S T U D Y G U I D E

A Survey of
Church History
Part 2, AD 500–1500

W. Robert Godfrey

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 1

Introduction to the Middle Ages

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
Our word “medieval” comes from the Latin terms medium and aevum, which mean
“middle age.” Neglected by some and romanticized by others, the period of the Middle
Ages is important for understanding the triumphs and struggles of Christians in
Europe and the Mediterranean world during the thousand-year period between the
decline of the Roman Empire and the emergence of modern Europe. In this lecture,
Dr. Robert Godfrey will offer insight into the historical complexities of the Middle
Ages and will explain the approach that this series will take as we explore this impor-
tant era in church history.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
John 17:1-26; Romans 12:3-5; Ephesians 2:11-21

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To explain the complexities of studying the Middle Ages.
2. To introduce the medieval period as a one thousand year experiment in Christian
civilization.
3. To describe the three phases within the Middle Ages that will be discussed in
this series.
4. To present the importance of examining both theological developments and
human experience in the study of church history.

QUOTATIONS
Not to know what has been transacted in former times is to be always a child. If no
use is made of the labors of past ages, the world must remain always in the infancy of
knowledge.
–Cicero

3
4  Church History II

To study the past does indeed liberate us from the present, from the idols of our own
market-place. But I think it liberates us from the past too. I think no class of men are
less enslaved to the past than historians. The unhistorical are usually, without knowing
it, enslaved to a fairly recent past.
–C.S. Lewis

The central current and ultimate aim of universal history is the Kingdom of God estab-
lished by Jesus Christ. This is the grandest and most comprehensive institution in the
world, as vast as humanity and as enduring as eternity.
–Philip Schaff

Therefore, since we are surrounded by so great a cloud of witnesses, let us lay aside every
weight, and sin which clings so closely, and let us run with endurance the race that is set
before us.
–Hebrews 12:1

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Defining the Middle Ages

A. When did the Middle Ages occur?
i. One historian dates the beginning of the Middle Ages at AD 300, while
another historian dates it at AD 1100.
ii. Most historians place the beginning of the Middle Ages around AD 500 or
600, when significant shifts were taking place between the world, culture,
and thought forms of the ancient period and those of the medieval period.
B. Where did the Middle Ages occur?
i. While most courses and books on medieval history focus on Western
Europe, this approach can be misleading.
ii. The thought world of the early Middle Ages, even in the western Medi-
terranean, was still very much oriented toward the East.
C. What were the Middle Ages?
i. The Dark Age?
1. Many Protestants have tended to view this era as a “Dark Age,” during
which few significant developments took place.
2. Despite such claims, the medieval era was characterized by many impor-
tant cultural, intellectual, and ecclesiastical accomplishments.
ii. The Age of Faith?
1. Some Roman Catholics have argued that the medieval era was an age of
profound piety, when Christianity enjoyed its golden age at the center of
Western civilization and life.
2. Although the church held tremendous influence during this period, the
truths of Christianity had not penetrated the hearts and minds of the
common people any more than they have at other times in history.
1—Introduction to the Middle Ages 5

iii. An Age of Change

1. The phrase “Middle Ages” itself implies that this is a period of transition
between the ancient period and the modern period.
2. The terms “ancient,” “medieval,” and “modern” delineate three distinct
periods with different characteristics and emphases.
3. The Middle Ages produced profound thought, significant institutions,
and remarkable political events.
4. The developments of the Middle Ages laid the foundations for the mod-
ern era and continue to shape the world of today.

II. An Experiment in Christian Civilization

A. The governing ideal of the Middle Ages was the effort to create a society in which
Christianity would be the dominant influence.
i. Not every person shared this ideal, and those who held it did not always
carry it out consistently.
ii. Yet, the quest of establishing a stable and secure Christian civilization was
the overriding mentality that drove most of the thought and actions dur-
ing this time.
B. As we study the ways in which people sought to work out that ideal, live with it,
and shape it according to their interests, we can gain insight into our interaction
with the culture around us today.

III. Overview of This Series

A. This series will examine the Middle Ages in three phases
i. Early Middle Ages (500 – 1100)
1. These lectures will look at the period when the Middle Ages were
“warming up.”
2. During these centuries, various forces and elements inherited from the
ancient world were reshaped into what became the characteristic form
of medieval life and culture.
ii. High Middle Ages (1100 – 1200)
1. These lectures will focus on the high point of the medieval era.
2. The “wondrous century” from just before 1100 until just after 1200 con-
tained several significant figures and events.
iii. Late Middle Ages (1200-1500)
1. These lectures will examine the implications and aftermath of the won-
drous century.
2. The accomplishments of the wondrous century were worked out over
the next three hundred years, preparing the way for the modern era.
B. This series will explore two underlying themes throughout the Middle Ages.
i. Church and Society
1. These areas of study will emphasize politics, institutions, and the experi-
ences of medieval Christians.
6  Church History II

2. When studying the history of the church, it is crucial to place theological

developments within their historical context.
ii. Paths to God
1. These areas of study will trace the contours of theology within the
Middle Ages.
2. It is important to understand how people in the past have thought about
their relationship to God and to understand how people, institutions, and
theology have influenced one another.

IV. Warming Up: The Legacy of Rome

A. When did the Roman Empire end?
i. The traditional date attributed to the fall of the Roman Empire is AD 476.
ii. Although it is easy to state that the Roman Empire began with the reign of
Caesar Augustus, it is more difficult to say when it came to an end.
B. Over the centuries, many political entities have perceived themselves as the con-
tinuation of the Roman Empire.
i. After the collapse of the western portion of the Roman Empire, the east-
ern portion survived as the Byzantine Empire until it was overrun by the
Ottoman Turks in 1453.
ii. When Charlemagne was crowned as the emperor of the Franks in 800, his
kingdom was considered a revival of the Roman Empire.
iii. Portions of Charlemagne’s empire were later restructured as the Holy
Roman Empire, which endured in Central Europe until 1806.
iv. After the fall of Constantinople, the Russian Czars saw themselves as the
heirs of the Byzantine emperor and therefore of a “third Rome.”
v. In the 1930s and 1940s, Nazi Germany attempted to depict itself as a new
Roman Empire.
C. Long after the decline of Rome’s imperial rule, Rome remained a symbol of power,
order, and civilizing ingenuity that captured the imaginations and aspirations of
medieval Christians.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Most historians agree that the Middle Ages began around January 477.
a. True
b. False

2. Which period in medieval history does Dr. Godfrey call “the wondrous century?”
a. 500-600, which celebrated the end of Roman rule
b. 800-900, during the time of Charlemagne and his sons
c. 1100-1200, which marked a high point in the Middle Ages
d. 1400-1500, which ended with the discovery of the Americas
1—Introduction to the Middle Ages 7

3. According to Dr. Godfrey, it is most accurate to think of the medieval era as

______________.
a. A dark age
b. An age of change
c. The age of faith
d. The age of reason

4. Most of the thought and actions of the Middle Ages were driven by ______________.
a. The pursuit of economic gain
b. A man-centered worldview
c. The pursuit of a stable and secure Christian civilization
d. The desire to break away from the traditions of the past

5. The Holy Roman Empire was considered to be a “third Rome” until its dissolu-
tion in 1806.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What would you like to learn as you study the history of the medieval church?
Why does this period in history interest you?

2. How might a person’s theological viewpoint influence that person’s attitude

toward the Middle Ages? What does Dr. Godfrey say about common Catholic
and Protestant views of this period in history? Why is this period in history so
complex?

3. Dr. Godfrey reminds us that in the study of church history, theology is important,
but it is not everything. What other aspects of the past are important for under-
standing the story of the church? How can Christians benefit from studying
these aspects of church history?

4. Dr. Godfrey points out that, at any point in history, there can be a divide between
good theology and the actual beliefs and lives of the ordinary people in the
church. What are some contemporary examples of this type of divide?
 2

Justinian & Gregory

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
Emperor Justinian I and Pope Gregory I stand out as two of the most significant fig-
ures in the centuries of transition that marked the early Middle Ages. As the vestiges
of Roman culture and institutions continued to fade or be reinvented, the inhabitants
of the Mediterranean world looked for leaders who could offer them a sense of conti-
nuity with the past and direction for the future. In the midst of this uncertain climate,
Justinian and Gregory contributed to the development of the state and the church in
ways that would influence medieval life and culture for generations to come.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Romans 1:16-17; Galatians 2:20-21; Galatians 3:1-14

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To explain the ways that Justinian’s reign shaped the development of the
Byzantine Empire.
2. To discuss the role of Gregory I in the expansion of the papal office.
3. To describe and evaluate the theological patterns which began to influence the
Roman church around the time of Gregory I.

QUOTATIONS
In the time of Gregory, that ancient rule was greatly changed. For when the empire was
convulsed and torn, when France and Spain were suffering from the many disasters
which they ever and anon received, when Illyricum was laid waste, Italy harassed, and
Africa almost destroyed by uninterrupted calamities, in order that, during these civil
convulsions, the integrity of the faith might remain, or at least not entirely perish, the
bishops in all quarters attached themselves more to the Roman Pontiff. In this way, not
only the dignity, but also the power of the see, exceedingly increased.
–John Calvin
8
2—Justinian & Gregory 9

LECTURE OUTLINE
I. Justinian
A. Justinian reigned over the eastern half of the Roman Empire from 527 to 565.
B. Justinian’s long and influential reign marked the transitional period in the East
between the Roman era and the Byzantine era.
C. As a Christian emperor, Justinian was determined to enforce the orthodoxy and
uniformity of the churches throughout his empire.
i. He sought to stamp out the Monophysite heresy, which claimed that
Christ had one unified nature instead of both a distinct Divine nature and
a distinct human nature.
ii. He launched a massive church building program that built the Hagia
Sophia in Constantinople, the Basilica of Saint John in Ephesus, and many
other magnificent places of worship.
iii. He reduced the influence of paganism by closing the Platonic Academy in
Athens in 529.
D. Justinian’s legal reforms codified Roman law and established the foundation of
medieval legal theory.
E. Justinian sponsored several military campaigns with the intention of restoring the
empire to its ancient boundaries.
i. He successfully waged war against the Sassanids in Persia, the Vandals in
northern Africa, and the Goths in Italy.
ii. In the Roman territories that he recaptured, Justinian was seen more as a
foreign invader than as a returning liberator.
F. Justinian’s reign revealed a growing separation between the eastern and western
inhabitants of the former Roman Empire.

II. Gregory I
A. The Papal reign of Gregory I, or Gregory the Great, marks the time when the
papacy began to emerge as an independent and influential authority in Western
Europe.
i. As the imperial government and structures faded in the West, many
people turned to the Bishop of Rome for leadership and stability.
ii. The papacy represented an important point of continuity between the
Roman past and the uncertain future.
iii. During this time of transition, Gregory significantly increased the author-
ity and influence of the papal office.
B. Gregory was born around 540 to an ancient and affluent Roman family.
C. Drawn to the monastic lifestyle, Gregory gave away his wealth and converted his
ancestral home into a monastery.
D. Between 579-585, Gregory served as a papal representative in the imperial court in
Constantinople.
E. Gregory was chosen to ascend to the papacy in 590, and he served in this role until
his death in 604.
10  Church History II

i. Although he longed for a life of private prayer and study, he reluctantly

agreed to become the bishop of Rome.
ii. During his fourteen-year reign as Pope, he profoundly shaped the theol-
ogy, institutions, and life of the church.
F. Gregory is remembered as one of the four great doctors of the Western church.
i. The other three were Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose.
ii. While Gregory did not possess the same theological prowess of the other
three, he stood out as an administrator, organizer, and spokesman of the
emerging mind of the medieval church.
G. Gregory was an early harbinger of the medieval church’s departure from
Augustine’s understanding of grace.
i. While the medieval church had greatly profited from the theology of
Augustine, the medieval clergy did not always follow his teachings on the
finer points of theology.
ii. Although Augustine had emphasized salvation by grace alone, many of
the later medieval Augustinians embraced a view of salvation by grace
alone mostly.
1. This viewpoint affirms with Augustine that it is only by grace that a per-
son can be saved.
2. This view differs from Augustine on how a person receives and retains
grace.
3. This view places a responsibility on the individual to make appropriate
use of the grace that God gives.
4. A person receives grace in baptism and, through constant use of confes-
sion and the sacraments, progresses through the Christian life.
iii. The theology of Gregory and his successors envisioned all of the Christian
life as a fearful struggle to hold on to grace and seek God’s forgiveness for
the sins one continues to commit.
1. Uncertainty over one’s own salvation motivated a person to keep strug-
gling and laboring in search of more grace.
2. Because God’s grace was believed to be attained through a measure of
cooperation, it was never a grace that was stable or secure.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. In order to protect the purity and uniformity of Christianity, Justinian tried to

stamp out the ______________ heresy.
a. Pelagian
b. Monophysite
c. Arian
d. Nestorian
2—Justinian & Gregory 11

2. Justinian’s accomplishments as emperor included all of the following except:

a. The expansion of the empire’s borders through military conquest
b. The construction of the Hagia Sophia and other churches
c. The reunification of the eastern and western Roman Empires
d. The codification of Roman laws into a unified legal system

3. As the imperial government and structures faded, many people in the West
began looking to ______________ for leadership and stability.
a. Augustine
b. Justinian
c. The barbarian tribes
d. The bishop of Rome

4. Out of the four doctors of the early medieval church, Gregory the Great pos-
sessed the greatest theological prowess.
a. True
b. False

5. Although Gregory the Great was not familiar with Augustine’s writings, his
understanding of salvation by faith alone was virtually identical to Augustine’s
understanding.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. How did the reign of Justinian affect the relationship between the eastern and
western portions of the Roman Empire?

