etc., are some of the causes. ln the
case of suspended coil PMMC (permanent magnet moving coil) instruments, the
release of internal strain of the suspension wire causes drift of the zero setting.

2.5 DEAD ZONE

Three phenomena- hysteresis, threshold and resolutio~ontribute to the

dead zone.

2.5.1 Hysteresis
Not all the energy put into a system while loading is recoverable upon unload-

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 9

ing. For example, a spring balance may show one set of readings when the
weight is increased in steps and another set of readings when the weight is de·
creased in steps. As a result, the plot of the pointer reading vs. weight may have
the appearance of Fig. 2.4.

q,

q,
Fig. 2.4 Hysteresis effects shown in an exaggerated way.

The loading and unloading curves do not coincide because of consumption

of some energy by the internal friction of the solid and external sliding friction
between the components of the instrument. This phenomenon, which is akin to
the one experienced during magnetizing and demagnetizing of a magnetic
material, is called hysteresis.

2.5.2 Threshold
Suppose an instrument is in its zero position, i.e. there is no input to it. If now
an input is gradually applied to it, the instrument will require some minimum
value of input before it shows any output (Fig. 2.5). This minimum input which
is necessary to activate an instrument to produce an output is termed its threshold.
q,

~; q,
Threshold
Fig. 2.5 Threshold effect.

2.5.3 Resolution
Over and above the threshold input, an instrument needs a minimum increment
in input to produce a perceptible output. This minimum necessary increment is
called the resolution of the instrument. Thus, resolution, which denotes the
smallest measurable change in input, is similar to sliding friction, while threshold
signifies the smallest initial input resembling the static friction.

Example 2.4 An analogue ammeter has a linear scale of 50 divisions. Its full-
scale reading is I 0 A and half a scale division can be read. What is the resolution
of the instrument? ·

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10 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Solution I scale division 10/50 A= 0.2 A. Thus, resolution= 1/2 scale division
= 0.2/2A = 0.1 A.

Example 2.5 The dead zone in a pyrometer is 0.125% of the span. The
instrument is calibrated from goo•c to 1800°C. What temperature change must
occur before it can be detected?

Solution The span is (1800 - 800) = Jooo•c. 0.125% of Jooo•c is 1.2s•c.

!Hence, no change in temperature below 1.25°C can be detected.

2.6 STATIC ERRORS

The tree in Fig. 2.6 depicts the classification of errors.

Human Random Systcm&tic

Gross error avat1ona nstrument nvuon

Fig. 2.6 The error tree.

2.7 HUMAN ERRORS

One may see from the tree that human errors can be subdivided into three
classes-gross errors, misuse and vbservational errors. We explain them below.

2.7.1 Gross Errors

Gross errors are basically human mistakes in reading or recording values. Sup-
pose an instrument shows a value of 47.0 while the observer reads it as 42.0,
or, even if he reads the correct value, records it as 41.0. Such errors can be
eliminated by automation, or minimized by taking multiple readings of the same
value at different times and by different observers.

2.7.2 Misuse
A casual approach on the pan of the operator is the cause of this error. For ex-
ample, in electrical measurements, if the leads are not connected firmly, or an
ohmic contactt is not established, or the initial adjustment such as zero-checking

t1f materials contacted are metals, it is easy to establish an ohmic contact between them
through a proper cleaning of their surfaces. But if the contact is between a metal and a
semiconductor, it is necessary tOo consider their Fermi levels, or e·lse a rectifying contact
may result. For a discussion on this, see Solid State Electronic Devices, 4th ed., by
B.G. Streetman, Prentice-Hall of India (1995), pp. 187- 189.

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 11

is not done properly, or fo.r a microvolt order measurement proper care is not
taken to avoid thenno emfs arising out of junctions of dissimilar metals, etc.
errors will creep in. Alertness and perception on the part of the operator are the
only remedies for such errors.

2. 7.3 Observatiolllal Errors

As distinct from gross errors or misuse, observational errors are caused by the
observer's lack of knowledge in measurement methods. Parallax is one such
error. There may be many more sources of observational errors from set-ups
which depend on the so-called eye estimation or human reflexes. One such
example is the measurement of time period of a pendulum by a stopwatch. Here
the precision of the measurement depends on the reflexes of the observer who
clicks the stopwatch 'on' or 'off' by noting the position of the bob of the
pendulum visually.

2.8 SYSTEMATIC ERRORS

As shown in Fig. 2.6, this error may have two possible origins-instrumental
and environmental.

