Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 1

CHAPTER 1
MOTION IN A PLANE
1.1 TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION
Two-dimensional motion: If an object moves in a plane, and it may move in both the x and
y directions simultaneously, then the motion of the object is said to be a two-dimensional
motion.
1. In order to describe the motion of an object in two dimensions, vector concept must be
used.
2. The object moves along a curved path between points P and Q as shown in Figure 1.1.

3. The displacement vector of the object from P to Q is r .
  
4. The perpendicular components of r are x and y .

path of motion
y-axis at t2
Q
at t1 r
P
r
y

x-axis x
   
5. The vector equation of r is, r  x  y

6. The magnitude of r is, r  x 2  y 2
 ∆ ∆
7. The direction of r is, tan 𝜃 (OR) 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛
∆ ∆
∆⃗
8. Average velocity is, 𝑣⃗̅
∆
∆⃗ ⃗
9. Instantaneous velocity is, 𝑣⃗ lim
∆ → ∆
∆⃗
10. Average acceleration is, 𝑎⃗
∆
∆⃗ ⃗
11. Instantaneous acceleration is, 𝑎⃗ lim
∆ → ∆
2 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

12. An object moving with constant speed along a curved path is accelerating as the direction
of the velocity is changing.
13. The direction of the velocity of the object is tangential to its path.
14. An object is accelerated whenever the velocity changes in magnitude, direction, or both.

Chapter 1: Exercise 1.1

R003: Draw the diagram to show the direction of velocity of an object which is moving along
a curved path and then draw the vector diagram to show the velocity components in
x and y directions at a starting point P.

y-axis at t2
v
Q
vy
Ans: at t1 path of motion
P vx

x-axis
E01: A stone is thrown from the cliff of a mountain upward at an angle of 30° to the
horizontal with an initial speed of 20 m s-1. Calculate the x and the y components of
its initial velocity.
Ans: v0 = 20 m s-1, 0 = 30
y-axis
Horizontal components of initial velocity,
v0x = v0 cos 0 v0
v0y
= 20 cos 30 0 = 30
= 20  0.866 = 17.32 m s-1 v0x x-axis

Vertical components of initial velocity,

v0y = v0 sin 0
= 20 sin 30
= 20  0.5 = 10 m s-1
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 3

E02: A soccer ball is kicked at an angle with the ground. The ball traverses the horizontal
distance of 10 m and the vertical distance of 3 m in 3 s. Find the displacement and the
average velocity of the ball in 3 s.
Ans: the horizontal distance is, x = 10 m,
r
the vertical distance is, y = 3 m y

the magnitude of displacement is, x
∆𝑟 ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 10 3 = 10.44 m
the direction of the displacement is,
∆
𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0.3 16 42
∆

the magnitude of the average velocity is,

∆ .
∆𝑣 = 3.48 m s-1
∆

The direction of average velocity is the same as the direction of the displacement.
4 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

1.2 PROJECTILE MOTION

Projectile: A projectile is any object thrown into space upon which the only acting force is
the gravity.
Trajectory: The path followed by a projectile is known as a trajectory.
Projectile motion: The motion of an object moving in both horizontal x direction and
vertical y direction simultaneously is called the projectile motion.
1. Examples for the projectile motion are water fountain, the motion of cannon ball, the
motion of the football as shown in Figure 1.2.

2. In the projectile motion, the path of motion is a curve.

3. If air resistance is neglected, an object moves along the horizontal x direction with a
constant velocity and in the vertical y direction with constant downward acceleration. In
such case, only gravitational force is acting on it.
4. The downward acceleration is the acceleration due to gravity g which is a constant over
the range of motion.
5. The vertical motion of projectile is a free fall motion.
6. In Figure 1.3, the initial velocity
of projectile is v0. If the initial
velocity makes an angle θ0 with
the horizontal, the x and y
components of the initial
velocity are
v0x = v0 cos θ0 and v0y = v0 sin θ0.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 5

7. In order to analyze the projectile motion, the motion can be considered into two parts,
horizontal motion (x direction) and vertical motion (y direction).
8. In x direction, ax = 0 and vx = v0x = v0 cos θ0 = constant.
9. The horizontal displacement of projectile can be written as a function of time;
x = v0x t = (v0 cos θ0) t.
10. In y direction, the equations and concepts are based on linear motion of free fall.
11. In solving the free fall problems, we are going to use one
upwards
dimensional coordinate system with origin taken as the initial h=+
position of the body under consideration. v, v0 = +
12. The upward velocity (vy) and the displacement (y) above the g=-
t=+
origin are positive. origin
downwards
13. The downward velocity (vy) and the displacement (y) below h=-
the origin are negative. v, v0 = -
14. Since the acceleration due to gravity g is always directed g=-
t=+
downwards, its value will be negative.
15. In y direction, v0y is the initial velocity and ay is - g.
16. We have taken the upward direction to be positive.
17. Since the acceleration along the vertical y direction is downward direction, g can be
taken as negative sign.
18. The velocity and the displacement of projectile in time t are given by the following equations.
Linear motion projectile motion Using ay = -g, ax = 0
v = v0 + a t vy = v0y + ay t vy = v0y - g t
vx = v0x + ax t vx = v0x
v2 = v02 + 2 a s vy2 = v0y2 + 2 ay y vy2 = v0y2 - 2 g y
s = v0 t + ½ a t2 y = v0y t + ½ ay t2 y = v0y t - ½ g t2
x = v0x t + ½ ax t2 x = v0x t
19. The magnitude of the velocity of the projectile at any instant of time is,
𝑣 𝑣 𝑣
6 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

20. The direction of the velocity of the projectile at any instant of time is,
tan 𝜃 (OR) 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛

21. Let the time taken by the projectile to reach the highest point is t1,
The vertical component of the velocity at the highest point is zero. (vy = 0)
vy = v0y + ay t
0 = v0y - g t1

The time of flight (T) is twice the time to reach the maximum height (t1).

T = 2 t1 =

Time of flight: The time of flight of a projectile is the time interval between the instant of
its launch and the instant when it hits the same horizontal level.

22. Let the maximum height be H,

Using the equation, y = v0y t + ½ ay t2 Using the equation, vy2 = v0y2 + 2 ay y
when y = H, t = t1 when y = H, vy = 0
H = v0y t1 - ½ g t12 0 = v0y2 - 2 g H

H =v0y - ½ g( )2 = -½ H=

H=

23. The horizontal range R is the horizontal distance from the starting point to the point
where the projectile returns to the same height as shown in Figure 1.4.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 7