2. Where does the title “Pope” come from? How has this title been used in the his-
tory of the church?

3. What were the similarities and differences between the Augustinian view of
salvation by faith and the Gregorian view of salvation by faith? Why is this
significant?

4. Gregory the Great wrote that it is good for Christians to doubt their salvation so
that they will be diligent instead of presumptuous in their relationship with God.
What do you think Gregory was trying to guard against? What was the actual
result of this doctrine?
 3

Gregory, Missions, & Islam

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
Around 600, as Gregory I labored in Rome for the growth and development of
Christianity in Western Europe, an Arabian trader named Muhammad began to
wrestle with religious questions and arrive at answers that were very different from
the teachings of the Christian church. Though neither knew it, each man’s influence
would extend far beyond his lifetime: Gregory’s, through the missionary efforts that
would bring all of Europe under Christian influence; and Muhammad’s, through
the zeal of his followers who would establish Islam as a major religion. As the sixth
century transitioned into the seventh, events were being set in motion that would
profoundly influence the political, cultural, and religious landscape of Europe and
the Mediterranean world.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Matthew 28:18-20; John 14:6

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To describe some of the positive contributions made by Gregory I, particularly in
the areas of preaching and missions.
2. To indicate ways in which the medieval church both followed and departed from
the legacy of Gregory I.
3. To describe the origins and rapid spread of Islam.
4. To explain some of the most important beliefs and practices in Islam.

QUOTATIONS
Almighty God places good men in authority that He may impart through them the gifts
of His mercy to their subjects. And this we find to be the case with the British over whom

12
3—Gregory, Missions, & Islam 13

you have been appointed to rule, that through the blessings bestowed on you the bless-
ings of heaven might be bestowed on your people.
–Pope Gregory I to the king of England

There is but one God, and Muhammad is his prophet.

–Islam’s central confession

For there is one God, and there is one mediator between God and men, the man Jesus
Christ.
–1 Timothy 2:5

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Gregory I and Intellectual Precursors to Purgatory

A. Repentance was central to Gregory’s understanding of the Christian life.
i. Christians ought always to recognize their own sinfulness and seek God’s
grace.
ii. Human sin is so pervasive that it may not be completely defeated in this
life.
B. Gregory’s doctrine of ongoing repentance suggested the possibility of finally con-
quering sin through suffering beyond this present life.
i. Gregory admitted the possibility of purification by fire after death and
before the final judgment.
ii. However, he did not actually formulate a doctrine of purgatory or envi-
sion a formal intermediate state of fiery cleansing where believers would
go after death.
iii. Gregory’s writings contain certain strands of thought which would be
included in the Roman Catholic doctrine of Purgatory centuries later.

II. Gregory I and the Centrality of Preaching

A. In his work entitled The Book of Pastoral Rule, he identified preaching as a primary
responsibility of the clergy.
B. Gregory held this focus on preaching in common with John Chrysostom and other
leading pastors in the early church.
C. After the time of Gregory, the medieval church would progressively reduce its
emphasis upon preaching.
i. Because of the declining level of education among the clergy as a whole,
the Middle Ages became a period of decline in preaching also.
ii. Because uneducated parish clergy could still memorize liturgy and
administer the mass, the sacraments came to occupy the central position
in medieval worship.
D. The medieval decline in preaching occurred in spite of, not because of, Gregory’s
influence.
14  Church History II

III. Gregory I and Christian Missions

A. Of all the church leaders of the post-apostolic and medieval eras, Gregory was one
of the most active sponsors of missionary activity.
B. Gregory was aware that significant portions of Northwestern Europe had not yet
been successfully evangelized.
C. As pope, Gregory launched missionary efforts in England under the leadership of
Augustine of Kent.
i. Because Canterbury was the center of Augustine’s missionary work, the
archbishop of England became known as the Archbishop of Canterbury.
ii. As a result of Gregory’s initiative, England gained a lasting Christian
heritage and became a base for sending out missionaries to other parts of
northern Europe.
D. Throughout the Middle Ages, there was a sense of urgency for the church to
respond to the challenges posed by other religious groups.
i. Many areas in Europe remained under pagan influence during the early
Middle Ages.
ii. Although Arianism had been officially condemned by the church, the
heretical Arian movement was still popular among many people groups.
iii. The birth of Islam in the 7th century ushered in new challenges for Chris-
tian leadership.

IV. The Rise of Islam

A. Muhammad was born in Mecca around 570.
B. In the early 600s, he claimed to have received divine inspiration and began to
speak publicly against the predominant paganism of his day.
C. Muhammad taught a strict adherence to monotheism.
i. He rejected the pagan belief in many deities and the Christian doctrine
that God is three in one.
ii. He taught that God, “Allah” in Arabic, is exclusively one.
D. Though he had gained some followers, he was forced to flee from Mecca to Medina
in 622.
E. After his movement had gathered strength in Medina, he returned to Mecca victo-
riously around 630.
F. After Muhammad’s death in 632, the movement spread quickly throughout Arabia
and beyond.

V. The Spread of Islam

A. Within 21 years of Muhammad’s death, his movement covered as much territory as
the Roman Empire had once ruled.
B. After expanding to include what is now the Middle East, Islam spread south and
west along North Africa.
C. During the 8th century, Islam advanced into Western Europe before being gradually
driven back.
3—Gregory, Missions, & Islam 15

i. Muslim forces crossed into the Iberian peninsula in 711, established

Islamic rule in modern Spain and Portugal, and began campaigns to
expand into France.
ii. The Muslim invasion of France ended in 732 with the Frankish victory at
the Battle of Tours.
iii. Over the next several centuries, Christian forces in Spain gradually
advanced until they succeeded in recapturing the last Muslim outpost in
1492.
D. During the 9th century, Islam spread east into Persia, Pakistan, and India.
E. Europe lived in fear of Islam entering from the East until the late 17th century.
i. After centuries of conflict with the Turks, the Byzantine Empire was
defeated at the capture of Constantinople in 1453.
ii. Turkish forces advanced into Southeastern Europe and attempted to
invade Central Europe several times.
iii. After the defeat of the Turks near Vienna in 1683, Muslim influence in
Eastern Europe began to recede.

VI. The Teachings of Islam

A. Islam’s central confession is “There is but one God, and Muhammad is his
prophet.”
i. In Muslim thought, the belief that Jesus is divine is tinged with
polytheism.
ii. According to Islam, Jesus was a prophet of God who has been superseded
by the greatest and final prophet, Muhammad.
iii. The Allah of Islam is primarily conceived in terms of power, tran-
scendence, and greatness, rather than in terms of goodness, love,
encouragement, or support.
iv. The essence of Islam is service and submission to this high and exalted
deity.
B. The holy book of Islam is the Qur’an.
i. The Qur’an is believed to contain the revelation that Muhammad
received, recorded in 114 chapters, or soros.
ii. The Qur’an is basically poetic in character and is written as a collection
of instructions or precepts, rather than a narrative or treatise with a clear,
logical development.
C. Islam means “submission,” and its main moral requirements are to abide by its five
pillars.
i. Confession that Allah is the only God and that Muhammad is his prophet
ii. Prayer five times each day
iii. Giving alms to the poor
iv. Fasting during the month of Ramadan
v. If possible, making a pilgrimage to Mecca
D. Islam is both a religion and a culture.
16  Church History II

i. Many Muslims are resistant to cultural changes because such changes

could be seen as challenges to Islam’s religious claims.
ii. Wherever Islam spreads, it brings its set of laws and cultural values.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. The theology and practices endorsed by Pope Gregory I contributed to the

decline in preaching that took place during the Middle Ages.
a. True
b. False

2. Gregory I is remembered in part for sponsoring some of the church’s earliest

missionary efforts in ______________.
a. England
b. China
c. The Middle East
d. Spain

3. After Muhammad and his followers were forced to flee to Mecca, they returned
victoriously to Medina in 630.
c. True
d. False

4. In addition to Columbus’ voyage, what else took place in 1492?

a. Muslim forces unsuccessfully attacked Vienna.
b. Muslims recaptured Jerusalem, and the Crusades ended.
c. The Byzantine city of Constantinople was captured by the Turks.
d. The last Muslim stronghold in Spain returned to Christian rule.

5. The word “Islam” means ______________.

a. Allah is great
b. True righteousness
c. Submission
d. Allah is one

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Describe the decline in preaching that occurred in the Middle Ages. What fac-
tors contributed to this decline?

2. What factors placed pressure on Christian leaders to sustain and spread the
Christian faith during the early Middle Ages?
3—Gregory, Missions, & Islam 17

3. You are meeting a friend for lunch, and the topic of Islam comes up. Your friend
tells you that there are no significant differences between Islam and Christianity.
What would you say in response?

4. Dr. Godfrey observed that Islam is both a religion and a culture. Do you think it
is accurate to say that Christianity is both a religion and a culture? Why or why
not?
 4

Paths to God: Theologies

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
The early centuries of church history stand out as a time of striking unity. It is unreal-
istic to look upon this time as a golden age of Christianity due to the many challenges
it faced from both within and without. Yet, for several hundred years the church in
the Roman world managed to maintain a united stance and respond to challenges
with one voice. As time passed, certain cultural, theological, and organizational dif-
ferences began to test the bonds between east and west. Torn apart by the effects of
new controversies and old rivalries, the medieval church eventually found itself to be
irrevocably divided.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
John 17:22-23; Philippians 2:1-11; Exodus 20:4-6

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To survey several theological issues which may seem minor, but which were
important for shaping the mind of the church and affecting its unity.
2. To examine the historical discussion on Monothelitism and its implications for
contemporary Roman Catholicism.
3. To describe the “filioque” controversy and identify the power struggle that was
taking place between eastern and western churches.
4. To explain the origins, events, and outcome of the iconoclast movement and its
relevance to similar movements in church history.

QUOTATIONS
The Greek and Latin churches were never organically united under one government,
but differed considerably from the beginning in nationality, language, and various

18
4—Paths to God: Theologies 19

ceremonies. These differences, however, did not interfere with the general harmony of
faith and Christian life, nor prevent cooperation against common foes. As long and as
far as the genuine spirit of Christianity directed them, the diversity was an element of
strength to the common cause…When once the two churches were alienated in spirit and
engaged in an unchristian race for supremacy, all the little doctrinal and ritualistic dif-
ferences which had existed long before, assumed an undue weight, and were branded as
heresies and crimes.
–Philip Schaff

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Monothelitism
A. This controversy settled the last remaining issue in the question of how Jesus
Christ’s human and divine natures related to one another.
i. At the Council of Chalcedon in 451, the church had reached a unified
understanding that Jesus was one person who united both a complete
divine nature and a complete human nature.
ii. In the aftermath of Chalcedon, some Christians feared that claiming that
Christ had two distinct natures came dangerously close to dividing Him
into two separate persons.
iii. Monothelitism was an attempt to resolve this unsettled tension by
explaining how two distinct natures can be united.
B. Monothelitism claimed that Jesus had one will that united His two natures into
one person.
C. Dyothelitism, on the other hand, responded by stating that Jesus had a distinct
divine will and a distinct human will.
D. At the Third Council of Constantinople in 681, the church declared Monothelitism
to be a heresy.
i. The church concluded that the will is an essential part of a person’s
nature.
ii. To be both fully divine and fully human, therefore, Jesus must have had
both a divine will and a human will.
E. This controversy is problematic for the Roman Catholic doctrine of papal
infallibility.
i. Prior to the Third Council of Constantinople, Pope Honorius I openly
endorsed Monothelitism as the official doctrine of the church.
ii. Because of his belief in Monothelitism, the Third Council of Constanti-
nople actually condemned Honorius I for heresy.
iii. This instance of a pope openly embracing heresy poses a direct challenge
to the doctrine of papal infallibility that was adopted by the First Vatican
Council in the late nineteenth century.
F. Because both the eastern and western churches rejected Monothelitism, this con-
troversy temporarily united them.
20  Church History II

II. The Filioque Controversy

A. This debate was sparked by the issue of which form of the Nicene Creed the
church should use.
i. At the First Council of Nicea in 325, the church had responded to the
Arian challenge by affirming that Jesus was the true and eternal God who
had come in the flesh.
ii. The Nicene Creed originally ended with the statement “And we believe in
the Holy Spirit.”
iii. As a result of the First Council of Constantinople, the Creed was updated
as the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed.
1. The new statement on the Holy Spirit was “And I believe in the Holy
Spirit, the Lord and giver of life, who proceeds from the Father, who
with the Father and the Son together is worshipped and glorified, who
spoke by the prophets.”
2. The revised statement affirmed the divinity of the Father, Son, and the
Spirit and described the relationship among them.
iv. In order to emphasize the full divinity of Jesus Christ, western church
leaders added the Latin word “filioque,” which changed the wording of
the creed to “…who proceeds from the Father and from the Son…”
B. The underlying issue in this debate was who had the authority to establish the text
of a creed.
i. Eastern churchmen objected that the western leaders had acted improp-
erly by attempting to change an ecumenical creed without calling an
ecumenical council.
ii. Westerners responded by stating that their version of the creed was most
faithful to Scripture and was most honoring to Christ.
iii. Because not much was at stake theologically, the true reason for the
elevated tension was most likely that each side claimed that its leader had
the right to make an authoritative decision.
C. This controversy contributed to the rivalry that was developing between the pope
in Rome and the patriarch of Constantinople.
i. Eventually, each of these officials would excommunicate the other.
ii. The Great Schism of 1054 separated the eastern and western churches,
which have operated independently of one another ever since.