2.8.1 Instrumental
The instrumental error, in turn, may originate from two different causes-inherent
shortcomings and loading effects.

/11here11t shorlcomillgs
As the name implies, this error creeps in owing to malfunctioning of the com-
ponents of instruments caused by ageing etc. For example, the spring of a galva-
nometer may become weak, thus changing its calibration. Therefore, to avoid
this error, the calibration of the instrument should be checked from time to time.

Loadi11g effects .
We have already mentioned that any measurement involves extraction of some
energy, however small, from the measured medium changing thereby the value
of the measurand from its pristine undisturbed state. This makes perfect
measurement theoretically impossible.
This phenomenon of extraction of energy by a measurement system from
the measured medium is known as the loading effect. We will now consider this
effect from the standpoint of electrical measurements.
Parallel or shunt connection: voltage measurement. Suppose the voltage
across the terminals A and B of the circuit in Fig. 2.7 is being measured in the
usual way. No sooner is the voltmeter connected to the terminals A and B, then
the circuit is changed and the value of £ 0 is altered. The following analysis will
make the point clear.
If z.is the true impedance between A and B, ZL is the impedance of the

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12 INTRODOCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

-[F~!··f~
Z, i,
+
E, E, Z,

R, (a)
B
(b)
•
Fig. 2.7 Loading effect in voltllge measurement (a) schematic arrangement; (lb) Thcvenin
equivalent.

loading circuit (here, the voltmeter), E0 is the true voltage between A and B, and
EL is the voltage seen by the loading circuit, their values may be derived as
follows:

Th.erefore,

Thus,
Eo
EL = ---":::-
1+ ~ (2.1)
ZL
For the sake of simplicity, we made a de analysis, but it holds true for ac
as well. In fact, the voltage is modified both in magnitude and phase in the case
of ac. The point will be: clear from Example 2.9. In any case, it is clear from
this analysis that the instrument will give true result if ZL ~ oo and a Teasonably
accurate one if ZL > Z0 •
Series connection: curr ent measurement.. If AB in Fig. 2.8 is shorted and i 0
is the current flowing through the circuit, then i 0 a E0 /Z0 • When the current in
Z, A
~----;:t-----=->
E. T~___----!.,._::r-z,~
B
Fig. ,2.8 Loading effect in current measurement.

the circuit is measurred by an ammeter of impedance ZL, the current changes

from i 0 to iL. Now,
jo
= ----'"-::-- (2.2)
1+ ~
Zo

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 13

Therefore, to minimize the measurement error, i.e. to make ;, ~ i 0 , it is neces-

sary thatz. z,.
»
Example 2.6 What is the value of current in R in Fig. 2.9 (a)? If an ammeter
of resistance 2 ldl is used to measure the current, what will it read? If an
accuracy of 99% is desired, what should the ammeter resistance be?

R Stcn Stcn
~ £, s s
-
0
-
.,.,

(a) (b)
R, 5 ten

~o~
(c)
Fig. 2.9 Example 2.6.
Solution Successive Thevenin equivalents of the circuit are shown in
Figs. 2.9(b) and (c). From·these we fmd
10
E. ; X 10 ; 5V
10 + 10
10 10
R = 10ldlll10ldl= X = 5ldl
I 10 + J0
Similarly, E. = 2.5 V,
Actual value of the current through R is
E 2-5
I = mA =-rnA= 100J.1A
• R. + 5 + 15 25
The ammeter will read
25
I, = E mA = · mA = 92.6J.lA
R0 + 5 + 15 + 2 27
For 99% accuracy,

!J.. = - - -1:....,;-- - = 0.99

I. 1 + _ _;_
R.,__
R0 + 5 + 15
I
~ -----::,...--- = 0.99
1+ R,
25 X lo-1
~ 1- R, ;: I - 0.01
25 X loJ
~ R, ; 25 x 1oJ x o.o1 = 250 n

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14 INTRODUcnON TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Example 2.7 What is the true value of the voltage across the terminals A and
B (Fig. 2.10)? What would a voltmeter of 20 k.OIV sensitivity read on the
SO V and 10 V ranges?
500 k11
r-"""NV-~--A
. 20V S
8 _B
.___ _.._
"'
Fig. 2.10 Example 2.7.