24. The horizontal range R is obtained by using x = R and t = T

x = v0x t

R = v0x T = 𝑣

Since, 2 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜃 sin 2𝜃

R=

25. The projectile may be thrown

horizontal velocity, v0
horizontally as shown in Figure 1.5.
26. There is no vertical component to its
y
initial velocity; that is,
v0y = 0, v0x = v0, x = v0x t = v0 t
27. The vertical velocity of the object in x
the time t is,
Fig 1.5: Projectile motion of
vy = v0y + ay t = 0 – g t = -g t an object thrown horizontally
28. The vertical displacement of the object in the time t is, y = v0y t + ½ ay t2 = – ½ g t2
Chapter 1: Exercise 1.2
R006: (i) Why is the horizontal motion of the projectile taken as uniform motion?
Ans: Because the horizontal acceleration is zero. (ax = 0)
R006: (ii) Under what conditions can you have the two-dimensional motion with a one-
dimensional acceleration?
Ans: Projectile motion, when air resistance is neglected or there is only gravitational force
acting on the object in motion.
Formulae for Calculation
Linear motion projectile motion Using ay = -g, ax = 0
v = v0 + a t vy = v0y + ay t vy = v0y - g t
vx = v0x + ax t vx = v0x
v2 = v02 + 2 a s vy2 = v0y2 + 2 ay y vy2 = v0y2 - 2 g y
s = v0 t + ½ a t2 y = v0y t + ½ ay t2 y = v0y t - ½ g t2
x = v0x t + ½ ax t2 x = v0x t
8 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Time to reach the highest point = 𝑡 , Time of flight = T = 2 t1

Maximum height reached = H = Horizontal range = R =

v0x = v0 cos 0, v0y = v0 sin 0, ax = 0, ay = g

E03: An object is projected upward with a 30 launch angle and an initial speed of 40 m s-1.
How long will it take for the object to reach the top of its trajectory? Find the
maximum height of its trajectory.
Ans: v0 = 40 m s-1, 0 = 30, ay = g = 9.8 m s-2, y
v0x = v0 cos 0 = 40  cos 30 v0
= 40  0.866 = 34.64 m s-1
o H
v0y = v0 sin 0 = 40  sin 30 x
R
= 40  0.5 = 20 m s-1
Time to reach at the highest point is,
𝑡 = 2.04 s
.

Maximum height is,

H= = 20.41 m
.

E04: A bomb is dropped from an airplane moving horizontally with its speed of 50 m s-1.
If the bomb will reach the ground in 5 s, find the altitude of the plane. The air
resistance is negligible.
Ans: The plane velocity is the initial velocity of the bomb.
v0 = v0x
v0x = 50 m s-1, v0y = 0, ay = g = 9.8 m s-2, t = 5 s
The displacement of the bomb, y
y = v0y t + ½ ay t2
x
= 0 – ½ g t2
= – ½  9.8  52
= 122.5 m (downwards)
The attitude of the plane is 122.5 m
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 9

E05: A stone is thrown with a speed 20 m s-1 and at an angle of 30 above the horizontal.
Find (i) the horizontal range (ii) the maximum height reached (iii) the time of flight
of the stone.
Ans: v0 = 20 m s-1, 0 = 30, ay = -g = -9.8 m s-2,
v0x = v0 cos 0 = 20  cos 30 = 20  0.866 = 17.32 m s-1
v0y = v0 sin 0 = 20  sin 30 = 20  0.5 = 10 m s-1
y
.
(i) R = = = 35.35 m
.
v0
(ii) H = = 5.10 m o H
.
x
R
(iii) T = = = 2.04 s
.

Q01: A cannon ball is shot with initial velocity 141.4 m s-1 with 45 angle of inclination.
Find the position and velocity of the cannon ball at 5 s.
Ans: v0 = 141.4 m s-1, 0 = 45, ay = -g = -9.8 m s-2, t = 5 s
v0x = v0 cos 0 = 141.4  cos 45 = 141.4  0.7071= 99.98 m s-1
v0y = v0 sin 0 = 141.4  sin 45 = 141.4  0.7071 = 99.98 m s-1
At t = 5 s,
vx = v0x = 99.98 m s-1
vy = v0y + ay t = 99.98 – 9.8  5 = 99.98 – 49 = 50.98 m s-1

The magnitude of the velocity is,

𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 = √99.98 50.98

99.96 25.99 10 √126.0 10 = 112.2 m s-1

.
The direction of the velocity is, 𝜃 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝑡𝑎𝑛 0.5099 = 27 1
.

x = v0x t = 99.98  5 = 499.9 m

y = v0y t + ½ ay t2 = 99.98  5 – ½  9.8  52 = 499.9 – 122.5 = 377.4 m
The cannon ball will be at a point of coordinates (x = 499.9 m, y = 377.4 m)
10 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q02: A stone is thrown horizontally from a cliff 100 ft high. The initial velocity is 20 ft s-1.
How far from the base of the cliff does the stone strike the ground?
v0 = 20 ft s-1, 0 = 0, ay = g = 32 ft s-2, y = 100 ft (downwards)
v0x = v0 = 20 ft s-1, v0y = 0
y = v0y t + ½ ay t2
–100 = 0 – ½  32  t2
100
𝑡
16
𝑡 = 2.5 s

Horizontal distance = x = v0x t = 20  2.5 = 50 ft

Q03: A ball is thrown horizontally with an initial speed of 10 m s-1 from an 80 m cliff. How
long does it take to reach the ground?
v0 = 10 m s-1, v0x = v0 = 10 m s-1, v0y = 0ay = -g = -9.8 m s-2, y = 80 m (downwards)
y = v0y t + ½ ay t2
–80 = 0 – ½  9.8  t2

𝑡 = 16.33
.

t = 4.04 s
Q04: A footballer kicked a ball with an initial velocity of 20 m s-1 at an angle of 60. (i) How
long is the ball in the air? (ii) What are the range and maximum height of the ball?
v0 = 20 m s-1, 0 = 60, ay = g = 9.8 m s-2,
v0x = v0 cos 0 = 20  cos 60 = 20  0.5 = 10 m s-1
v0y = v0 sin 0 = 20  sin 60 = 20  0.866 = 17.32 m s-1
.
(i) T = = = 3.53 s
.
.
(ii) R = = = 35.35 m
.

.
H= = 15.31 m
.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 11

1.3 CIRCULAR MOTION

1. Circular motion is a specific type of a two-dimensional motion.
Circular motion: Circular motion is a movement of an object along the circumference of a
circle, or rotation along a circular path.
2. If a ball is tied to the end of a string and whirl it above the head in a horizontal circle, the
ball is undergoing the circular motion as shown in Figure 1.6 (a). We can experience a
pulling force (known as the tension) exerted on the ball by the string.