III. Iconoclasm
A. This debate focused on the legitimacy of using icons, or images, in the church.
B. Though there is no evidence that the earliest Christians used religious images,
icons became increasingly prominent in eastern churches.
i. Until the fifth century, theologians taught that images should not be used
to stimulate Christian worship.
ii. Increasingly, common people came to find images to be helpful and
encouraging in their private devotion.
4—Paths to God: Theologies 21

iii. Eventually, the private use of icons contributed to their corporate use in
many churches.
iv. Those who supported the veneration of icons were called iconodules
or iconophiles, while those who sought to remove the icons were called
iconoclasts.
C. During the eighth and ninth centuries, official policies shifted between favoring
the iconoclasts and favoring the iconodules and iconophiles.
i. In the eighth century, certain Byzantine emperors, such as Leo III and
Constantine V, tried to combat the practice of venerating icons.
ii. After the death of Leo IV, his widow called the Second Council of Nicea,
which in 817 approved the use of images for both corporate and private
use.
iii. Following a period of icon use, Leo V reinstituted iconoclasm.
iv. Imperial policies shifted for the final time under Theodora, who restored
the practice of icon veneration in 843.
D. The western churches did not accept the use of icons, and this issue became an
additional wedge of separation between east and west.
E. Ironically, the western church eventually adopted the veneration of images.
i. The western church went as far as to use statues, while the eastern
church only used flat images.
ii. The western church, however, did not insist on the necessity of images
with the same ferocity as the eastern church.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Those who embraced Monothelitism argued that Jesus Christ had ______________.
a. One will and two natures
b. One will and one nature
c. One nature and two wills
d. One nature in two persons

2. To the chagrin of those who defend the doctrine of papal infallibility,

______________ openly taught Monothelitism before it was condemned as a hereti-
cal view.
a. Emperor Constantine
b. Honorius I
c. Gregory I
d. The Apostle Peter

3. Eastern church leaders objected to the West’s addition to the Nicene Creed by
insisting that an ecumenical creed should never be changed.
a. True
b. False
22  Church History II

4. Church leaders in the West saw the iconoclastic movement as a threat to their
own veneration of images.
a. True
b. False

5. All of the following factors except ______________ contributed to the alienation

that took place between eastern and western churches.
a. The ongoing power struggle between the bishop of Rome and the patriarch
of Constantinople
b. The addition of the phrase “filioque” to the Nicene Creed in the West
c. The issue of the veneration of icons
d. The debate over Monothelitism

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What is the difference between saying that Jesus has one will and saying that
Jesus has two wills? Why is this important?

2. What was really at stake in the “filioque” controversy? How did this episode in
history affect the relationship between churches in the East and in the West?

3. How does the iconoclast controversy demonstrate the power of popular piety
movements? In what ways have churches around you been driven by popular
piety instead of formal theology?

4. What do you think about religious artwork? What does the Bible say about the
kind of art that can and cannot be made? What does the Bible say about how art-
work is to be used? How do these principles apply to the church’s worship?
 5

Church Power and Dissent

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
As the Middle Ages progressed, the Roman Catholic Church became one of the most
powerful institutions in Western Europe. People responded to the church’s grow-
ing influence in a number of ways. Many supported the church, considering it to be
God’s ordained means of governing medieval society. Certain political figures voiced
opposition to the church’s influence, contending that the Pope’s authority was over
spiritual matters and that he had no right to interfere in politics and other societal
affairs. Others, especially the common people, expressed their concern over corrupt
practices and mistaken beliefs that were becoming increasingly common within cer-
tain sectors of the church. While the twelfth century represented the height of the
church’s power, it also foreshadowed dramatic changes that would take place centu-
ries later.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Matthew 22:15-22; Romans 13:1-7; 1 Peter 2:12-17

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To describe the delicate interplay between church and state in medieval society.
2. To examine instances of conflict between monarchs and church officials and
explain the outcomes of these clashes.
3. To discuss several movements in which common people dissented from the
established practices and teachings of the church.
4. To encourage reflection about the role of the church within the surrounding
culture.

23
24  Church History II

QUOTATIONS
Thou, therefore, damned by this curse and by the judgment of all our bishops and by
our own, descend and relinquish the apostolic chair which thou hast usurped. Let
another ascend the throne of St. Peter, who shall not practise violence under the cloak
of religion, but shall teach the sound doctrine of St. Peter. I Henry, king by the grace of
God, do say unto thee, together with all our bishops: Descend, descend, to be damned
throughout the ages.
–Emperor Henry IV to Pope Gregory VII,
In response to Gregory’s attempt to excommunicate
him and depose him from the throne

There are two principles by which the world is ruled: the authority of priests and the
royal power. The authority of priests is the greater because God will demand an account-
ing of them even in regard to kings.
–Archbishop Thomas Becket to Henry II,
In response to Henry’s efforts to
exercise control over the church

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Donation of Constantine and its Legacy

A. This document was believed to have been authored in the fourth century by
Constantine.
B. According to this document, Constantine had handed over rule of the western half
of his empire to the Bishop of Rome.
C. As a result of this document, the church claimed that Western Europe ought to be
governed by the papacy.
D. In the fifteenth century, church officials determined that this document was in fact
a fraud that was forged in the mid eighth century, perhaps to support the Pope in
his negotiations with the early Frankish monarchs.
E. For several centuries, however, the Donation of Constantine was cited repeatedly in
support of papal involvement in Europe’s political affairs.

II. Charlemagne of the Frankish Empire

A. The newly “discovered” Donation of Constantine legitimated Pope Leo III’s act of
crowning Charlemagne in 800.
B. Pleased to be recognized as the rightful successor to the Roman emperors,
Charlemagne was less enthused about the notion that his own right to rule came
from the church instead of from his ancestry and military accomplishments.

III. Otto I of the Holy Roman Empire

A. Otto the Great became Holy Roman Emperor in 962 and claimed that his own
authority surpassed that of the pope.
5—Church Power and Dissent 25

B. Otto intervened directly in church affairs, on multiple occasions replacing popes

who did not support his policies with new popes of his choosing.
C. Otto favored the system of caesaropapism that existed in the Byzantine Empire,
and he sought to employ the same principles to his situation.
i. In the East, the emperor occupied the dominant position in the political,
social, and religious hierarchy.
ii. The Byzantine emperor exercised pope-like authority by calling church
councils and appointing and removing church officials.

IV. Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire

A. The events of Henry’s reign marked a dramatic chapter in what came to be known
as the Investiture Controversy.
B. Henry IV ruled when Gregory VII was Pope.
i. During his papal reign (1073-1085), Gregory dedicated himself to reform
in the church.
1. He supported the power of the papacy.
2. He fought against corruption in the church.
3. He advocated more rigorous standards of conduct and lifestyle for
church officials.
4. He desired to protect the clergy from lay interference.
ii. Particularly, Gregory VII resisted lay involvement in the selection and
investiture of church officials.
1. Investiture was the formal act of giving a new official a ring and staff as
the symbols of office.
2. Gregory believed that, since all positions were ultimately given by God,
clergy should be invested with authority by the church and not by the
secular rulers.
3. Gregory’s stance on this issue led him to clash with powerful monarchs
such as William of England, Philip I of France, and Emperor Henry IV.
C. In 1076 and 1077, Henry and Gregory became openly hostile toward one another.
i. When Pope Gregory appointed a new bishop to serve within the Holy
Roman Empire, Henry ignored the pope’s decision and appointed his own
bishop.
ii. Gregory responded to Henry’s defiance by excommunicating him from
the church.
iii. Henry, in turn, gathered a synod of German bishops and deposed Gregory
as pope.
D. Taking advantage of Henry’s disfavor with the pope, several German nobles
attempted to replace Henry as emperor.
E. Henry, sensing he was politically vulnerable, travelled to Gregory’s residence in
Canossa to make amends.
i. In an act of penitence, Henry waited barefoot in the snow for three days
in order to ask for Gregory’s forgiveness.
26  Church History II

ii. Since Gregory was required to absolve anyone who asked for forgiveness,
he reluctantly forgave and restored Henry.
iii. While Henry’s contrition may have appeared as a symbolic victory for
the papacy, his restoration enabled him to consolidate his power to use
against Gregory later.
F. After quelling the rebellious nobles, Henry marched on Rome in 1081, forcibly
deposed Gregory, and appointed a new pope.
G. Gregory died in exile in 1085.

V. Henry II of England
A. When the archbishop of Canterbury died in 1162, Henry appointed his friend
Thomas Becket to be the new archbishop.
i. Henry selected Becket because he wanted the new archbishop to support
his royal policies and back them with the authority of the church.
ii. Although Becket was not a priest, Henry had him rapidly ordained as a
priest, bishop, and archbishop.
B. As time passed, Henry and Becket came to oppose one another.
i. Becket sought to protect the church from the king’s interference.
ii. Becket began to excommunicate church officials who supported Henry’s
policies.
C. Thomas Becket was murdered in Canterbury Cathedral in 1170.
i. Enraged by Becket’s defiance, Henry uttered an angry comment against
the archbishop.
ii. Interpreting this comment as an order to execute Becket, some of the
king’s knights rode to Canterbury and killed the archbishop.
D. In the resulting scandal, Henry II consented to do penance by being publicly
beaten.
E. Shortly after his death, Becket was canonized St. Thomas á Becket.
i. A shrine was erected in Canterbury Cathedral in his honor.
ii. This shrine was a major destination for pilgrims for several centuries
before its destruction by Henry VIII.

VI. Dissenting Viewpoints

A. This competition between church and state for primacy in medieval society fos-
tered protest from many people who objected to the church’s quest for power and
influence.
B. Monasticism offered a different vision for the church.
i. Monastic communities emphasized leaving behind one’s family, property,
and worldly values in order to focus exclusively on God.
ii. Eventually, many monastic orders were given so much wealth that their
focus on simple living was exchanged for luxury, sloth and laxity.
iii. New voices would call for reform and for a return to the monastic ideals
of poverty, moral rigor, and spiritual discipline.
5—Church Power and Dissent 27

iv. However, most monastic reform focused more on behavior than belief,
offering moral answers to doctrinal problems.
C. The Cathari, or Albigensians, were one of the first groups to protest against the
church’s doctrine.
i. They rejected the use of sacraments.
ii. They embraced a dualistic doctrine that led to radical asceticism.
iii. Due to its heretical views, this movement was eventually stamped out.
D. The followers of Peter Waldo, or Waldensians, also became a widespread
movement.
i. This group emphasized study of the Bible, personal discipleship, and a
simple lifestyle.
ii. Though not heretical, the Waldensians were seen as dangerous to the
power and authority of the Roman Catholic Church.
iii. In the sixteenth century, the remaining communities of Waldensians
eventually joined the Reformation churches.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Charlemagne referred to the Donation of Constantine in order to support his

claim to rule as the rightful successor to the Roman emperors.
a. True
b. False

2. In the Eastern system of caesaropapism, ______________ occupied the dominant

position in the social and religious hierarchies.
a. The Byzantine emperor
b. The pope
c. The patriarch of Constantinople
d. The council of bishops

3. In his desire to protect the church from the influence of laymen and the secu-
lar authorities, Pope Gregory VII clashed with all of the following rulers except
______________.
a. William of England
b. Henry II of England
c. Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire
d. Philip I of France

4. After his death, the shrine of Thomas á Becket in Canterbury became a major
destination for medieval pilgrims.
a. True
b. False
28  Church History II

5. The ______________ reform movement focused primarily on reforming the church

from a moral standpoint.
a. Albigensian
b. Caesaropapist
c. Monastic
d. Waldensian

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What are some of the key issues that marked the wondrous century? Why were
these issues important? What do they indicate about this time period?

2. What was the significance of Henry IV’s act of penance at Canossa? How did the
conflict between Henry and the Pope end?

3. What do you think about the church’s quest for power and influence during the
wondrous century? What was admirable about the church’s role in society? What
was problematic? How can this period in history inform the way we live today?

4. Which movement(s) saw the church’s need for reform as a doctrinal need,
and which movement(s) saw it as a moral need? Why are both of these areas
important?
 6

The Crusades

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
Few incidents in the history of the church are as controversial as the Crusades.
The tragic loss of life that resulted from this movement has, sadly, discredited the
Christian faith in the eyes of many. Today, Christians are sometimes uncertain about
how they should view or react to this chapter in history. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey
will offer valuable insight about how Christians can best understand and learn from
this dramatic period in the church’s past.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Matthew 5:2-16; Ephesians 6:10-18

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To discuss some of the factors that led to the Crusades.
2. To describe the role that faith played in the crusading mindset.
3. To outline many of the most important people, events, and places in the history
of the Crusades.
4. To offer a balanced and realistic look at the era of the Crusades, avoiding the ten-
dencies to romanticize, villainize, or ignore what took place.