Solwtion Current in the circuit, I= 20/(500 + 500) rnA.= 0.02 mA. Therefore,
£ 0 = 0.02 x w-3 x 500 x lol V = 10 V. But the voltmeter offers different load
resistances in its different ranges.
In the SOY range: The load resistance, RL = 20 x 1ol x 50 0 = 10 6 0 . Therefore,
10
= s.ov
1 '1-
250 X Jol
6
10
In the 10 v range: RL = 20 X I~ X 10 n=2 X lOS n. So,
10
EL = - - - - - . . . P< 4.4 v
250 X 1ol
1 :+-
2 X !OS
Note the magnitude of the error introduced through a wrong setting of the range
of the instrument.

Example 2.8 What percentage error may be expected in measuring the voltage
by the arrangement shown in Fig. 2.ll(a)?

1000 1000 R; 1000

~~~~~EI~:J~
soo 100 0 1000
(a) K. (b)

8§(c)
Fig. 2.11 Example 2.8.

Solution Computing the Thevenin equivalent of the first stage on the left, we
get

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 15

R:, = 100 X {50 + 50) = 50 0

100 +50+ 50

E'0 = E X 50 = El v
100 + 50 + 50 4
Thus the effective circuit becomes that shown in Fig. 2.1l{b). The Thevenin
equivalent of this circuit is

R;- (R; + 100}{100 + 50} 8

75
O
R:, + 100 + 50 + 100

E~ - E' X 50 = Et X 50 = Et v
0
R:, + 100 + 50 + 100 4 300 24

The effective circuit now looks lilce Fig. 2.1 l{c). The voltllge developed across
the 1 kO resistance of the measuring insttument is

E = E; X 1000 = E" X 1000 = 0.9302 E"

M R; X 1000 ° 1075 °
Therefore, the % error in measurement is

Eo-EM
E"
X 100 - ( 1 - ~~) X 100 = {1 - 0.9302) X 100
0

=6.98
Example 2.9 An oscilloscope having an input resistance of 1 Mn shunted by
a 50 pF capacitor is connected across a circuit having an effective resistance of
10 kO {Fig. 2.12). If the open circuit vollllge has 1.0 V peak for a sine wave,
what voltage will the oscilloscope indicate when the frequency is (i) 100 kHz
and (ii) 1 MHz?

8
Fig. 1.12 Example 2.9.

SollltiD11 {i) 100 kHz setting: The relevant quantities expressed by usual sym·
bols are:

X = _1_ = 1 = 10S 0
c 2rrjC 27r X lOS X 50 X 10-Jl 7r

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16· INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

z = RL ( -)"XC ) =
L RL- jXc
I - jtr
Eo I ]0
EL =
I+~
ZL
=
I+ jtr
10
=
I + (~J
= I -I.0j0.314
98
_ . _ •
- 0.91 - J0.286 - 0.9:>4 V L - 17.4
o

(ii) I MHz setting: Here,

Xc=-n,
to•
Tr

EL = = I - j~ = 0.092 - j0.289 = 0.303 V L -72.3°

I + jtr I + tr
Note: In the second case, not ·only is the measured ·voltage much lower than
the actual value, but also the phase change is substantial.
In this context of loading a measuring medium by a measuring instrument,
we now discuss an important relevant theorem, called the maxim11m power
transfer theorem.

2.8.2 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

This theorem state~ that for maximum power transfer to the load, the Tbevenin-
equivalent resistance R~ of the circuit shouid be equal to the load resistance RL.
Proof' The power transferred to the load,
p = EJ, = E;RL
.. R. (R R .)2 • .(2.3)
L . o +. L
..
(2.4)
..
For maximum power transfer,

Therefore,
2R1, ) =O
R, + RL
or
(2.5)
iri· the case of ac circuits, if z. = impedance of the source = R0 + jX., z. • =
complex conjugate of Z0 and ZL = impedance of the load = RL + jXL> it can be
shown that for maximum power transfer,
ZL = z.• = R 0 - jX0 (2.6)

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 17

Four points have to be noted-in this context:

I. It is obvious that as RL 4 0, P 4 0 [see Eq. (2.3)], and that as RL 4
oo, P 4 0 [see Eq. (2.4)].

2. P,.,.., ~ E/14R0 •
3. Impedance matching is not critical because

(2.7)

Hence, for a 100/o deviation, i.e. RLIR. = 1.1, or, 0.9, PIP..... ,= I, which
me-ans that power transfer is almost 100% for this impedance mismatch.
For a 20% deviation, the corresponding figure is nearly 99% and even
for a I 000/o deviation, the power transfer is as much as 89%. Figure 2.13
offers a visual estimation of the amount of power transfer vis-a-vis the
impedance mismatch asjudged from the present theorem.

.. .. .....
....... .
..... 1\..
. . ,.,..
• 0 • • " .
.
•

. . ..... .... ... ... ....

... ....
... ... .......
...
· · · ···· ~
·· · · · ·
..... ....
. ...... . . .......
O.ot 0.1 10 100
- RLIR.
Fig. 2.13 Impedance marching charac!erisrics.

4. At RL ~ R0 the current in the circuit, I - EJ 2R0 • Therefore, the power

absorbed by the load is

But the total available power is