3. Other examples of the circular motion are a satellite orbiting the earth [Fig 1.6 (b)], the
motion of a wheel [Fig 1.6 (c)] and the turning of a car around a curved path [Fig 1.6 (d)].
4. If an object (rigid body) rotates about an axis, each particle consisting of the object
moves in a circular motion.
5. Although an object moves in a circle at a constant speed, its velocity is not constant.
6. The direction of the velocity is tangential to the path.
7. Velocity is constantly changing as the direction of the velocity is changing continuously.
8. The velocity in circular motion is also called the tangential velocity.
9. Fig 1.7 shows an object moves along a circular path. y-axis
v
10. The object undergoes the circular motion about O.
11. Since the object is on the reference line, its angular r s


position is zero. O x-axis
12. After time t, it has moved to a new position.
13. In this time interval, it has rotated through an angle Fig 1.7: The angular displacement of
an object in circular motion
 with respect to the reference line and through a
distance s measured along the circumference of the circle, called an arc length.
12 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Angular displacement: Change of the angular position is called the angular displacement θ.
14. The angular displacement is the ratio of the arc length to radius.
15. The magnitude of angular displacement (θ), measured in radian (rad), is given by
𝜃 (OR) s = r

= angular displacement, s = arc length, r = radius of circle

16. Angular displacement can also be expressed in degree and revolution (rev).
1 rev = 2 rad = 360, ½ rev =  rad = 180,
One radian: One radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc
whose length is equal to the radius of the circle.
If s = r, then  = 1 rad

90° 90° rad, 60° 60° rad, 30° 30° rad

° ° °

Average Angular Velocity and Instantaneous Angular Velocity

17. Fig 1.8 shows angular displacement of an object;
y-axis 
θ1 at time instant t1 and θ2 at time instant t2. t2
Average angular velocity: Average angular  t1
 
velocity is the ratio of the change in angular O x-axis
displacement to the time taken.
𝜃 𝜃 ∆θ Fig 1.8: Change of angular displacement
𝜔
𝑡 𝑡 ∆𝑡 with time in circular motion
where, 𝜔 = average angular velocity,  = angular displacement in time interval t.
18. If the time interval Δt approaches zero, the instantaneous angular velocity is,
∆θ dθ
𝜔 lim
∆ → ∆𝑡 d𝑡
Instantaneous angular velocity: Instantaneous angular velocity is defined as the time rate of
change of angular displacement.

19. At constant angular velocity, 𝜔 𝜔 and 𝜔 ,

where ω is angular velocity, θ is angular displacement and t is time taken.

20. Angular velocity is measured in radian per second (rad s−1), revolution per second
(rps, rev s-1) and revolution per minute (rpm, rev min−1).
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 13

Average Angular Acceleration and Instantaneous Angular Acceleration

Average angular acceleration: The average angular acceleration is the ratio of change of
angular velocity to time taken.
21. The average angular acceleration is given by
𝜔 𝜔 ∆ω
𝛼
𝑡 𝑡 ∆𝑡
where, 𝛼 = average angular acceleration,  = angular velocity in time interval t,
1 = angular velocity at time instant t1, 2 = angular velocity at time instant t2,
22. If the time interval Δt approaches zero, the instantaneous angular acceleration is,
∆ω dω
𝛼 lim
∆ → ∆𝑡 d𝑡
Instantaneous angular acceleration: The instantaneous angular acceleration is the value
of the angular acceleration at a specific instant of time. Instantaneous angular acceleration
is the time rate of change of angular velocity.
23. When a body is moving with a constant angular acceleration, 𝛼 𝛼.
𝜔 𝜔
𝛼 𝛼
𝑡
where,  = angular acceleration,  = final angular velocity,
0 = initial angular velocity, t = time taken
24. Angular acceleration is measured in radian per second squared (rad s−2) and revolution
per second squared (rev s-2).
Relation between Angular and Linear Quantities
25. The magnitude of the angular velocity (angular speed) is related to that of the tangential
velocity (tangential speed) as follows,
d𝑠
𝑣
d𝑡
𝑣 (because s = r)

𝑣 𝑟 (because r = constant)

𝑣 𝑟𝜔 (because 𝜔)
14 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

26. Figure 1.9 shows the direction of the linear velocity and the angular velocity.

27. The relation between the angular acceleration α and the tangential acceleration a is
d𝑣
𝑎
d𝑡
𝑎 (because v = r)

𝑎 𝑟 (because r = constant)

𝑎 𝑟𝛼 (because 𝛼)

28. Angular velocity and angular acceleration are vector quantities.

29. The direction of linear acceleration a is tangential to the path. It is called the tangential
acceleration.
30. The unit of  is rad s−1 and the unit of  is rad s−2.

Linear motion Circular motion Relation

v = v0 + a t  = 0 +  t s = r
v2 = v02 + 2 a s 2 = 02 + 2   v = r
s = v0 t + ½ a t2  = 0 t + ½  t2 a = r
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 15

Chapter 1: Exercise 1.3

R010: Calculate the angular speed of the second hand and the minute hand of a clock in
terms of rad s-1.
Ans: For second hand,
 = 2 rad, t = 60 s
∆
𝜔 𝜔 rad s-1
∆

For minute hand,

 = 2 rad, t = 60 min = 3600 s
∆
𝜔 𝜔 rad s-1
∆

E06: Express the angular velocity of a 45 rpm (revolutions per minute) record turntable in
units of radians per second.

Ans: 45 rpm = 1.5  rad s-1

E07: The angular velocity of a rotating disc increases from 2 rad s−1 to 5 rad s−1 in 10 s.
What is the average angular acceleration?
Ans: 0 = 2 rad s−1,  = 5 rad s−1, t = 10 s, 𝛼 =?

𝛼 = 0.3 rad s−2

E08: A particle in disc rotating with a uniform angular speed of 2 rev s-1 is 0.2 m from the
axis of rotation. What are (i) the tangential speed of the particle and (ii) the angle
through which it rotates in 3 s?
Ans: Since a particle rotates with a uniform angular speed, the motion of particle is uniform
circular motion.
 = 2 rev s-1 = 2  (2 rad s-1) = 4 rad s-1, r = 0.2 m
(i) the tangential speed = v =?
v = r = (0.2)  (4) = 0.8 m s-1 = 0.8  (3.142) m s-1 = 2.514 m s-1
(ii) t = 3 s, the angle through which it rotates =  =?
 = t = (4)  (3) = 12 rad = 6 rev
16 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E05: A circular disc rotates initially at rest experiences a uniform angular acceleration of
0.25 rad s−2. What is the angular speed after rotating 10 s?
Ans: 0 = 0 rad s−1,  = 0.25 rad s−2, t = 10 s,  =?
 = 0 +  t = 0 + 0.25  10 = 2.5 rad s−1
Q06: A disc rotating at angular speed of 10 rad s−1 is slowed down by a uniform angular
acceleration to a speed of 4 rad s−1 in 3 s. What is the angular acceleration?
Ans: 0 = 10 rad s−1,  = 4 rad s−1, t = 10 s, 𝛼 =?

𝛼 𝛼 = -2 rad s−2

Q07: The tips of the blades in a food blender are moving with a speed of 21 m s−1 in a circle
that has a radius of 0.053 m. How much time does it take for the blades to make one
revolution?
Ans: v = 21 m s−1, r = 0.053 m,  = 1 rev = 2 rad, t =?
v = r

𝜔 = 396.2 rad s-1

.

Assume the blander is rotating with constant speed,

 = t
.
𝑡 = 0.01586 s
.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 17

CHAPTER 2
ROTATIONAL DYNAMICS
1. The dynamics of translational motion involves describing the acceleration of an object
in terms of its mass (inertia) and the forces that act on it.
2. By analogy, the dynamics of the rotational motion involves describing the angular
acceleration of an object in terms of its rotational inertia and the torques that act on it.
2.1 SCALAR PRODUCT AND VECTOR PRODUCT
3. Vectors can be multiplied in two different ways; the scalar product and the vector product.
Scalar Product (Dot Product)
4. In the scalar product, a scalar can be formed by multiplying two vectors.
5. The scalar product of vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is defined as the following equation,
𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
where,  = the angle between 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ , A, B = magnitudes of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ respectively
6. The scalar product is also called the dot product.
7. Work is the scalar product of force and displacement. Although the force and the
displacement are vectors, the work is a scalar.
8. The scalar product is commutative. [𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗ ⋅ 𝐴⃗]
Vector Product (Cross Product)
C
9. The vector product of vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is defined as
𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐶⃗ B

10. The magnitude of 𝐶⃗ is C = A B sin θ and the direction A

of 𝐶⃗ is determined by using the right-hand rule.