QUOTATIONS
Let this then be your war-cry in combat, because this word is given to you by God. When
an armed attack is made upon the enemy, let this one cry be raised by all the soldiers of
God: It is the will of God! It is the will of God!
–Pope Urban II

29
30  Church History II

Indeed, if you had been there you would have seen our feet colored to our ankles with
the blood of the slain. But what more shall I relate? None of them were left alive; neither
women nor children were spared.
–Fulcher of Chartres,
describing the capture of Jerusalem by the crusaders in 1099

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Understanding the Crusades

A. The Crusades represent a radical break with previous Christian history.
i. In medieval Europe, Christians typically went to war for secular reasons.
ii. Although some Christians might have perceived military service as a
means of serving God, they fought for the state, not the church.
iii. With the coming of the crusading ideal, Christians accepted the idea of
using force to advance the church and the cause of Christ.
B. The Crusades had a deeply religious and apocalyptic character.
i. The motivation for Crusades is often described in terms of political
ambition, economic greed, pursuit of absolution from purgatory, violent
warmongering, and a desire to avenge the loss of Christian territory.
ii. While many of these elements were factors in the crusading movement,
genuine piety also played a significant role.
C. Historian Jay Rubenstein argues that at the deepest level the Crusades were driven
by an apocalyptic expectation.
i. It was widely taught that the events surrounding the end of time would
take place in Jerusalem.
ii. By rallying around the cause of liberating Jerusalem, Christians could
perhaps hasten the coming of Christ.
iii. The crusading ideal emerged around 1100, a millennium after the time of
Christ.
iv. The medieval appreciation for Jesus’ birth as the central point in history
contributed to the anticipation of His triumphant return at the end of the
millennium.
D. Many supported the Crusades out of a desire to keep Jerusalem available to
Christian pilgrims.
i. For centuries, the practice of religious pilgrimage had been a common
way of expressing piety.
ii. One way to grow in personal holiness was through visiting holy sites.
iii. Jerusalem was a particularly special destination for pilgrims due to its
significance in ancient Israel; the ministry, death, and resurrection of
Jesus; and the birth of the Christian church.
1. Since the time of Constantine, Christians had regularly made pilgrimages
to Jerusalem, even after Muslims captured the city in the seventh century.
2. In the eleventh century, reports began to circulate in Europe that the
6—The Crusades 31

Muslims were hindering Christian pilgrims in their efforts to visit the

holy sites.
iv. There was a growing eschatological conviction that Christians ought to go
and win back the Holy City for Christ.
E. In 1095, these growing factors released a burst of energy and passion directed
toward the recapture of Jerusalem.
i. The Byzantine emperor had written to the pope requesting military aid
against the Turks.
ii. At the Council of Clermont, Pope Urban II responded by calling Western
Europe to action against the Turkish threat in the Holy Land.
iii. Thousands of Christians from all walks of life responded by embarking
upon a military expedition to Palestine, later called a “crusade,” meaning
“way of the Cross.”

II. The First Crusade

A. In response to Urban II’s passionate appeal, armies from several Western
European countries began the march toward Palestine in 1096.
B. Due to internal strife among the Muslim leaders, the crusaders met with extraordi-
nary success.
i. The crusading armies captured Antioch on June 3, 1098, and Jerusalem
on July 15, 1099.
ii. The violent slaughter of the inhabitants of Jerusalem greatly damaged the
relationship between Christians and Muslims.
C. When the crusaders consolidated their territorial gains into four states, Godfrey de
Bouillon became king of the newly established Kingdom of Jerusalem.

III. The Second Crusade

A. Muslim forces captured the crusader city of Edessa in 1144.
B. Pope Eugene III called for a new wave of crusaders to strengthen the Christian
presence in the Holy Land.
C. The crusaders, led by the French king and the Holy Roman Emperor, were poorly
coordinated and were attacked and defeated by Muslim forces before they could
achieve any significant victory.
D. When a desperate attempt to capture Damascus ended in failure, the crusading
army returned home in humiliation.

IV. The Third Crusade

A. By the late twelfth century, the Muslims had recovered from their initial defeats
and had united under the leadership of Saladin.
B. Saladin’s army recaptured Jerusalem and many surrounding cities from Christian
forces in 1187.
C. In 1189, a new European army marched toward Jerusalem with the intent of retak-
ing the city.
32  Church History II

D. This crusade is perhaps the most famous, led by Emperor Frederick Barbarossa,
King Philip Augustus of France, and Richard Lionheart of England.
E. Although the Third Crusade failed to recapture Jerusalem, the crusaders recap-
tured some territory from Saladin and negotiated a treaty that would protect
Christian pilgrims.

V. The Fourth Crusade

A. Around 1200, another crusade was launched with the goal of retaking Jerusalem by
an attack from the sea.
B. The crusaders had contracted with Venice to provide a fleet for their army, but
were unable to pay the entire fee.
C. In order to cover their losses, the Venetians sought to benefit financially from the
political turmoil in Constantinople.
i. At that time, the Byzantine court was divided by a dispute over who was
the rightful heir to the throne.
ii. The Venetians agreed to sell their military power to one of the rivals to
the throne.
D. When this plan did not work, the crusaders attacked and plundered
Constantinople.
E. Rather than advance the crusading cause, this crusade permanently weakened the
Byzantine Empire.

VI. Subsequent Crusades

A. In 1229, Emperor Frederick II achieved temporary Christian rule of Jerusalem by
negotiating with the sultan of Egypt.
B. The final recapture of Jerusalem by Muslim forces in 1244 marked the beginning
of the end for the Crusades.
C. Europeans continued to launch crusading efforts until the fifteenth and sixteenth
centuries, but with little success.

VII. The Aftermath of the Crusades

A. The crusades stand out as a curious and tragic development in the history of
Western Christendom.
i. They represent an unprecedented level of collaboration among the many
monarchs who united in a common cause.
ii. The ill-founded belief that Christians had the right to advance the cause
of Christ by the sword led to bitter and bloody consequences.
B. The violent legacy of the Crusades has placed a stain upon Christianity in the eyes
of many, especially Muslims.
C. The Crusades both illustrate and contribute to problems and challenges that face
the church today.
6—The Crusades 33

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. According to Dr. Godfrey, the Crusades were motivated by primarily

______________ concerns.
a. Colonializing
b. Apocalyptic
c. Economic
d. Political

2. During the centuries before the Crusades, the Muslims had not allowed any
Christian pilgrims to enter Jerusalem.
a. True
b. False

3. At the Council of Clermont in 1095, Pope ______________ urged Christians to liber-

ate Jerusalem from Muslim rule.
a. Leo X
b. Gregory VII
c. Innocent III
d. Urban II

4. Which of the following crusades succeeded in capturing Jerusalem?

a. The First Crusade
b. The Second Crusade
c. The Third Crusade
d. The Fourth Crusade

5. Although the Crusades failed to keep Jerusalem in Christian hands, they suc-
ceeded in strengthening the Byzantine Empire against the Turkish threat.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What were some of the factors that contributed to the Crusades? According to
Dr. Godfrey, which factor is most important? Do you agree or disagree? Why?

2. Church history contains numerous instances when Christians believed that the
end of the world was about to take place during their lifetimes. What were some
of the reasons that medieval Christians thought the world might end around
1000? How were apocalyptic expectations then similar to apocalyptic expecta-
tions today? How were they different?
34  Church History II

3. Like Christians today, medieval Christians prized the opportunity to travel to

Jerusalem and other historic sites of the faith. What are some of the benefits of
traveling to places like these? How might we sometimes set unrealistic expecta-
tions for these types of experiences?

4. What were the immediate results of the Crusades? In what ways is the impact of
the Crusades still felt today?
 7

Innocent III

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
So far we have studied several notable events and movements that took place in
the high Middle Ages. In addition to being an era of significant social, political, and
cultural developments, this era also marked an important chapter in the theology,
practices, and influence of the church. In this lecture, Dr. Godfrey will examine
the life and time of Pope Innocent III as a case study in what the medieval church
believed and how it functioned during the wondrous twelfth century.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Matthew 26:26-29; Mark 14:22-25; Luke 22:14-23; 1 Corinthians 11:23-26

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To analyze the ways in which art and architecture communicate theology.
2. To introduce the figure of Pope Innocent III as an illustration of the power of the
papacy at its zenith.
3. To discuss the historical background and subsequent influence of the Magna Carta.
4. To survey major steps in the development of the Roman Catholic doctrine of
transubstantiation.

QUOTATIONS
John, the king of England, our dearest and illustrious son in Christ, has greatly offended
God and church, and we have excommunicated him and placed his kingdom under eccle-
siastical interdict. Under the inspiration of Him who does not wish the death of a sinner
but a conversion that the sinner may live, he has now had a change of heart. He has
humbly rendered satisfaction to God and the Church.
–Pope Innocent III,
In response to King John’s submission to papal authority

35
36  Church History II

There is indeed one universal church of the faithful, outside of which nobody at all is
saved, in which Jesus Christ is both priest and sacrifice. His body and blood are truly
contained in the sacrament of the altar under the forms of bread and wine, the bread and
wine having been changed in substance, by God’s power, into his body and blood, so that
in order to achieve this mystery of unity we receive from God what he received from us.
–Fourth Lateran Council,
excerpt from Canon 1

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Apex of the Church’s Power

A. The twelfth century represented a time of significant accomplishments, when the
authority and influence of the church reached its highest point.
B. The architecture of the 1100s illustrates the developments that were taking place
in the church.
i. In the early Middle Ages, most cathedrals had been constructed in the
Romanesque style.
1. Romanesque church buildings featured thick walls and low arches.
2. Because walls were thick and windows were few, church interiors
tended to be dark.
3. The mood within these places of worship tended to be weighty, solemn,
and mysterious.
ii. During the high Middle Ages, Europe’s great cathedrals were built in the
Gothic style.
1. Architectural innovations enabled church buildings to reach new heights
with columns, buttresses, and pointed arches.
2. Exterior flying buttresses enabled thinner walls with an abundance of
stained glass windows.
3. Worship spaces were filled with light and seemed to extend upward into
the heavens.
4. The mood within the cathedral became one of beauty, reverence, and awe.
5. In both cities and villages, the cathedral’s towering spire became the dom-
inant structure, reminding the community of God’s majesty and might.
iii. Architecture, therefore, became a powerful expression of the church’s
theology during the wondrous century and beyond.
C. During this age of grandeur, the papacy also reached the height of its influence and
authority.

II. Pope Innocent III

A. He reigned as pope from 1198 to 1216 and referred to himself as “the Vicar of God.”
B. At this time, the papacy was at the peak of its influence, and he was considered by
the church to be “the father of princes and kings and the ruler of the world” on
Christ’s behalf.
7—Innocent III 37

i. He insisted that, as pope, he was infallible in his leadership of the church.

ii. He was actively involved in Western Europe’s political affairs.
C. During his years in office, Innocent III demonstrated his aptitude for international
politics and his zeal for the power of the church.

III. John of England and the Magna Carta

A. After the death of his brother Richard the Lionheart in 1199, John ascended to the
throne of England.
B. Although he was a competent administrator, he alienated his subjects through his
cruel and inflexible policies.
C. After the death of the archbishop of Canterbury, John clashed with Pope Innocent
III during the selection of the new archbishop.
i. Innocent rejected John’s candidate and appointed a clergyman of whom
John did not approve.
ii. Angered by what he perceived as an attack on his authority, John
responded by seizing church lands in England.
D. As a result of John’s defiance, Innocent III placed England under interdict.
i. When a land was under interdict, no church services could be held and no
sacraments could be administered.
ii. In effect, the entire nation was excommunicated from the church.
iii. When a kingdom was under interdict, the souls of its people were consid-
ered to be in jeopardy.
E. In addition to the interdict, Innocent personally anathematized John and declared
him to be deposed from the throne.
F. Although Innocent could not physically remove John from office, his disciplinary
actions toward the king placed John in a precarious political position.
i. Many of the English barons were opposed to John’s policies.
ii. The pope’s pronouncements could easily be used by John’s political oppo-
nents to prompt armed resistance to his rule.
G. John recognized his peril and capitulated to the pope by declaring himself and
England to be under the pope’s rule.
H. Still unsatisfied, the English Barons compelled John to sign the Magna Carta on
June 15, 1215.
i. The Magna Carta, or “Great Charter,” is considered to be foundational to
the legal rights and liberties enjoyed in the English-speaking world.
ii. The provisions in the Magna Carta limited the power of the king to tax
and granted his subjects the right of trial by jury.
iii. Historians cite the Magna Carta as a significant step in the development
of the English government.