R = / 2 (2R ) = E:
T o 2R
0

Thus, the efficiency at the maximum power transfer condition

I
- ~ 50%.
2

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18 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

Enmple 2.10 A source having an open circuit voltage of 20 V and an output

impedance of 0.5 + jl n is connected through a transmission network of
impedance 1.5 + j4 n. What should be the load impedance so that the maximum
power will be delivered to it? Calculate the maximum deliverable power.

z.
Solution ZSOUI« = 0.5 + jl n. Z.,.., = 1.5 + j4 n. Therefore, = Zsou""' + z.,...
= 2 + j5 n. Hence, for maximum power transfer, Z1oad = * c 2 - j5 n. z.
E. = 20 V. So, the transferred power= 202/(4 x 2) W = 50 W.

Example 2.11 In a series circuit, if E., R. and RL are the source voltage,
source resistance and load resistance respectively, and P and P.... are power
transferred to the load and the maximum power that can be transferred to the
load respectively, find the value of the ratio PIPnw in per cent when the source
resistance is 50% of the load resistance.

Solution Given RJR. 3

2. Hence, from Eq. (2.7), we have
•
p
= 4 X 2 = ! = 88.9%
pmu (I + 2) 2 9

Example 2.12 A human nerve cell has an open circuit voltage of 80 mV and
it can deliver a current of 5 nA through a 6 Mil load. What is the maximum
power available from the cell?

Solution Given E.= 80 mV, h = 5 nA and RL = 6 Mn. Now,

E. = ft(R. + RJ,
which gives
3
R0 = E. - R = 80 x 10- - 6 x 106 n= IOMn
JL L 5 X 10-9

Therefore, the maximum available power

(80 X JQ-))l
P.max = = 0.16nW
4 X JQ X 106

2.8.3 Environmental
Environmental factors, such as atmospheric pressure, temperature and humidity
affect many measurements changing certain parameters. Consider the simple
length measurement with the help of a scale. Plastic scales, now very common,
change their lengths in humid conditions, while metal scales, although enjoying
immunity from humidity, are affected by a change in temperature. Vibratioll5
caused by running machinery or vehicles play havoc in measurements involving
highly sensitive instruments such as electron microscopes. A lot of electromagnetic
instruments are affected by stray electromagnetic fields.
1
The remedy from such factors is, of course, controlling temperature and
humidity, using vibration-free mountings for instruments, and shielding

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 STATIC CHARACTEIUSTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 19

electromagnetic fields. Theoretical conections may be made for factors, such as

atmospheric pressure, gravity, etc., which cannot be controlled.

2.9 RANDOM ERRORS

Even if all sources of error, as nanated above, are taken care of, some fluctuation
in the measured value remains. This fluctuation is caused by many random
happenings such as cosmic ray showers, changes in geomagnetism, thunder-
cloud. activities, minor earth tremors, etc. The effect of such disturbances which
we are not aware- of, are grouped together and are termed random (or residual)
errors. These errors can be estimated from a statistical treatment of data.
In the next chapter, we will consider the estimation of static errors in meas·
urement.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

2.1 What are the different errors encountered in measurements? Explain with
suitable examples.
[ET-6 Wl993]
2.2 Define and explain briefly the static performance parameters of instruments.
[ET-23 Wl993]
2.3 Explain, giving an example, as to why the input effective resistance of the
measuring instrument should be very high like that of a potentiometer or
a voltage·follower if we want to measure temperature by a thermocouple
accurately.
[ET-23 Sl994]
2.4 What are the various sources of gross, systematic and random errors in a
process of measurement? How are these errors minimized?
[ET· 6 Wl994]
2.5 What do you understand by the term 'instrument errors'?
(ET-23 Wl994]
2.6 What are the various sources of systematic errors? How do these errors
influence the accuracy of measurements?
[ET-6 Sl995]
2.7 Discuss the three major categories of errors usually encountered during
measurement.
[ET-6 Sl996]
2.8 Defme the term 'sensitivity' of an instrument.
[ET-6 Sl996]
2.9 The true value of a voltage is 100 V. The values indicated by a measuring