11. The direction of 𝐶⃗ is perpendicular to the plane that Fig 2.1: The direction of C is
perpendicular to both A and B.
⃗ ⃗
contains 𝐴 and 𝐵 as shown in Fig 2.1.
12. The result of vector product of two vectors is a vector quantity.
13. The vector product between two vectors is denoted by a cross (×), hence this product is
called the cross product.
18 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

14. The vector product does not obey the commutative property. [𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐵⃗ 𝐴⃗ ]
15. The formulae for the torque and the angular velocity are determined by using the vector
product.
16. The tangential velocity in a circular motion is expressed in terms of the radius and the
angular velocity as, 𝑣⃗ 𝜔⃗ 𝑟⃗.
Right-hand rule: To use the right-hand rule, first you have
to hold up your right hand so that the index finger and the
middle finger are perpendicular to the thumb. Now rotate
your hand such that your index finger points in the direction
of 𝐴⃗ and your middle finger points in the direction of 𝐵⃗ . Your
thumb will point in the direction of the cross product 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗
as shown in Figure 2.2.

Chapter 2: Exercise 2.1

R014: Why is the work a scalar quantity when both the force and the displacement are vector
quantities?
Ans: Because the work is the scalar product of the force and the displacement.
E01: The magnitude of 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ are 5 units and 8 units respectively. If the angle between

𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ is 60, calculate (i) 𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ (ii) 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ .

Ans: A = 5 units, B = 8 units,  = 60

𝐴⃗ ⋅ 𝐵⃗ = A B cos  = 5  8  cos 60 = 40  0.5 = 20 (square) units

The magnitude of 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ = C
C = A B sin  = 5  8  sin 60 = 40  0.866 = 34.64 (square) units
The direction of 𝐴⃗ 𝐵⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵⃗ .
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 19

2.2 TURNING EFFECT OF FORCE

1. When a force is applied to an object, it can turn the object about a certain point called the
pivot. The pivot is also known as the fulcrum.
2. Figure 2.3 shows the location of the pivot, the direction of the applied force and the turning
effect of the force produced.

3. There are many examples around us where we use the turning effect of force. Kids playing
seesaw, lifting a load by using a crowbar, opening a door of a room and tightening or
loosening a nut by turning a spanner are familiar to us in daily life. In all these cases, the
objects experiencing the turning effects are pivoted either at the hinges or fulcrums.
Moment of a Force or Torque z
4. A force which acts on a pivoted body at a distance =rF
from the fulcrum tends to make that body rotate.
5. The turning effect of a force about a particular fulcrum
y
is measured by the moment of that force.
r
6. The moment of a force is also known as torque. F
Moment of a force or torque: Torque is a vector quantity x 
and its vector form can be expressed as,
Fig 2.4: Torque, , as a
𝜏⃗ 𝑟⃗ 𝐹⃗ product of r and F
where, 𝜏⃗ = the moment of the force, 𝐹⃗ = the force,
𝑟⃗ = the displacement vector from the fulcrum to the point of action of the force
7. The direction of the torque 𝜏⃗ is perpendicular to both 𝑟⃗ and 𝐹⃗ as shown in Figure 2.4.
20 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

8. The distance from the fulcrum to the point of action of the force is r and  is the angle
between vectors 𝑟⃗ and 𝐹⃗ as shown in Figure 2.4 and 2.5 (a).

r d
point of action F
fulcrum 

d F sin (180  ) = sin  fulcrum
d = r sin  line of action of force
line of action of force
Fig (a) Fig (b)
Fig 2.5: Applied force acting on the rigid body, and the moment arm

9. The magnitude of the moment of the force or the torque  is defined as the product of the
force F and the perpendicular distance d from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum.
 = F r sin  = F d
where  = the moment of the force or the torque, F = the magnitude of the force, d = the
perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the fulcrum (the moment arm)
Moment arm of a force: The perpendicular distance from the line of action of the force to the
fulcrum (d = r sin ) is also called the moment arm of a force.
10. The line of action of a force is a line along which the force is considered to act.
11. If a force acting on the object is at an angle of 90, r equals d as shown in Figure 2.5(b ).
12. In SI units, the moment of a force or the torque is measured in newton metre (N m, which is
never written as joule, because the unit of work done and energy is the joule. [J = N m]).
Chapter 2: Exercise 2.2
R016: Which quantity is a measure of the turning effect of a force?
Ans: the moment of that force or the torque
E02: The length of a beam AB is 2 m and the force F acting at B is B A
10 N in given figure. Find the moment arm of the force and the 60
magnitude of torque (the moment of force) about the point A. F

Ans: F = 10 N, r = 2 m,  = 60 r
B A
d = r sin  = 2  sin 60 = 2  0.866 = 1.732 m  = 60
 = F d = 10  1.732 = 17.32 N m d
F
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 21

E03: In the given figure, a force of 10 N is applied to a spanner

to tighten a nut. The length of the spanner is 0.2 m. What is
the moment of the force exerted when the force acts at
(i) the end and (ii) the middle of spanner?

For both cases, the angle between 𝐹⃗ and 𝑟⃗ is 90.

(i) d = r = 0.2 m,
F = 10 N
=Fd
= 10  0.2 = 2 N m
(ii) d = r/2 = 0.2 m/2 = 0.1 m,
F = 10 N
=Fd
= 10  0.1 = 1 N m
Q04: A student pulls down with a force of 40 N on a rope that winds around a pulley of
radius 0.2 m. Find the torque acting on the pulley.
F = 40 N, d = r = 0.2 m
r
The angle between 𝐹⃗ and 𝑟⃗ is 90.
 = F d = 40  0.2 = 8 N m F

Q05: A simple pendulum with the bob of 0.5 kg and its length of 80 cm is suspended from
a rigid clamp. Find the torque produced by the weight of bob about the point of
suspension when the pendulum is swung 20 from vertical line.
Ans: m = 0.5 kg, r = 80 cm = 0.8 m,  = 20
F = w = mg = 0.5  9.8 = 4.9 N d
r Line of
d = r sin  = r sin 20 = 0.8  0.3420 = 0.2736 m  action
 = F d = 4.9  0.2736 = 1.341 N m
F 
22 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q06: A student performs an experiment on turning effect of a force using a half metre rule
of negligible mass. (i) He holds the half-metre rule at 40 cm mark in a horizontal
position and hangs a 5 N weight at 15 cm mark. What is the moment of the weight
about his hand? (ii) He then moves the weight to the 5 cm mark. He feels that it is
more difficult to maintain the half-metre rule in the horizontal position. Explain why.
(i) d = 40 cm – 15 cm = 25 cm = 0.25 m
d
F=5N
 = F d = 5  0.25 = 1.25 N m F
(ii) d2 = 40 cm – 5 cm = 35 cm = 0.35 m
d2
F=5N
2 = F d2 = 5  0.35 = 1.75 N m F