IV. The Fourth Lateran Council and Transubstantiation

A. Innocent III called a church council that met at the Lateran Palace in Rome in
1215.
38  Church History II

B. The Fourth Lateran Council addressed key doctrinal topics and issues of reform.
C. One significant result of the council was the church’s act of defining and adopt-
ing the doctrine of transubstantiation, the belief that the communion elements are
changed into the actual body and blood of Jesus.
D. The question of transubstantiation had been a topic of debate in the church for
centuries.
i. There was uncertainty over what happened to the bread and wine in the
moment when the priest pronounces the words “This is my body.”
ii. In the ninth century, Ratramnus and Radbertus had debated the signifi-
cance of the communion elements.
1. Ratramnus argued that the bread and wine were the body and blood of
Jesus in a spiritual sense.
2. Radbertus argued that the bread and wine became the literal, physical
body and blood of Jesus.
3. Ratramnus rooted his view in the writings of St. Augustine, but Augus-
tine’s teachings on the Eucharist did not settle the question.
iii. During much of the Middle Ages, therefore, both Ratramnus’ and Radber-
tus’ views were accepted within the church.
E. However, Innocent III wanted the church to adopt a final and official position on
this issue.
i. The council’s formulation of the doctrine of transubstantiation was
rooted heavily in Aristotelian philosophy.
1. Aristotle distinguished between an object’s outward or material appear-
ance and its inner form or substance.
2. In the emerging Roman Catholic consensus, the outward appearance of
the bread and wine remained unchanged, while the inner substance of
the bread and wine was changed, or transubstantiated, into Christ’s body
and blood.
3. Therefore, when the priest announces “This is my body, broken for you,”
Jesus is physically present.
ii. This doctrine, adopted in 1215, marks a key moment in the development
of the Roman Catholic Church.
1. Catholic apologists argue that Roman Catholicism began in the book of
Acts.
2. A case can be made, however, that Roman Catholicism did not emerge in
its final state until the Council of Trent in the mid-sixteenth century.
3. Many of the doctrines that are considered essential to Roman Catholic
belief were adopted by Catholic leaders in response to Protestant doctri-
nal statements.
4. In this sense, Roman Catholicism is a younger movement than Protes-
tantism is.
7—Innocent III 39

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. The emerging ______________ architectural style of twelfth-century cathedrals was

intended to evoke a sense of transcendence, reverence, and awe.
a. Romanesque
b. Neoclassical
c. Italianesque
d. Gothic

2. Which of the following statements best describes John’s reign over England?
a. John was known as a philanthropic king who departed from Richard I’s
military legacy in order to sponsor art and learning.
b. John’s harsh policies alienated him from the English people even though he
was a skilled administrator.
c. John launched a series of legal reforms with the intention of establishing
England’s first parliamentary system.
d. Because John recognized the pope as a crucial ally, he sought to expand the
church’s influence in English government and society.

3. When a pope placed a nation under interdict, he had the ability to remove its
king and other officials from office.
a. True
b. False

4. In the ninth century, ______________ had argued that Christ was present in the
Eucharist in a spiritual sense, rather than a literal sense.
a. Hincmar
b. Radbertus
c. Augustine
d. Ratramnus

5. Although the doctrine of transubstantiation was believed and taught by many

medieval Catholics, the Catholic Church did not adopt it as official doctrine until
1215.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What changes took place in church architecture around the twelfth century?
How did these new buildings communicate theology through architecture?
Think about some modern church buildings that you have seen. What kind of
theology do they communicate?
40  Church History II

2. What was the Magna Carta? Why is this document significant?

3. What biblical and philosophical arguments might a person cite for claiming
that Christ is literally, physically present in the Lord’s Supper? Why is this view
problematic?

4. In what ways did the western church of the twelfth century resemble the Roman
Catholic Church today? How did the medieval church differ from contemporary
Roman Catholicism?
 8

Monasticism & Scholasticism

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
For nearly two millennia, many Christians have chosen to express their piety through
ascetic living. Though the roots of monasticism existed long before, the sixth-cen-
tury monk Benedict of Nursia is considered to be the founding father of the medieval
monastic movements. Benedict’s charter, known as the Benedictine Rule, outlined
key principles of holiness and self-denial for communities of monks and nuns who
were committed to the values of poverty, chastity, and obedience to God. However,
later generations did not always show the same degree of commitment and devotion
as their predecessors. In response, certain influential leaders responded to corrup-
tion and decline by calling for a return to Benedict’s rigid standards. While returning
to the rigor of the past, these leaders also envisioned new ways for monks to carry out
their mission within a changing world.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Micah 6:6-8; Matthew 5:13-16; Luke 9:23-25

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To discuss the influence of the Fourth Lateran Council upon several areas of the
life of the church.
2. To survey several developments and changes within medieval monasticism.
3. To examine the lives of certain influential monks and their impact upon various
monastic movements.
4. To evaluate the contributions and limitations of medieval Scholasticism.

QUOTATIONS
But the believing soul longs and faints for God; she rests sweetly in the contemplation of
Him. She glories in the reproach of the Cross, until the glory of His face shall be revealed.

41
42  Church History II

Like the Bride, the dove of Christ, that is covered with silver wings, white with innocence
and purity, she reposes in the thought of Thine abundant kindness, Lord Jesus.
–Bernard of Clairvaux

Most high, omnipotent, merciful Lord, Thine is all praise, the honor, and the glory and
every benediction. To Thee alone are they confined, and no man is worthy to speak Thy
Name.
–Francis of Assisi

LECTURE OUTLINE
I. The Aftermath of the Fourth Lateran Council
A. The council formally defined and adopted the doctrine of transubstantiation.
B. The council established the inquisition as an agency of the church.
i. The inquisition was established in order to protect the doctrinal purity of
the church and suppress heresy.
ii. Eventually, the inquisition became an instrument that certain leaders
used to torture and execute people who were considered to be dangerous
by the religious and political authorities.
C. The council required Christians to partake of the Eucharist during the Easter
season.
i. Because the common people perceived the sacrament as being so power-
ful and mysterious, they feared participating in communion and chose to
observe the mass instead of sharing in it.
ii. In response, the church began requiring the people to partake of the sac-
rament at least one time each year.
D. The council took steps to regulate the proliferation of monastic orders and com-
munities that had been emerging.

II. Monastic Reform Movements

A. During the high Middle Ages, many voices began calling for a return to the monas-
tic ideal.
i. Monastic communities had originally been established as places of sepa-
ration, withdrawal from the world, and complete focus on one’s spiritual
condition.
ii. The principles of poverty, chastity, and obedience were to govern monas-
tic lifestyle.
iii. However, corruption gradually began to enter some monastic
communities.
iv. Certain monastic communities accumulated considerable wealth and
became places of luxury instead of houses of prayer.
v. Throughout the eleventh and twelfth centuries, new monastic orders
such as the Cluniacs and the Cistercians emerged with a renewed empha-
sis on traditional monastic principles.
8—Monasticism & Scholasticism 43

B. Bernard of Clairvaux, a passionate Cistercian abbot, became the symbol of the ideal
monk.
i. Bernard lived from 1090 until 1153.
ii. A wise and learned monk, Bernard served as an advisor to popes and
other powerful officials.
iii. Bernard zealously advocated personal holiness and a disciplined, self-
denying Christian life.
iv. Bernard cultivated a great knowledge of God and of the human soul.
v. In Dante’s Paradisio, Bernard serves as the guide who leads the pilgrim
through heaven and toward God.
C. As the twelfth century drew to an end, monasticism was beginning to find new
expressions in the mendicant orders.
i. While most monks had withdrawn into monastic communities, the friars
of the mendicant orders spent their time among the common people.
ii. These new orders combined a lifestyle of self-denial with an active
preaching ministry.
iii. The most influential figures among these new mendicant orders were
Francis of Assisi and Dominic of Osma.
III. Francis of Assisi
A. Francis was an Italian friar who lived from 1182 until 1226.
B. Disappointed by the corruption and materialism that he saw around him, he
embraced a life of poverty and of detachment from worldly concerns.
i. He emphasized prayer and personal devotion over study and intellectual
rigor.
ii. For Francis, the essence of godly living was found in self-denial, prayer,
and service to God and to fellow men.
C. A charismatic leader, Francis attracted numerous followers who shared his vision
and formed a new monastic order.
D. He was canonized Saint Francis in 1228, just two years after his death.
E. Francis was the first saint considered to have received the stigmata.
i. Reports spread that the wounds of Christ had appeared on Francis’ body
near the end of his life.
ii. The appearance of these wounds, or stigmata, was believed to be a mirac-
ulous indication of a close connection with Christ.
IV. Dominic of Osma
A. Dominic was a Spanish friar who lived from 1170 until 1221.
B. A contemporary of Francis, Dominic’s personality and emphases were distinct
from those of Francis.
i. Dominic was committed to careful study and to the intellectual defense of
the faith.
ii. For Dominic, poverty was not an end in itself, but rather a means of rid-
ding one’s self from distractions for the sake of study.
44  Church History II

C. With his decidedly intellectual character, Dominic was interested in combatting

heresy and false doctrine.
i. Dominic sought to raise up an order of educated defenders of the faith
who would be preachers and teachers for the common people.
ii. He established the Ordo Praedicatorum, also known as the Order of
Preachers or the Dominican Order.
iii. This order was fueled by the conviction that Christianity was worthy of
intellectual defense and in need of capable defenders.
D. Dominic was canonized in 1234, and his order continued to develop into one of the
most influential groups within the medieval church.
E. After his death, he was credited with receiving the idea of the rosary from the vir-
gin Mary.

V. Monastic Growth and Scholasticism

A. As the number and size of monastic orders increased, their administrative struc-
ture shifted.
i. In the ancient church, most monks were not ordained.
1. Monks were laypeople who were committed to the ascetic ideal.
2. These communities were dependent upon outside clergy to administer
the sacraments.
ii. By the High Middle Ages, most monks were clergy who had been
ordained by the church.
1. Monks were no longer dependent upon outside clergy.
2. Monastic communities developed a sacramental power that was distinct
from the ordinary clergy.
iii. Eventually, a rivalry developed between the monks and the parish clergy.
1. The parish clergy lived out in the world (seculum) and were therefore
known as “secular” clergy.
2. The monks lived under a monastic rule (regula) and were therefore
known as “regular” clergy.
3. These groups often competed for the attention of church leaders and for
the loyalty and gifts of the laity.
iv. While the secular clergy acknowledged the authority of the pope, they
were not willing to ascribe absolute control to the papacy.
v. On the other hand, the monks were more dependent upon the pope to
authorize their orders and grant them permission to travel on their mis-
sion projects.
vi. Because the monks tended to be loyal to the pope, they became an avenue
for increasing and consolidating papal authority.
B. As monasteries grew, they took on an increasingly important educational function.
i. Monasteries became known as centers of learning.
ii. Many of the greatest literary and theological works of the Middle Ages
were written and preserved in monasteries.
8—Monasticism & Scholasticism 45

C. The growing focus on education contributed to the movement known as

Scholasticism.
i. Scholasticism derives its name from schola, which means “school.”
ii. Scholasticism refers to a technical theology that is studied, practiced, and
formally developed in schools.
iii. The scholastic movement involved expressing theology using a more
standardized, tactical vocabulary so that theologians could communicate
with one another more quickly and simply.
1. Like most professions, theology developed its own technical vocabulary.
2. The rising prominence of Aristotelian philosophy lent a detailed philo-
sophical vocabulary to the scholastic movement.
iv. Although many of the questions and ideas of Scholasticism may sound
pedantic and absurd, they often raise meaningful issues.
1. A common example is the question of how many angels can dance on the
head of a pin.
2. While this question may seem pointless, it actually deals with the topic
of whether angels possess physicality, or whether they are purely spiri-
tual beings.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Which of the following was not accomplished at the Fourth Lateran Council?
a. Christians were required to take communion at Christmas.
b. Monastic orders and communities were regulated more strictly.
c. The inquisition was established as an agency of the church.
d. The doctrine of transubstantiation was defined and adopted.

2. In Dante’s Paradisio, Bernard of Clairvaux serves as the pilgrim’s guide through

heaven.
a. True
b. False

3. According to tradition, Francis of Assisi was the first person to use rosary beads
as an aid to prayer.
a. True
b. False

4. One of the chief priorities of the Dominican order was ______________.

a. Placing prayer back in the center of monastic life
b. Promoting participation in the Lord’s Supper among the laity
c. Providing a learned intellectual defense of Christianity
d. Purging all signs of wealth and luxury from the monasteries
46  Church History II

5. The rise of medieval Scholasticism was aided by ______________.

a. The Franciscan order
b. Generous funding from the Holy Roman Emperor
c. Aristotelian philosophy
d. The rediscovery of Plato’s writings

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Who were the three monastic leaders that Dr. Godfrey mentioned in this lecture?
What did each of these men contribute to the church’s quest for piety?

2. The monastic ideal was a life of withdrawal from the world for the purpose of
cultivating a more intimate relationship with God and greater personal holi-
ness. What is admirable or praiseworthy about this kind of lifestyle? What is
problematic?

3. How did the emerging mendicant orders, such as the Franciscans and the
Dominicans, depart from traditional monasticism? In what ways did these new
orders remain consistent with the monastic ideal?

4. Were all the monastic orders equally interested in learning and education?
Explain. How did monastic communities contribute to the rise of medieval
Scholasticism?
 9

Theologians

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
Medieval Scholasticism is often seen today as being speculative and of little practi-
cal value. In some cases, this critique may be warranted. However, this movement
nevertheless helped to create an environment of thoughtful reflection and study that
nurtured some of the greatest thinkers of the Middle Ages. As we turn our attention
to a few of the most prominent philosophers and theologians of the eleventh and
twelfth centuries, we will begin to see the familiar contours of questions, answers,
and ideas that are still influential in our day.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Proverbs 1:7; Proverbs 3:13-18; Romans 11:33-36

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To present some of the positive contributions of the medieval scholastics and
theologians.
2. To examine the lives and writings of three of the most influential scholars of the
eleventh and twelfth centuries.
3. To interact with doctrines and ideas from this period that continue to shape
theological discussions today.