instrument are 104, 103, 105, 103 and 105 volts. Find the accuracy of the
measurement and the precision of the instrument.
[UoK 1993]

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20 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

2.10 A voltmeter bas a uniform scale with I 00 divisions. The full-scale reading
is 5 V and !/5th of a division can be read. What is the resolution of the
instrument?
[UoK 1994)
2.11 The dead zone in a pyrometer is 0.125 of the span. The instrument is
calibrated from 800°C to ISOOOC. What temperature change must occur
before it is detected?
[UoK 1994)
2. 12 A current of3.12 A is flowing through a 53.655 n resistor. Find the value
of the voltage drop across the resistor to an appropriate number of significant
figures.
[UoK 1994)
2.13 List the desirable and undesirable static characteristics of instruments.
[UoK 1995)
2.14 Explain with an example the difference between accuracy and precision of
measurement. On what factors does precision depend? How can the
accuracy be improved upon?
[UoK 1995)
2. 15 Four capacitors of value$ 45.1 IJF,. 3.22 IJF, 89.309 ~tF and 0.48 !lf are
connected in parallel. Find the value of the equivalent capacitor to an
appropriate number of significant figures.
[UoK 1995)
2.16 lin a series circuit if £ 0 , R0 and RL are the source voltage, source resistance
and load resistance respectively, and P and Pmax are the power transferred
to the load and the maximum power that can be transferred to the load
respectively, find the value of the ratio PIPmv. in per cent when the source
resistance is 50% of the load resistance.
[UoK 1995)
2.17 Explain with examples the terms 'static sensitivity' , ' linearity', 'hysteresis'
and 'dead zone ' in an instrumentation system.
[UoK 1996)
2.18 Enumerate the various sources of error encountered in a measurement
system. [UoK 1996)
2.19 Choose the correct answers:
(a) The reliability of an itistrument refers to:
(i) measurement changes owing to temperature variation.
(ii) the degree to which repeatability continues to remain within the
specified limits.
(iii) tlte life of the instrument.
(iv) the extent to which the characteristics remain linear.
[ET-23 Wl993)

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 STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF INSTRUMENTS 21

(b) A 50 n resistor dissipates 2 W of power. The voltage across the resistor

is
(i) 100 v
(ii) 25 v
(iii) 12.5 v
(iv) 10 V.
... [ET-23 Wl993]

. (c) The ·errors. committed

' .
by a person in the measurement are
(i) gross errors.
(ii) random errors.
(iii) instrumental errors.
(iv) environmental errors.
[ET-5 Sl994]
(d) The efficiency of any instrument is defined as the measured quantity
at full-scale to the power taken by the instrument at
(i) one-fourth scale.
(ii) half scale.
(iii) three-fourth scale.
(iv) fuU scale.
[ET-6 Wl994]
(e) The degree of reproducibility among several independent measurements
of the same value under reference conditions is known as
(i) accuracy.
(ii) precision.
(iii) linearity.
(iv) cahbration.
[ET-23 Wl994]
2.20 Why is the linearity of an instrument an important specification? How is
it expressed? [JU 1995]
2.21 What are the differences amongst accuracy, precision and error in
conneetion with measuring devices? [JU 1995)
2.22 What is ilhe difference between accuracy and precision?
[BEC 1996]
2.23 Defme (any four) of the following:
(a) lnstnunental error
(b) Limiting error
(c) calibration error

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22 INTRODUCTION TO INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL

(d) Environmental error

(e) Random error
(f) Probable error
[BEC 1996]
2.24 A circuit arrangement consists of a voltage source of !50 V de in series
with two resistors of value 100 kn and 50 kn respectively. It is desired
to measure the voltage across the 50 kn resistor. Two voltmeters are
available for this measurement: Voltmeter 1 with a sensitivity of I kn /V
and Voltmeter 2 with a sensitivity of 20 k!l/V. Both meters are used on
their 50 V range. Calculate
(a) the reading of each meter, and
{b) the error in each reading expressed as a percentage of the true value.
(JU 1992; BEC 1996]
2.25 Defme and explain briefly the static performance parameters of instruments.
(ET-23 Wl993]

'·

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