Since d2 > d and 2 > , he feels that it is more difficult to maintain the half-metre rule
in the horizontal position.
Q03: To get the larger turning effect of a force, how should the applied force be acted?
We have  = F r sin 
If F is constant,
The force must be acted at a point as far as possible from the fulcrum.
The angle  must be 90.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 23

2.3 RELATION BETWEEN TORQUE AND MOMENT OF INERTIA

Moment of Inertia F
1. Consider a particle of mass m at a distance r from the axis 
of rotation, being acted upon by a tangential force 𝐹⃗ as m
shown in Figure 2.6. r

2. Let its angular velocity be () and its angular acceleration

be () rotational axis
3. Tangential acceleration a of that particle rotating about an Fig 2.6 Rotation of a
axis is particle about a fixed axis
with the angular velocity 
a = r .
4. According to Newton’s second law, F=ma=mr
Torque due to tangential force,  = F r = (m r ) r
 = m r2 
The term m r2 is the moment of inertia of that particle about the axis (I).
=I
5. If an object is composed of the particles of masses m1, m2, m3, ......., mi and the distances of
each particle from the axis of rotation are r1, r2, r3, ......., ri as shown in Figure 2.7,
The moment of inertia of that object is,

m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + ..... + miri2. m1
m2
The moment of inertia I can be written as, r1
m5 r5 r2
I= m1r12 + m2r22 + m3r32 + ..... + miri2. r3 m3
r4
I   mi ri 2
i m4
Moment of inertia: The moment of inertia of an object is
Fig 2.7 A rigid object rotating
defined as the sum of the products obtained by about a fixed axis with the
angular velocity 
multiplying the mass of each particle in a given object and
the square of its distance from the axis.
6. The moment of inertia is a scalar quantity and its SI unit is kilogram square metre (kg m2).
24 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

7. The moment of inertia must be specified with respect to a chosen axis of rotation.
8. Figure 2.8 shows the formulae of moment of inertia for some homogenous objects with
respective axis.

Hoop or thin Solid cylinder or Solid sphere Long, thin rod Long, thin rod
cylindrical shell disk with rotation axis with rotation axis
through end through centre
I = MR2 I = ½ MR2 I = 2/5 MR2 I = 1/3 ML2 I = 1/12 ML2
Figure 2.8 Moment of inertia for some homogenous objects
Centre of Gravity: The centre of gravity of a particular object is a point at which all its weight
may be considered to act.
9. For an object of regular shape and uniform density, the centre of gravity is at its geometrical
center as shown in Figure 2.9.
10. The weight of a metre stick of uniform density is considered to be acting at the 50 cm mark
(its mid-point) as shown in Figure 2.1 0.

CG
CG 0 cm 50 cm 100 cm

Fig 2.9: The center of gravity Fig 2.10: Balanced position

(CG) of a regular shaped object of the metre rule
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 25

Chapter 2: Exercise 2.3

E04 Two balls are connected by a rigid rod of negligible
20 cm 30 cm
mass. What is its moment of inertia with respect to
the axis as shown in figure? The axis is 1 kg 5 kg
perpendicular to the rod.
Ans: m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 5 kg, r1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m, r2 = 30 cm = 0.3 m,
The moment of inertia = I =?

I   mi ri 2 = m1r12 + m2r22
i

= 1  0.22 + 5  0.32 = 1  0.04 + 5  0.09 = 0.04 + 0.45 = 0.49 kg m2

R18: If the axis is moved to one end of the rod
passing through the 5 kg mass in example 50 cm

2.4, what is the moment of inertia of the 1 kg 5 kg

system with respect to the axis?
Ans: m1 = 1 kg, m2 = 5 kg, r1 = 50 cm = 0.5 m, r2 = 0,
The moment of inertia = I =?

I   mi ri 2
i

= m1r12 + m2r22
= 1  0.52 + 5  02 = 1  0.25 = 0.25 kg m2
E05: Calculate the moment of inertia of the earth about its axis of rotation. Mass of the
earth is 5.91  1024 kg and its radius is 6.38  106 m. The moment of inertia of a solid
sphere about its axis of rotation is I = 2/5 MR2.
Ans: The earth can be assumed as a solid sphere.
mass of the earth, M = 5.91  1024 kg, radius of the earth, R = 6.38  106 m

moment of inertia = I = 𝑀𝑅

0.4 5.91 10 6.38 10

= 9.622  1037 kg m2
26 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q10: A rod is rotated about a perpendicular axis through at its centre, or through at one end.
(i) Which condition will give the greater moment of inertia? (ii) How much greater
will it be?

the rod with rotation axis the rod with rotation axis
through at one end through its centre
I = 1/3 ML2 I = 1/12 ML2
Through at one end is larger. It is ¼ ML2 greater.
Q02: What is the physical meaning of the moment of inertia?
It is the sum of the products obtained by multiplying the mass of each particle in a given
object and the square of its distance from the axis.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 27

2.4 EQUILIBRIUM
1. When a system is in static equilibrium, there is no linear motion and no rotational motion.
Under this condition, the forces on the system must be balanced and the moment of the forces
on it must also be balanced.
The conditions of static equilibrium are

(1) the resultant force on the system is zero, F 0

(2) the resultant torque on the system is zero,  0
2. The condition necessary for a pivoted object to be in balance is given by the principle of
moments.
The Principle of Moments: If an object such as a bar or a plank, is to be in balance, the total
clockwise moment about the fulcrum must equal the total anticlockwise moment.
3. The examples of the application of this principle are building site crane, beam balance etc.

Figure 2.11 Application of principle of moment

Chapter 2: Exercise 2.4
R20: State the conditions of static equilibrium when a body is acted by a number of parallel
forces.

Ans: (1) the resultant force on the system is zero,  0
F

(2) the resultant torque on the system is zero,   0
28 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E06: A uniform metre rule weighing 4 N, pivoted at the 20 cm mark, is supported at the
right-hand end at the 100 cm mark, by a vertical thread. Find the tension in the thread.

CG F
0 cm 20 cm 50 cm
100 cm

d1 w
d2

d1 = 50 cm – 20 cm = 30 cm = 0.3 m, d2 = 100 cm – 20 cm = 80 cm = 0.8 m

w = 4 N, F =?
Since the ruler is in balance, by the principle of moment,
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
w d1 = F d2
4  0.3 = F  0.8
F = 1.5 N
Tension in the thread is 1.5 N.
E07: If AB is a uniform metre rule which is balanced as shown in the diagram, (i) what is
the weight of the metre rule? (ii) what is the reaction R?