QUOTATIONS
I am not trying, O Lord, to penetrate Thy loftiness, for I cannot begin to match my
understanding with it, but I desire in some measure to understand Thy truth, which my
heart believes and loves. For I do not seek to understand in order to believe, but I believe
in order to understand.
–Anselm of Canterbury

47
48  Church History II

Our redemption through Christ’s suffering is that deeper affection in us which not only
frees us from slavery to sin, but also wins for us the true liberty of sons of God, so that
we do all things out of love rather than fear.
–Peter Abelard

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. Anselm of Canterbury
A. Anselm lived from 1033 until 1109 and is considered to be one of the greatest theo-
logians of the Middle Ages.
B. A distinguished churchman and able administrator, Anselm served for a time as
archbishop of Canterbury.
C. Anselm carefully reflected on theological topics and wrote influential doctrinal
works.
D. His Proslogion dealt with the issue of proving God’s existence.
i. This work is famous for Anselm’s presentation of the a priori ontological
argument.
1. God, if He exists, is the being than which nothing greater can be con-
ceived.
2. By nature of this definition, God possesses the highest degree of all vir-
tues and positive attributes.
3. If people, who exist, can conceive of a being that is unsurpassed in great-
ness, that being must exist.
4. If such a being did not exist, then He would not truly be unsurpassed in
greatness, because existence is greater than non-existence.
ii. This argument has intrigued philosophers and theologians ever since.
1. Some have found it to be persuasive.
2. Others consider it to be a deceptive mind game.
E. His work Cur Deus Homo dealt with the relationship between Christ’s incarnation
and His atoning work on the cross.
i. For centuries, the church had taught that Jesus Christ was fully God and
also became fully man.
ii. In this treatise, Anselm addressed the issue of why it was necessary for
Jesus to be both fully human and fully divine.
iii. Anselm’s conclusion centered on sin as a moral debt that must be dealt
with.
1. Man owed a debt to God but could not pay it.
2. God could pay the debt but did not owe it.
3. Only the God-man could both owe the debt and pay it.
F. Anselm’s persistent reflection on the work of Christ surpassed even Augustine’s
understanding of the importance and meaning of the atonement.
9—Theologians 49

II. Peter Abelard

A. Abelard lived from 1079 until 1142.
B. A controversial figure, he was known both for his tragic forbidden romance with
Heloise and for his provocative intellectual brilliance.
C. His influential work Sic et Non challenged contemporary assumptions about the
authority and accuracy of the church’s theological traditions.
i. He surveyed and summarized the teachings of many great theologians on
many different topics.
ii. He concluded that within church history there were many instances of
“yes and no,” when theologians would contradict one another or arrive at
different conclusions.
iii. He showed that theologians have always held a variety of viewpoints on
certain issues.
iv. Tradition, therefore, is not infallible and does not speak with one voice.
D. Abelard presented a theory of the atonement that was very different from Anselm’s
view.
i. Abelard argued, contra Anselm, that there was not a moral debt that
needed to be paid.
ii. According to Abelard, to say that God required payment for a debt would
be to undermine the very love of God.
iii. Therefore, the death of Christ on the cross was primarily a manifestation
and example of God’s love for humanity.
1. Bernard of Clairvaux objected that it would not be loving for God to cru-
cify His Son simply to demonstrate the extent of His love.
2. As Anselm argued, the crucifixion is an act of love because God has paid
the debt that humanity owed.

III. Peter Lombard

A. Lombard lived from about 1096 until 1164.
B. While Lombard was not a creative theologian like Anselm or a speculative theo-
logian like Abelard, he nevertheless possessed a great systematic mind and was
skilled at compiling knowledge.
C. Lombard’s great work was Libri Quatuor Sententiarum, which means “four books
of sentences.”
i. This book synthesized the teachings of Augustine, the church fathers,
and other great theologians in order to show the consensus of Christian
thought.
ii. This book became one of the leading systematic theology textbooks of the
Middle Ages.
iii. Other scholars continued to interact with Lombard’s work up until the
time of the Reformation.
50  Church History II

D. As a student of Augustine’s writings, Lombard held a largely Augustinian view of

predestination.
i. At the time, this topic was still widely debated among scholars.
ii. Lombard was one of the first theologians to express the formula that
Christ died sufficiently for the whole world but that He died efficiently
for the elect only.
E. Lombard helped to establish a firm theological foundation for others to build upon
after him.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Anselm’s Cur Deus Homo is famous for its presentation of the a priori ontological
argument for the existence of God.
a. True
b. False

2. Anselm argued that it was necessary for Jesus to be fully God and fully man
because ______________.
a. Becoming human demonstrated God’s love for people
b. Only a God-man could both owe the debt of sin and pay it
c. That was the only way for Old Testament prophecies to be fulfilled
d. Jesus could not have risen from the dead without a real human body

3. Abelard’s Sic et Non demonstrated that the church had not always spoken with
one voice on doctrinal matters.
a. True
b. False

4. According to Abelard, the purpose of Christ’s crucifixion was ______________.

a. To show the destructive consequences of sin
b. To show the extent of God’s love for humanity
c. To ransom captured human souls from the Devil’s power
d. To pay a spiritual debt that man owed but could not pay

5. Peter Lombard’s great theological work, ______________, was used by the church as
a doctrinal textbook for centuries.
a. Sic et Non
b. Proslogion
c. Libri Quatuor Sententiarum
d. Summa Theologica
9—Theologians 51

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Summarize Anselm’s ontological argument. Do you find it to be persuasive? Why

or why not?

2. Dr. Godfrey observed that the Eastern church tended to focus on the Trinity and
Christology, while the Western church focused on the meaning of salvation. How
did Anselm’s theory of the atonement bring these themes together?

3. How did Abelard’s position on the crucifixion of Christ and atonement differ
from Anselm’s position? In what ways is Abelard’s view still influential today?

4. Peter Abelard emphasized the contradictions between different figures in church

history, while Peter Lombard focused more on what they had in common. In our
own study of theology, what are the benefits of learning from the teachers and
traditions of the past? What are some possible dangers of relying upon tradition?
How can knowledge of church history help us to understand and articulate bibli-
cal teaching in our day?
 10

Popes & Councils

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
As the Middle Ages progressed, certain issues remained unresolved. Second to none
in terms of its importance to the medieval church was the question of the pope’s
authority. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the papal office faced unique
challenges from secular authorities, from rival popes, and from clergy who sought to
consolidate the church’s power within ecumenical councils. As different popes suc-
cumbed to and overcame these challenges, the papacy found itself sometimes losing
ground, sometimes gaining ground, and always adapting to new realities within the
church and society.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Luke 22:24-27; John 13:1-16; 1 Timothy 3:1-16

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To examine the different views of papal authority that were circulating in the four-
teenth and fifteenth centuries.
2. To describe several events that influenced the attitudes of late medieval Chris-
tians toward the papacy.
3. To explain the historical background of the conciliar movement, its temporary
achievements, and its long-term effects.
4. To promote a greater understanding of how papal authority developed within
the Roman Catholic Church, with the papacy gradually becoming the institution
that it is today.

QUOTATIONS
Furthermore, we declare, we proclaim, we define that it is absolutely necessary for salva-
tion that every human creature be subject to the Roman Pontiff.
–Pope Boniface VIII
52
10—Popes & Councils 53

If, therefore, the status of the Supreme Pontiff is the holiest and most spiritual of all, and
if such spirituality consists in eminence of power, then it is well said that the Supreme
Pontiff, being the most spiritual man according to status and according to eminence of
power, judges all things, that is, lord of all things, and will himself be subject to the judg-
ment of no one: that is, no one will be able to be his lord or even his equal.
–Giles of Rome, archbishop of Bourges

This same council, legitimately assembled in the Holy Ghost, forming a general council
and representing the Catholic Church militant, has its power immediately from Christ,
and every one, whatever his state or position, even if it be the Papal dignity itself, is
bound to obey it in all those things which pertain to the faith and the healing of the said
schism, and to the general reformation of the Church of God.
–Decree Sacrosancta
of the Council of Constance

A frequent celebration of general councils is an especial means for cultivating the field
of the Lord and effecting the destruction of briars, thorns, and thistles, to wit, here-
sies, errors, and schism, and of bringing forth a most abundant harvest. The neglect
to summon councils fosters and develops all these evils, as may be plainly seen from a
recollection of the past and a consideration of existing conditions.
–Decree Frequens
of the Council of Constance

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Nature of Papal Authority

A. Although many popes had made bold claims about the extent of their authority, it
remained to be seen how these claims would play out in the life of the church.
B. Pope Boniface VIII represents the high water mark of papal claims.
i. Boniface VIII was pope from 1284 until 1303.
ii. Although he did not wield the same degree of influence as Innocent III,
he strongly articulated ideas of papal authority that had been developing
for centuries.
iii. In 1302, after a series of conflicts with Philip IV of France, Boniface
issued the papal bull known as Unam Sanctam.
1. He claimed that, as the head of the church, he was to govern all earthly
affairs on behalf of Christ.
2. Kings and rulers, then, were to submit to the Pope’s authority in all
matters.
iv. In 1303, Philip travelled to Italy with an armed force, captured Boniface,
and forcibly removed him from office.
v. Though Boniface had dramatically asserted papal authority, he did not
have the ability to back up his claims.
54  Church History II

C. At this time, experts in canon law were trying to define the exact character of papal
power.
i. Some advocated absolute papal monarchy, saying that only God can criti-
cize, judge, or remove a pope.
ii. Others advocated limited papal monarchy, which envisioned a papacy
that was held accountable to other institutions.
iii. Canon lawyers also thought about what should be done when there were
multiple claimants for the papal throne, and whether a pope could be
removed if he abused his powers or espoused heresy.

II. The Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism

A. In 1309 Pope Clement V, who was French by birth, decided to relocate the papal
court to Avignon, France.
i. Because a pope had never lived outside of Rome, this was a disconcerting
development for many Christians.
ii. The Pope’s seventy-year absence from Rome came to be known as the
“Babylonian captivity of the church.”
iii. During this time, there were many complaints of papal corruption and
fears that the French were exercising a disproportionate influence on
ecclesiastical affairs.
B. In 1377, due to the constant appeals to return to Rome, Pope Gregory XI moved the
papal court from Avignon back to Rome.
C. Upon Gregory’s death the next year, the French and Italian cardinals were divided
on their choice of a new pope.
i. When an Italian was elected, the French cardinals withdrew and elected
a Frenchman as their own pope.
ii. The resulting condition was one church with two popes.
D. In the resulting schism, each nation had to decide whether it would side with the
Italian pope in Rome or the French pope in Avignon.
i. Because each pope excommunicated those who opposed him, virtually all
of Europe found itself excommunicated by one pope or the other.
ii. This situation created a sense of uneasiness about whether one was in
fellowship with the true pope and partaking of the true sacraments, or
whether one was actually part of a false church.
E. In 1409, after thirty years of schism, the Council of Pisa resolved that both rival
popes should resign so that a new pope could preside over a united church.
i. This approach is described as via consessionis, “the way of resignation.”
ii. However, neither of the rival popes was willing to step down.
iii. As a result, the church now had three popes.

III. The Council of Constance and the Rise of Conciliarism

A. Eventually, the church resolved this crisis when it met at the Council of Constance
from 1414 until 1418.
10—Popes & Councils 55

i. The approach taken at Constance is described as the via conciliae, “the

way of the council,” or conciliarism.
ii. Among other things, the council determined that the institution of
the papacy was not adequate in itself to serve as the church’s ultimate
authority.
B. The decree Haec Sancta, also known as Sacrosancta, declared that ecumenical
councils were to be supreme in the life of the church.
i. The authority of the council was derived, not from the pope, but directly
from Christ.
ii. Consequently, the pope’s authority came, not directly from Christ, but
from the council.
C. The decree Frequens mandated that a council was to be called frequently by the
pope to help with the governance of the church.
D. As a movement, conciliarism ushered in a radical new paradigm that might have
profoundly changed the character of the Catholic Church.
E. The council, evoking its authority over the papacy, deposed all three rival popes
and elected a new pope.
i. Remarkably, this strategy succeeded.
ii. Europe, weary of the threefold schism, accepted this new pope.
iii. Eventually, realizing their loss of support, the rival popes withdrew their
claims.

IV. The Council of Basel and the Decline of Conciliarism

A. The Council of Basel convened in Basel, Switzerland, from 1431 until 1449.
i. In obedience to Frequens, Pope Martin V called a council to convene in 1431.
ii. As the council began to assert its rights more radically, hostilities began to
develop between the council and Martin’s successor, Pope Eugene IV.
iii. In an effort to exercise more control over the council, Eugene ordered the
council to reconvene in Italy.
iv. Some council members obeyed the papal order and reconvened as the
Council of Florence.
v. Those who remained at Basel became increasingly radical, eventually
attempting to depose Eugene and appoint a new pope.
B. Tired of seeing popes deposed and replaced at whim, Catholics began to grow dis-
illusioned with the Council of Basel and with conciliarism as a movement.
i. Though the Council of Basel continued to meet until 1449, it became
increasingly irrelevant to the life of the church.
ii. This mis-step by the council gave the pope an opportunity to reassert his
power.
C. The Council of Florence, under the direction of Eugene IV, exercised considerable
influence.
i. The council entered into negotiations with Constantinople to reunite the
Eastern and Western churches, an attempt which nearly succeeded.
56  Church History II

ii. The council officially declared that the church had seven sacraments.
1. The belief in seven sacraments was not new, as it extended to the time of
Peter Lombard and earlier.
2. However, this belief had not been universally accepted by the church
until the Council of Florence endorsed it.
D. As conciliarism lost its momentum, the papacy made it clear that church councils
would remain subject to the pope in the future.
i. Councils could only be called by the pope.
ii. Councils would be under the pope’s direct jurisdiction.
iii. The decrees of councils would only be binding if they received the pope’s
approval.
E. The conciliar movement, an attempt to define and limit the pope’s authority, ended
with the pope establishing himself more firmly as an absolute monarch over eccle-
siastical affairs.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. What claim did Boniface VIII make in his decree Unam Sanctam?
a. The pope was required by canon law to submit to a church council.
b. Only a pope should be able to choose who the next pope would be.
c. A council’s decrees were only valid if the pope gave his approval.
d. The pope had the right to govern all earthly affairs on behalf of Christ.

2. The phrase “Babylonian captivity of the church” refers to the era when the
church was divided between rival popes.
a. True
b. False

3. In 1409, ______________ attempted to resolve the schism between two popes, but
instead resulted in a third pope competing with the other two.
a. The Council of Basel
b. The Council of Florence
c. The Council of Pisa
d. The Council of Constance

4. The Council of Constance established all of the following decrees except

______________.
a. The pope must call a council on a regular basis.
b. A council could convene without being called by the pope.
c. The pope was not adequate to serve as the church’s supreme authority.
d. The pope received his authority from the council and was accountable to it.
10—Popes & Councils 57

5. The conciliar movement ended with the pope being firmly established as an
absolute monarch over the church.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Why did the papacy relocate to France in the fourteenth century? How did this
change affect the church?

2. How did politics and national interests contribute to the Western Schism? How
was this schism finally resolved, and what were the results?

3. What was promising about the conciliar movement? How do you think the
church might be different today if this movement had succeeded?

4. Late medieval perspectives on ecclesiastical authority usually considered the

church’s supreme authority to be the papacy, the church council, or a combina-
tion of the two. What are the strengths and weaknesses of these two institutions?
What is missing from this equation?
 11

Great Scholastics

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries represented an era of significant change
in the Medieval world. In the East, these centuries witnessed the final decline and
collapse of the Byzantine Empire. Meanwhile, institutions in the West continued to
develop and flourish. While European monarchs labored to build up their power
and prestige, the pope continued to increase his authority over the church. At the
same time, an influx of new ideas had ushered in a season of considerable academic
achievement. As Europe began to establish its first universities, talented Scholastics
appeared who dramatically shaped the trajectory of Christian thought.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Psalm 19:1-14; Psalm 24:1-2; Romans 1:18-20

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To describe the depth and detail of philosophy and theology in the late medieval
period.
2. To introduce key Christian thinkers of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
and explain some of their most important ideas.
3. To discuss theological themes of the Middle Ages that are still significant for the
church today.

QUOTATIONS
Some truths about God exceed all the ability of the human reason. Such is the truth that
God is triune. But there are some truths which the natural reason also is able to reach.
Such are that God exists, that He is one, and the like.
–Thomas Aquinas

58
11—Great Scholastics 59

O Lord our God! Thou art one in nature. Thou art one in number. Thou hast said truly
that outside of Thee there is no God. For although there are many gods in name or in
opinion, however, Thou art the only one by nature.
–John Duns Scotus

God exists in such a manner that He cannot not exist; in fact, He exists necessarily; and
He is not from something else.
–William of Ockham

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Rediscovery of Aristotle

A. Throughout the early Middle Ages, Aristotle’s works had not been widely circu-
lated in Europe.
B. As Europeans came into contact with Muslim scholars who had access to
Aristotle’s writings, new translations of works by Aristotle became available in the
West.
C. Aristotle’s ideas greatly stimulated intellectual developments in Europe, contrib-
uted to theological reflection, and in part helped to bring about centers of learning
such as universities.
D. Aristotle’s writings opened up new topics of discussion, such as the relationship
between reason, revelation, and faith.
i. Some thinkers claimed that revelation was no longer necessary.
ii. Others suggested that revelation teaches one truth and reason teaches
another.
iii. However, theologians such as Thomas Aquinas made an effort to show
how reason and philosophy could serve Christian faith and theology.
iv. Aristotle, therefore, became an important tool among later medieval
Scholastics as they wrestled with complex theological issues.
E. An important issue raised by Aristotelian philosophy was the relationship between
the Creator and the creation.
i. Among certain Christians, there was a definite otherworldly focus.
ii. In their zeal for the realities of heaven and salvation, they would essen-
tially ignore earthly matters.
iii. Although Thomas Aquinas was drawn to an ascetic life, he realized that
many Christians were in danger of denying the reality and value of this
world.
iv. In his Summa Contra Gentiles, Thomas reflected on the importance of
creation and concluded that an undervaluing of the created order can lead
to an undervaluing of God Himself.
v. Therefore, the approach taken by Thomas and other later Scholastics was
to unite reason and revelation in an effort to integrate grace, nature, and
the Christian life.
60  Church History II

II. The Life and Thought of Thomas Aquinas

A. Thomas Aquinas was born in Italy in 1225 and lived until 1274.
B. He was born into a wealthy and influential family and received an excellent
education.
C. As a young man, he joined the Dominican order, a decision that displeased his
family.
D. He became known as the “angelic doctor” because of his intellectual talents and his
writings on the subject of angels.
E. Some who knew him referred to him as a “dumb ox,” owing to his large stature and
quiet, studious disposition.
F. As a theologian, Thomas emphasized the reasonableness of Christianity.
i. The mind of God was reflected in creation and in salvation.
ii. By studying God’s revelation, humans can better understand God by
“thinking God’s thoughts after Him.”
G. Thomas’ summary of theology, Summa Theologica, is still considered one of the
greatest works of the Middle Ages.
H. Interestingly, Thomas’ work only became popular after his death.
i. He attracted relatively few followers when he was alive.
ii. Around the end of Thomas’ lifetime, theology began to move in different
directions.
iii. In the sixteenth century, a revival of Thomistic theology took place within
the Roman Catholic Church as it began to see Thomas’ writings as a use-
ful resource for resisting Protestant teachings.
iv. Other revivals of Thomism occurred in the nineteenth and twentieth
centuries.
v. Today, he is regarded as a towering figure within medieval thought.
I. Thomas had been profoundly influenced by the writings of Augustine.
i. While most medieval theologians valued and respected Augustine,
Thomas understood him on a deeper and more comprehensive level.
ii. However, Thomas’ Augustinianism sometimes manifested itself in sur-
prising ways.
iii. On the issue of election, Thomas was a consistently Augustinian
predestinarian.
iv. In spite of his Augustinian tendencies, Thomas and other medievals cau-
tioned that a person cannot know whether he is elect or not.
v. An Augustinian view of election, then, was paired with a proto-Arminian
view of assurance.
J. Believing that a person is justified by faith formed by love, Thomas emphasized a
rigorous pursuit of holiness.
i. Faith was often thought of as knowledge that is received as true.
ii. However, faith was of no avail unless it had been enlivened by love.
iii. Love, in late medieval belief, gave life and substance to faith.
iv. Receiving the sacraments, then, became a valued means of building up
love and therefore building up faith.
11—Great Scholastics 61

III. Nominalism
A. Thomas’ philosophy came to be called “Realism.”
B. Shortly after Thomas’ death, the movement known as “Nominalism” began to
emerge.
i. A leading predecessor of this movement was the Scottish philosopher
John Duns Scotus.
ii. Nominalism came to a more full expression in the work of William of
Ockham.
C. Nominalism emphasized God’s freedom and His ability to act according to His
wishes.
i. This movement raised questions about whether God could have accom-
plished redemption in different ways.
ii. Proponents of this thought were uneasy with trying to reason from nature
to theology because God transcends nature and exerts absolute power
over it.
D. Interestingly, Nominalist theology tended to gravitate in both Augustinian and
Pelagian directions.
i. Some Nominalists emphasized God’s sovereignty over human affairs,
including salvation.
ii. Other Nominalists, including William of Ockham, argued that the aim of
God’s freedom is to give freedom to humans, allowing for greater human
autonomy in salvation.
iii. More and more, the focus tended to drift toward human freedom and
responsibility in matters of faith.
E. Sadly, scholars of both Augustinian and Pelagian leanings increasingly misunder-
stood biblical teachings on faith.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. The rediscovery of Aristotle’s writings raised new intellectual questions and
prompted the establishment of new centers of learning.
a. True
b. False

2. How did Thomas Aquinas understand the relationship between faith and reason?
a. He championed faith and therefore saw little use for reason.
b. He believed that reason served and supported the Christian faith.
c. He used reason as a test to decide which articles of faith to believe.
d. He held that reason and revelation taught different truths and did not have a
bearing on one another.

3. Thomas gained a large following after the release of his great theological work,
Summa Theologica.
a. True
b. False
62  Church History II

4. According to Thomas, faith in Christ meant little unless it was enlivened by

______________.
a. Knowledge of Scripture.
b. The indwelling of the Holy Spirit.
c. Works of penance.
d. Love.

5. ______________ was a central theme in Nominalist theology.

a. The absolute freedom of God
b. The interplay between faith and reason
c. The necessity of holy living
d. The nature of the sacraments

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What were some of the ways that late medieval thinkers responded to the grow-
ing sense of tension between revelation, reason, and faith? Do you think there
is tension between them? Briefly describe the relationship between revelation,
reason, and faith in your own words.

2. Thomas Aquinas encountered many Christians who were so focused on spiritual

matters that they dismissed earthly matters as being of little importance. In what
ways does this tendency still exist today? What is a more biblical view of nature
and the created world?

3. Describe Thomas Aquinas’ view of faith. What dangerous extremes do you think
he was trying to avoid? What is problematic about his understanding of the role
of faith in salvation?

4. In what ways did medieval Nominalism adopt the ideas of Augustine? How did
certain Nominalist theologians depart from Augustine’s teachings?
 12

Mysticism & the Renaissance

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
As the Middle Ages continued to wind down in the fourteenth and fifteenth centu-
ries, a diverse array of movements continued to exercise influence inside and outside
the church. Amidst the backdrop of great Scholastic thinkers, other leaders appeared,
advocating a vision of the Christian life that was driven more by the heart than by
the head. Others responded to Scholasticism by looking to the ancient writings of
Greece and Rome for inspiration. As Western scholars became increasingly profi-
cient in classical languages and ancient texts, Christians inherited a variety of tools
and resources to help them better understand the church, the world around them,
and the words of Scripture.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
Mark 12:28-34; 2 Timothy 3:14-16

TEACHING OBJECTIVES
1. To describe the development of medieval mysticism.
2. To discuss mysticism’s contributions and potential dangers.
3. To introduce the goals, interests, and legacy of the Renaissance.
4. To explain the ways that the Renaissance shaped late medieval perceptions of
church, society, the written word, and the Word of God.

QUOTATIONS
Now God is not good, for He cannot become better. And if He cannot become better, He
cannot become best, for these three things, good, better, and best, are far from God, since
He is above all.
–Meister Eckhart

63
64  Church History II

Away then with trepidation, let fears far remove, let doubts pass away. With a brave
soul, with utter fidelity, with good hope, the cause of truth must be defended, the cause
of justice, the cause of God.
–Lorenzo Valla,
In his treatise discrediting the Donation of Constantine

I pondered on the fact that those who profess themselves pastors and doctors for the
most part misuse these titles, which belong to Christ, for their own advantage; to say
nothing of the moment of those whose fiat, yes or no, keeps all human affairs in perpet-
ual flux, and at whose faults, however obvious, it is scarcely permitted to let fall a sigh.
When all is dark, when the world is in tumult and men’s opinions differ so widely, where
can we take refuge, if not upon the sheet-anchor of the Gospel teaching?
–Desiderius Erasmus

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Path of Mysticism

A. In the late Middle Ages, theology was a significant pathway to God, but it was not
the only pathway.
i. Theological study was not an easy path, and it was not accessible to all
Christians.
ii. Many sought to connect with God through a direct, mystical experience
that transcended the mind.
B. Interestingly, the great scholar Thomas Aquinas reported a mystical encounter
with God near the end of his life.
i. He unexpectedly had a mystical experience while he was celebrating
mass.
ii. As a result of this experience, he stopped writing and declared that all his
previous writings seemed to be as worthless as straw.
C. Mysticism pursued an interaction with God that was rooted in the center of a per-
son’s being.
i. A person’s five senses were believed to be peripheral, enabling a person to
interact with the physical world.
ii. On a deeper level, the intellect enabled a person to reason, will, and inter-
act with the world of ideas, such as theology and philosophy.
iii. Deeper still, the core of a person’s soul was capable of connecting directly
with God, unmediated by the senses or intellect.
iv. Mystics sought to cultivate this type of experience through a careful emp-
tying of one’s self.
D. Pseudo-Dionysius
i. Dionysius the Aeropagite is mentioned in Acts 17:34 as one of the apostle
Paul’s converts during his time in Athens.
ii. Around the sixth century, a collection of writings appeared that was
attributed to Dionysius.
12—Mysticism & the Renaissance 65

iii. Though later proved to be a forgery, this collection of documents wielded

tremendous influence in the Middle Ages because it was believed to have
come from a friend of Paul.
iv. These writings outlined a process of gradually purging away bodily sensa-
tions and mental faculties in order to allow the divine light to illumine the
Christian’s soul like a spark.
E. Meister Eckhart
i. Meister Eckhart was a German mystic who lived in the late thirteenth and
early fourteenth centuries.
ii. Eckhart’s writings expressed his desire to become lost in the divine.
iii. Eckhart implied that he, as a human, was part of a larger divine reality.
iv. This view illustrates a Pantheistic tendency that exists in some forms of
mysticism.
v. While mysticism made some important contributions to medieval piety,
most theologians regarded this movement with considerable caution.