R
CG
0 cm 30 cm 50 cm 100 cm
A B
F=1N w
d1 d2

d1 = 30 cm – 0 cm = 30 cm = 0.3 m, d2 = 50 cm – 30 cm = 20 cm = 0.2 m
F = 1 N, w = ?
(i) Since the metre rule is in balance, by the principle of moment,
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
w d2 = F d1
w  0.2 = 1  0.3
w = 1.5 N
The weight of the metre rule is 1.5 N.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 29

(ii) total upward force = total downward force

R=F+w
= 1 + 1.5
= 2.5 N
The reaction R is 2.5 N.
Q07: A bridge over a stream is made from a uniform wooden beam which weighs 4500 N
and is 16 m long. Its ends A and B are supported on boulders. If a man weighing
800 N is standing on the bridge 4 m from A, what is the reaction at the boulder
(i) under A (ii) under B?
Ans: FA
CG FB
0m 4m 8m 16 m
A B
d2 w2

d1 w1
d3

If A is fulcrum, moment of the force due to FA is zero.
w1 = 4500 N, w2 = 800 N, d1 = 8 m, d2 = 4 m, d3 = 16 m,
Since the wooden beam is in balance, by the principle of moment,
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
w1 d1 + w2 d2 = FB d3
4500  8 + 800  4 = FB  16
FB = 2450 N

total upward force = total downward force

FA + FB = w1 + w2
FA + 2450 = 4500 + 800
FA = 2850 N
The reaction at the boulder under A is 2850 N.
The reaction at the boulder under B is 2450 N.
30 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q08: A uniform beam of 1 m balances horizontally about a pivot at its midpoint when a
weight of 1 N is suspended from the 15 cm mark and another weight w is suspended
from the 90 cm mark. Calculate the weight w. In your calculation, why is the weight
of beam not included?
Ans:
CG
0 cm 15 cm 50 cm 90 cm 100 cm
A B
F=1N d d2 w
1

d1 = 50 cm – 15 cm = 35 cm = 0.35 m, d2 = 90 cm – 50 cm = 40 cm = 0.4 m
F = 1 N, w = ?
(i) Since the metre rule is in balance, by the principle of moment,
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
w d2 = F d1
w  0.4 = 1  0.35
w = 0.875 N
The weight of the beam is not included because it is acting at the fulcrum.
Q09: A 45 kg girl and a 65 kg boy are sitting on a see-saw in equilibrium. If the boy is
sitting 0.7 m from the fulcrum, where is the girl sitting?
Ans:

w1 d1 d2 w2

w = mg, w1 = 45  9.8 N, w2 = 65  9.8 N, d2 = 0.7 m, d1 =?

Since the see-saw is in balance, by the principle of moment,
total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment
w2 d2 = w1 d1
65  9.8  0.7 = 45  9.8  d1
d1 = 1.01 m
The girl is sitting 1.01 m from the fulcrum, on the opposite side of the boy.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 31

2.5 ANGULAR MOMENTUM AND LAW OF CONSERVATION OF

ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Angular Momentum
Angular momentum: In rotational motion, the angular momentum of an object is defined
as the product of its moment of inertia and the angular velocity.
 
L  I
where. 𝐿⃗ = angular momentum, I= moment of inertia, 𝜔⃗ = angular velocity
1. In SI units, as the unit of moment of inertia is kg m2 and that of angular velocity is rad s-1,
the unit of angular momentum is kg m2 s-1•
2. For linear motion, the momentum is equal to the product of the mass and the velocity.
3. The moment of inertia is analogous to mass and the angular velocity is analogous to the
linear velocity.
4. Angular momentum is a vector quantity.
5. The direction of the angular momentum is shown in Figure 2.12.

Law of Conservation of Angular Momentum: If there is no net external torque acting on

an isolated system, the total angular momentum of the system is constant.
 
In symbols, if    0, then Ltotal  constant.

6. The law of conservation of angular momentum is also one fundamental law of physics.
7. An example of conservation of angular momentum is seen in an ice skater performing a
spin as shown in Figure 2.13 (a). Her angular momentum is conserved because the net
torque on her is very small (negligible net torque). Her rate of spin (angular speed)
increases greatly as her moment of inertia decreases by pulling in her arms inwards. If
32 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

she wants to slow down her rotation, she will stretch her arms outwards. When her
moment of inertia increases, the rotational angular speed will decrease.

8. A springboard diver who is rotating when jumping off the board does not need to make
any physical effort to continue rotating as shown in Figure 2.13 (b).
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 33

9. Therefore, we can easily see that the application of conservation of angular momentum
to determine the angular velocity of a rotating system in which the moment of inertia is
changing.

Chapter 2: Exercise 2.5

R22: What will happen to the angular velocity of an ice skater as she folds her arms and
legs close together?
Ans: Her rate of spin (angular velocity) increases greatly as her moment of inertia decreases.
E08: A child of mass of 30 kg stands at the edge of small merry-go-round that is rotating
at a rate of 1 rad s-1. The merry-go-round is a disc of radius of 2.5 m and mass of
100 kg. If the child walks in toward the center of the disc and stops 0.5 m from the
center, what is the angular velocity of merry-go-round? (The friction can be ignored.)
Moment of inertia of disc = ½ MR2
Ans: mass of the child = m = 30 kg, mass of the disc = M = 100 kg
radius of the disc = R = 2.5 m
initial distance of the child from the center of the disc ri = 2.5 m
final distance of the child from the center of the disc = rf = 0.5 m
Since frictional force can be ignored,    0.

by conservation of angular momentum, Ltotal  constant.
Initial total angular momentum = Final total angular momentum
(Li)disc + (Li)child = (Lf)disc + (Lf)child
Idisc i + Ichild i = Idisc f + Ichild f
1 2 2 1 2 2
 MR  mri i =  MR  mrf f
2  2 
1 2 1 2
  100  2.5  30  2.5 1 =   100  2.5  30  0.5 f 
2 2
2  2 
500 = 320 f
f = 1.56 rad s-1
34 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q01: Is there a net torque acting on a rotating object with a constant angular velocity?
No.
Q11: An object spins with an angular speed . If its moment of inertia increases by a factor
of 2 without applying an external torque, what will be its new angular speed?
Ans: initial angular velocity = i = 
final angular velocity = f =?
initial moment of inertia = Ii = I
final moment of inertia = If = 2I

by conservation of angular momentum, Ltotal  constant.
Initial total angular momentum = Final total angular momentum
Li = Lf
Ii i = If f
I   = 2I  f
f = ½ 
The new angular speed is half of the initial angular speed.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 35

CHAPTER 3
PRESSURE
1. Fluid can exert pressure by virtue of their weight.
2. Fluid represents states of matter that take the shape of their containers.
3. Fluid is either liquid or gas.
4. The earth is surrounded by the atmosphere up to a height of several miles.
5. The atmosphere which consists largely of masses of gases has weight. Therefore, it is
obvious that the atmosphere exerts pressure.
3.1 ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Atmospheric pressure: The pressure exerted on a body by the atmosphere, due to the weight of
the atmosphere is called atmospheric pressure. At the earth's surface the magnitude of the
atmospheric pressure is about 100 kN m-2.
6. Atmospheric pressure which acts on human beings and animals on the surface of the earth
is actually very high.
7. We do not normally feel the large atmospheric pressure because our body is full of air, blood
vessels and body fluid, so the pressure inside our body is almost the same as the external
pressure and so balance it. This is the reason why we are able to withstand the atmospheric
pressure.
8. Nose bleeding which sometimes occurs at a place of low atmospheric pressure is due to the
fact that the blood pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
9. The atmospheric pressure changes according to locality and time.
10. The atmospheric pressure at the plains is higher than that at the hilly regions.