II. The Renaissance

A. The Renaissance movement of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries opened new
educational opportunities and reawakened European interest in the classical era.
B. Renaissance thinkers desired to recover ancient thought and culture, which they
believed had been lost or distorted by the Middle Ages.
i. One of the recurring slogans of the Renaissance was ad fontes, which
means “to the fountains” or “to the sources.”
ii. The western culture of the classical period was seen as being superior to
that of the medieval period.
iii. In the minds of Renaissance scholars, the mechanical and wooden Latin
of Thomas Aquinas compared unfavorably to the beautiful and eloquent
Latin writing of Cicero.
C. The revival of interest in ancient Latin works also stimulated interest in other
ancient languages such as Greek and Hebrew.
i. Despite the growing interest in ancient Greek culture, knowledge of the
Greek language had nearly been lost in the West.
ii. However, when Constantinople fell to the Turks in 1453, many Greek
scholars fled to Western Europe with ancient Greek texts.
iii. Equipped with a newfound knowledge of Greek and Hebrew, Western
scholars began to examine Scripture in the original languages for the first
time in centuries.
D. The invention of the movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the mid
1400s significantly aided the rapid distribution of Bibles and other ancient texts.
i. Scholars, clergy, and laypeople now had access to unprecedented educa-
tional opportunities.
ii. After reading ancient writings, many people became aware of differences
between the ancient church and the Roman Catholic Church of their day.
66  Church History II

E. Certain scholars, equipped with this new knowledge, brought clarity and scrutiny
to some of the church’s claims.
i. After studying the Donation of Constantine, Lorenzo Valla proved that it
could not have been written during Constantine’s lifetime and was, there-
fore, a forgery.
ii. This discovery, in effect, undermined the pope’s claim to political author-
ity over Western Europe.
iii. Desiderius Erasmus provided a new Latin translation of the Bible, provid-
ing clarity in certain places where the Vulgate’s wording had been vague
or misleading.
iv. Because the language of this translation was more vivid and more accessi-
ble, many people who read it gained a greater understanding of Scripture.
F. Although the Renaissance sometimes fostered an unnecessarily negative view of
the medieval past, it nevertheless helped to lay the foundations for a Christian
rediscovery of God’s Word.
G. For the first time in centuries, Christians were equipped to see past centuries of
traditions and assumptions in order to access Scripture and the earliest Christian
writings.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. After a mystical experience near the end of his life, ______________ reportedly com-
pared his written works to straw.
a. Francis of Assisi
b. Meister Eckhart
c. Desiderius Erasmus
d. Thomas Aquinas

2. Dionysius the Aeropagite was ______________.

a. One of the founders of Christian mysticism
b. The author of an influential collection of mystic writings
c. One of the apostle Paul’s converts in the city of Athens
d. All of the above

3. Shortly after his death, Meister Eckhart was canonized by the Catholic Church
in recognition of his contributions to medieval piety.
a. True
b. False
12—Mysticism & the Renaissance 67

4. At its root, the Renaissance represented a movement away from medieval tradi-
tions, institutions, and culture toward ______________.
a. Human reason, liberated from the traditions of the past
b. The ancient ideas, art, and culture of Greece and Rome
c. A religious ideal that was based on Scripture alone
d. The establishment of free societies with limited monarchies

5. After reading the biblical texts and other ancient writings, many Christians
began to sense a degree of separation between the ancient church and the Roman
Catholic Church of their day.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. What are the strengths of medieval mysticism? What are some of mysticism’s
potential dangers? At a time when the church focused so extensively on theology,
why was it beneficial for the voice of mysticism to be heard?

2. At particular times and in particular places, communities of Christians have a

tendency to emphasize one part of the Christian life—such as theology, personal
devotion, and good works—over the others. In light of this tendency, how are
Jesus’ words in Mark 12:30-31 helpful ?

3. Briefly describe some of the major changes that took place during the Renais-
sance. How did these changes promote a greater understanding of the Bible?
How did some of these changes contribute to a more secular society?

4. What factors contributed to the availability of the New Testament in Greek?

How did this development change the way that medieval Christians interacted
with the Bible?
 13

Forerunners
of the Reformation

MESSAGE INTRODUCTION
As the church continued to consolidate its power and define its beliefs, it did not
always act and speak with one voice. In the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, certain
churchmen began to speak out against the corrupt practices and unbiblical doctrines
that had become increasingly common within the medieval church. Emphasizing the
authority of the Bible and a life of genuine piety, these leaders quickly gained a large
following among the spiritually hungry common people. Though these reform move-
ments were fiercely opposed by the church, they helped to lay the groundwork for
profound spiritual changes that would come in later centuries.

SCRIPTURE READINGS
1 Kings 19:9-18; Matthew 16:18

TEACHING OBJECTIVES

1. To discuss the idea of a forerunner and the significance of historic forerunners to

the reformation.
2. To describe the lives and ideas of church leaders during the late medieval period
who critiqued problems within the church.
3. To identify biblical concerns and biblical truths within the church’s dissenting
voices.
4. To affirm that Christ was preserving and protecting His church during the
Middle Ages, despite the problems and errors that emerged during this time.

68
13—Forerunners of the Reformation  69

QUOTATIONS
But these and all others must know that, as there is no counsel against the Lord, so there
is no keeping down of verity, but it will spring up and come out of dust and ashes, as
appeared right well in this man; for though they dug up his body, burned his bones, and
drowned his ashes, yet the Word of God and the truth of his doctrine, with the fruit and
success thereof, they could not burn.
–John Foxe
Describing the legacy of John Wycliffe
in Foxe’s Book of Martyrs

Mine enemies in the Council, more numerous than were Christ’s, are found amongst the
bishops, and doctors, and also amongst the princes of this age, and the Pharisees. But I
confide myself entirely to Almighty God my Savior; I hope, therefore, he will grant my
ardent prayer, and put prudence and wisdom in my mouth, that I may be able to resist
them; that he may bestow on me his Holy Spirit to fortify me in the truth; so that the
gates of hell shall not be able to lead me from it, and that I may face, with an intrepid
heart, temptation, imprisonment, and the sufferings of a cruel death.
–John Huss,
Before his arrival at the Council of Constance

LECTURE OUTLINE

I. The Disputed Concept of Forerunners

A. The idea that there were medieval forerunners to the Protestant Reformation is a
controversial one.
i. There were not any theologians in the Middle Ages who completely
shared the Reformation point of view.
ii. Although many medieval leaders called for reform within the church, it
is not certain that they all would have supported the Reformation if it had
come during their lifetimes.
iii. To speak of forerunners to a movement can sometimes imply that the
movement was inevitable from a human point of view, which is a very
bold claim.
iv. Is it truthful, then, to associate these men with events that took place long
after their deaths?
B. While this may be a controversial concept, it is nevertheless a useful one.
i. As Protestants, we do not claim that the church died out during the
Middle Ages and had to be resurrected at the time of the Reformation.
ii. Instead, Christ has always fulfilled His promise that He would build His
church and that the gates of hell would not prevail against it.
iii. Though the gospel was at times misunderstood and clouded over, it was
not stamped out during the Middle Ages.
70  Church History II

iv. Throughout the Middle Ages, there were many staunch defenders of a
biblical, Augustinian, grace-oriented understanding of the gospel.
v. Among these defenders of the gospel, several spoke out prophetically as
critics of the growing problems within the church.

II. John Wycliffe

A. John Wycliffe was born in the 1320s and lived until 1384.
B. He was educated at Oxford and was recognized for his intellectual talents.
C. Eventually, he became a respected lecturer at Oxford.
D. As he continued his studies of the Bible, Wycliffe became increasingly critical of
certain tendencies within the church.
i. Although the pope claimed to be the head of the church on earth,
Wycliffe openly taught that Christ was the only head of the church.
ii. Wycliffe argued against the pope’s claim to political authority, a stance
which pleased the king of England.
iii. Against the notion that the church encompassed all of Christendom,
Wycliffe emphasized the invisible church as the elect of God.
E. As Wycliffe’s views became known, church leaders became increasingly critical
of Wycliffe, which, in turn prompted Wycliffe to become even more radical in his
views.
i. Wycliffe eventually equated the pope with the spirit of antichrist.
1. In response, the church condemned Wycliffe’s teachings.
2. Interestingly, Wycliffe’s colleagues at Oxford defended his theology as
orthodox.
ii. Wycliffe critiqued the perpetually binding monastic vow and the practice
of clerical celibacy, which he claimed were not biblically warranted and
were out of step with the freedom and mercies of Christ.
iii. Wycliffe rejected the necessity of oral confession to a priest, thereby
denying the sacrament of penance.
F. Wycliffe eventually went so far as to challenge the doctrine of transubstantiation.
i. This defied the ruling of the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215.
ii. This defied the church’s belief that Christ was physically present in the
bread and wine during the Lord’s Supper.
iii. This defied the medieval principle ex opera operato, the belief that the
sacraments were efficacious by nature of the mere fact that they had been
carried out.
iv. Wycliffe expressed the need for a translation of the Bible in English so
that the people could understand it, and he began producing his own Eng-
lish translation of Scripture.
v. Wycliffe died in prison in 1384, and his remains were later burned and
scattered.
vi. Wycliffe attracted thousands of followers, who became known as Lollards
and who carried his teachings throughout England and the rest of Europe.
13—Forerunners of the Reformation  71

III. John Huss

A. John Huss was born in Bohemia around 1369 and lived until 1415.
B. As a priest, Huss had been influenced by Wycliffe’s writings and agreed with
Wycliffe’s critiques of the church.
C. In the early 1400s, Huss began to preach publicly against abuses and immorality
within the church.
D. Like Wycliffe, Huss’ critiques of transubstantiation and the papacy both drew
many followers and aroused the anger of church leaders.
E. Huss was summoned to appear before the Council of Constance in order for his
views to be examined.
i. When he and his supporters hesitated, the council promised him safe
conduct to and from Constance.
ii. After Huss arrived at Constance, he was put on trial and condemned of
heresy.
iii. In spite of the promise of safe passage, Huss was burned at the stake.

IV. Johann von Staupitz

A. Johann von Staupitz was an Augustinian monk who had been a teacher and supe-
rior to Martin Luther.
B. Although Staupitz never left the Roman Catholic Church, his life and thought
marked a break with Roman Catholic theology.
i. In a treatise on predestination, Staupitz wrote that grace makes sinners
acceptable to God.
ii. In the thinking of Staupitz, grace is needed to alert sinners to the danger
of their spiritual condition and draw them to God.
iii. This belief marks a significant step toward a biblical, Augustinian under-
standing of grace.
C. Staupitz’s perspective on grace helped shape Luther’s understanding of grace.
D. Staupitz is a reminder that, though the church had become corrupt and mistaken
in many ways, there were many defenders of Augustinian teaching who helped to
prepare the way for the rediscovery of biblical truth.

STUDY QUESTIONS
1. Biblical Christianity had essentially died out during the Middle Ages and there-
fore needed to be resurrected at the time of the Protestant Reformation.
a. True
b. False

2. John Wycliffe taught that the church ______________.

a. Included everyone who lived in Christendom
b. Was limited to those who had been baptized
c. Ought to be the most powerful political force in Europe
d. Consisted of the elect of God
72  Church History II

3. John Wycliffe criticized all of the following except ______________.

a. The practice of clerical celibacy
b. The church’s understanding of grace
c. The doctrine of transubstantiation
d. The sacrament of penance

4. John Huss was condemned as a heretic and executed by which council?

a. The Council of Trent
b. The Council of Basel
c. The Fourth Lateran Council
d. The Council of Constance

5. At one point, Johann von Staupitz had been a friend and superior to Martin
Luther.
a. True
b. False

BIBLE STUDY AND DISCUSSION QUESTIONS

1. Do you think that it is helpful to think of John Wycliffe, John Huss, and Johann
von Staupitz as forerunners to the Reformation? Why or why not? Can you think
of others that you would describe as forerunners to the Reformation?

2. Why did men like John Wycliffe and John Huss attract so many followers? What
does this say about the hunger of the people for the Word of God, both then and
today?

3. How do Christ’s words “I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not
prevail against it” (Matthew 16:18) inform our perspective on the medieval
church?

4. How has your understanding of church history changed as a result of these

lectures on the medieval church? What insights have you gained that you would
like to share with others? What else would you like to learn about this period in
history?
 Appendix

Resources for Further Study

Anselm of Canterbury, Proslogion

Anselm of Canterbury, Cur Deus Homo

Bernard of Clairvaux, On Loving God

Gregory the Great, Pastoral Care

Kuiper, B.K., The Church in History

Lawson, Steven, Pillars of Grace

Rubenstein, Jay, Armies of Heaven: The First Crusade and the Quest for Apocalypse

Schaff, Philip, History of the Christian Church, volumes 4-6

Sproul, R.C. Are We Together?: A Protestant Analyzes Roman Catholicism

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Contra Gentiles

Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica

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