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.1

R26: (1) On which factors does the atmospheric pressure depend?
Ans: The atmospheric pressure depends on the weight of the atmosphere. The atmosphere
which consists largely of masses of gases has weight. Therefore, it is obvious that the
atmosphere exerts pressure.
The atmospheric pressure changes according to locality and time.
36 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

R26: (2) Why are you able to withstand atmospheric pressure?

Ans: Because our body is full of air, blood vessels and body fluid, so the pressure inside
our body is almost the same as the external pressure and so balance it.
R26: (3) Why does nose bleeding occur?
Ans: Nose bleeding which sometimes occurs at a place of low atmospheric pressure is due to
the fact that the blood pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure.
E01: Find the force due to the atmosphere which is acting 3 m2 area on the earth's surface. At
the earth's surface, the magnitude of the atmospheric pressure is about 100 kN m-2.
Ans: A = 3 m2, p = 100 kN m-2 = 105 Pa, F =?
F
p
A
F = pA = 105  3 = 3  105 N
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 37

3.2 BAROMETER
1. The Italian scientist Evangelista Torricelli first noticed the variation of pressure due to
height and time.
2. He invented and constructed a barometer in 1644.
Barometer: The barometer is a device for measuring atmospheric pressure.
3. The simple mercury barometer is shown in Figure 3.1. It consists of a glass tube about
1 m long sealed at one end and filled with mercury. The
Torricellian
tube is then inverted and the open end is submerged in a
vacuum
reservoir of mercury; the mercury column is held up by height of
mercury
the pressure of the atmosphere acting on the surface of atmospheric column
mercury in the reservoir. pressure

Let the height of the mercury column = h mercury

Fig 3.1: Simple
the cross-sectional area of the tube = A
Mercury barometer
the volume of the mercury in the column = V = h A
mass of mercury column = m =  V =  A h ( = the density of mercury)
weight of mercury column = w = m g =  g A h (g = gravitational acceleration)
4. In barometer, the force exerted by the atmosphere is balanced by the weight of the
mercury column.
F=w
the force exerted by the atmosphere
pressure exerted by the atmosphere 
cross  sectional area of thetube

F w gAh
p    gh
A A A
The atmospheric pressure in terms of height of mercury (liquid) column in barometer is
p=gh
38 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Standard Atmospheric Pressure

Standard atmospheric pressure: The normal atmospheric pressure at sea level is the
standard atmospheric pressure. A pressure of 760 mm Hg is known as standard atmospheric
pressure or 1 atmosphere (1 atm).
5. The atmospheric pressure can be expressed in pascal as follows;
the density of mercury  = 13 590 kg m-3
the acceleration due to gravity g = 9.8 m s-2
height of the mercury column at the standard atmospheric pressure h = 760 mm
atmospheric pressure = patm =  g h = 13 590  9.8  0.760 = 1.013  105 Pa
6. The standard atmospheric pressure is expressed in various units as shown below.
1 atm = 1.013  105 Pa = 1013 hPa = 1.01 bar = 14.7 lb in-2 = 760 mm Hg = 760 torr
7. The vertical height of the mercury column depends only on the pressure outside the tube.
8. The vertical height of the mercury column does not depend on the tilt of the column.
Figure 3.2 (b) shows the barometer being tilted but the vertical height h of mercury
column remains unaffected.
9. The vertical height of the mercury column is independent of the diameter (width) of the
tube as shown in Figure 3.2 (c).
10. The pressure in a liquid doesn't depend on the container angle or width. Of course, if the
tube is lowered below 760 mm, the mercury would completely fill the tube as shown in
Figure 3.2 (d).
vacuum
atmospheric
~760 mm
x x pressure on
x
x mercury

Fig (a) Fig (b) Fig (c) Fig (d)

Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 39

Some Applications of the Atmospheric Pressure in Dally Life

Sucking:
atmospheric
1) The action of sucking increases the volume of the lungs thereby pressure
reducing the air pressure in the lungs and the mouth.
2) The atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the liquid will then be greater than
the pressure in the mouth, thus forcing the liquid to rise up the straw into the mouth.
Drawing a liquid into a syringe:
1) When the piston is pulled up, the pressure inside the cylinder
Cylinder
decreases. piston
atmospheric
2) Atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid drives the liquid into the pressure
Nozzle
cylinder through the nozzle. liquid

Pressing rubber sucker on a flat smooth surface

1) When pressing on a smooth surface, most of the air
inside the rubber sucker is squeezed out and the
pressure is reduced.
2) The sucker is held in position by the atmospheric
pressure on its outside surface.
40 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.2

R28: (1) Why is mercury used in a barometer rather than water?
Ans: 1) The pressure exerted by the atmosphere is the same for water and mercury.
pHg = pW (Hg = mercury, w = water)
 Hg g hHg = W g hW
 Hg
hW   h  13.6  0.76 m = 10.336 m = 10.34 m
 W Hg
2) Density of mercury is much larger than that of water.
3) If mercury is used, only 76 cm (about 1 m) of tube is needed.
4) If water is used, 10.336 m (more than 10 m) of tube is needed.
5) Water barometer is much longer than mercury barometer.
Thus, mercury is used in a barometer rather than water.
R26: (2) At sea level the atmospheric pressure is 76 cm Hg. If pressure falls by 10 mm Hg
per 120 m ascent, what is the height of a mountain where the barometer reads
70.5 cm Hg?
Ans: psea = 76 cm Hg,
pmountain = 70.5 cm Hg
Pressure drops = 76 – 70.5 = 5.5 cm Hg = 55 mm Hg
10 mm Hg drops = 120 m ascent
5.5 cm Hg
55 mm Hg drops = 120 = 660 m ascent
1 cm Hg

E02: Express 2 atm pressure in mm Hg and bars.

Ans: 1 atm = 760 mm Hg,
760 mm Hg
2 atm  2 atm  1520 mm Hg
1atm
1 atm = 1.01 b
1.01 b
2 atm  2 atm   2.02 b
1atm
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 41

E03: Compare the atmospheric pressures and forces on a man and a child standing side by side.
Ans: The atmospheric pressure is the same for the man and the child.
pman = pchild = p
Aman > Achild
p Aman > p Achild
Fman > Fchild ( p = F/A)
the force on man > the force on child
Q01: What will be the effect, if any, on the mercury column if the glass tube used has (i) a
smaller internal diameter (ii) a slightly bigger internal diameter?
Ans: There will be no effect for both cases. The mercury column will remain at 76 cm.
Q02: Calculate the height of a column of water which could be supported by the atmosphere
at sea level. (Density of water is 1000 kg m-3)
Ans: atmospheric pressure = patm = 1 atm = 1.01  105 Pa,
density of water =  = 1000 kg m-3
the height of a column of water = h =?
pressure exerted by the water column = pw = patm = 1 atm
pw =  g h
p 1.01 105
h w  = 10.31 m
ρg 1000  9.8
Q03: What will be the new height of the column, if water is used instead of mercury in the
barometer? (mercury is 13.6 times heavier than water)
Ans: pressure of mercury column = pHg = 76 cm Hg,
height of mercury column = hHg = 0.76 m
density of water = w, density of mercury = Hg = 13.6 W,
let the new height of the column of water = hw =?
pHg = pW (Atmospheric pressure is the same for water (w) and mercury (Hg).)
Hg g hHg = W g hW
 Hg
hW   h  13.6  0.76 m = 10.336 m
 W Hg
42 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

3.3 PRESSURE IN A LIQUID

1. A liquid exerts pressure because of its weight.
2. The pressure depends on the depth under the surface of the liquid.
Pressure in a Liquid (OR) Derive the formula for the pressure in a liquid.
Let us fill a cylindrical container having bottom surface area patm
A with a liquid of density  up to a height h. w = mg
volume of the liquid = V = Ah A w h
ph = patm + gh
mass of the liquid which fills the container = m = V = Ah
weight of the liquid = w = mg = Ahg
The force exerted by the liquid on the bottom of the container is equal to the weight of the
liquid in the container.
The pressure exerted by the liquid at the bottom surface is
F w Ahg
pliquid     gh
A A A
There is atmospheric pressure at the surface of the liquid in the container.
The true pressure at the depth h is ph = patm +  g h
where, patm = atmospheric pressure, g = acceleration due to gravity
3. The pressure (p = gh) exerted by the liquid is directly proportional to the height or depth
of the liquid h and the density .
4. Although the weight of the liquid depends on its base area, the pressure exerted by the
liquid is independent of the base area (cross-sectional area).
5. The result (p = gh) is true not only for a point at the bottom of the container but also
for any depth inside the liquid.
6. The deeper the point inside the liquid, the greater is the pressure at that point. Since the
weight of liquid becomes greater as the depth increases, the pressure also increases with
depth as shown in Figure 3.5.
7. The pressure in a liquid at a particular point acts equally in all direction in Figure 3.6 (a).
8. Pressure at any point inside a liquid is the same in all directions.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 43

p1

pressure increases with

p3 > p2 > p1

depth of the liquid

p2

p3

Fig 3.5: The pressure of liquid increases with depth of the liquid
9. Let a body be totally immersed in a liquid which is in a container. There will be pressure
not only at the top of the body but also upward pressure at the bottom of the body and
lateral pressures at the sides of the body in Figure 3.6 (b).
10. Figure 3.6 (c) shows that pressure will be exerted from every direction on the body of
spherical shape.

11. Figure 3.7 shows liquids of the same density in containers all having the same height.
The pressure exerted on their bases would be the same even though their weights and
shapes are different.
44 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.3

R31: (1) Why does the thickness of the dam increase downwards?
Ans: The thickness of the wall of the dam increases downwards because the deeper it is, the
greater the water pressure. A thicker wall is required to withstand a greater pressure.
R31: (2) On which factors does the pressure in a liquid depend?
Ans: The pressure (p = gh) exerted by the liquid is directly proportional to the height or
depth of the liquid h and the density .
E04: The total pressure at the bottom of a tank is 3 atm. To what height has the water been filled?
Ans: the pressure at the bottom of the tank = ph = 3 atm = 3 × 1.01 × 105 Pa
the pressure at the water surface in the tank = patm = 1 atm = 1 × 1.01 × 105 Pa
height of water column = h =?
ph = patm +  g h
 g h = ph  patm
1000 × 9.8 × h = (3 – 1) × 1.01 × 105
202
h = 20.61 m
9 .8
E05: The density of seawater is 1025 kg m-3. How many times is the pressure at the depth
of 2 km under the sea surface greater than the normal pressure? (g = 9.8 m s-2)
p2 km
Ans: density of seawater = 1025 kg m-3, h = 2 km = 2 × 103 m, ?
patm
ph = patm +  g h
ph p gh
 atm 
patm patm patm

p2 km gh
 1
patm patm

1025  9.8  2 103

 1 = 199.9
1.01105
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 45

E06: The pressure at the height of 1 m from the floor is 1.01  105 Pa. Find the difference
between the pressure on the floor and the pressure at 1 m height. The density of air is
1.29 kg m-3. (g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: the pressure at the height of 1 m from the floor = p1 m = 1.01  105 Pa
the pressure at the floor = pfloor
ph = patm +  g h
pfloor = p1 m +  g h
pfloor – p1 m =  g h = 1.29 × 9.8 × 1 = 12.64 Pa
Q04: What is the height of a column of turpentine that would exert the same pressure as
5.0 cm of the mercury?
(density of turpentine = 840 kg m-3 density of mercury = 13600 kg m-3)
Ans: pressure exerted by turpentine = pt = 5 cm Hg
pressure exerted by mercury = pHg
the height of a column of turpentine = ht =?
t = turpentine, Hg = mercury,
pressure exerted by turpentine = pressure exerted by mercury
pt = pHg
 t ght   Hg ghHg

 Hg 13600
ht   hHg =  5  10 2 m = 0.8095 m = 80.95 cm = 81 cm
t 840

Q03: Find the pressure on a diver at a depth of 5 m below the surface of the water.
Ans: the pressure on a diver at a depth of 5 m = p5 m =?
ph = patm +  g h
p5 m = 1.01 × 105 + 1000 × 9.8 × 5 = 1.5 × 105 Pa
46 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

3.4 MANOMETER
Manometer: A glass tube open at both ends and bent into a U shape serves as a sensitive
device for measuring pressure when filled with coloured water or light oil. Such a device is
called a manometer.
1. Mercury can also be used as the filling liquid for a manometer.
2. When both sides of the U-tube are exposed to the atmospheric
pressure
atmosphere, the respective pressures exerted on the
liquid columns in both sides are the same, and the levels from gas
supply
of the liquid in the two sides are the same. [Fig 3.8 (a)]
gas
3. If the pressures on the two liquid columns are different, pressure
the levels will not be the same. [Fig 3.8 (b)]
(a) (b)
Working Principle of Manometer Fig 3.8: Manometer
In Figure 3.9 (a), only the atmospheric pressure is exerted on the surface of liquid in two
columns of the manometer.
In Figure 3.9 (b), the gas pressure pgas is lower than the atmospheric pressure patm.
In Figure 3.9 (c), the gas pressure pgas is higher than the atmospheric pressure patm.

patm patm Gas patm Gas patm

B C
pgas B
pgas C

  hB hC


(a) (b) (C)

pGas B < patm pGas C > patm
pGas B = patm –  g hB pGas C = patm +  g hC

Fig 3.9: Pressure measurement by the manometer

4. Manometers are very sensitive for measuring the pressure differences, especially when
the filling liquid is water or light oil.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 47

5. A manometer filled with mercury is not sensitive, because the denser the liquid the
smaller the height change.
6. A sphygmomanometer which is used to measure blood pressure is a one kind of mercury
filled manometer.
Chapter 3: Exercise 3.4
R32: Does the difference in height between two liquid levels in a manometer depend on the
diameter of the tube?
Ans: No.
E07: A mercury manometer connected to a gas supply is shown in
figure. If the difference in height of the mercury column is Gas patm

5 cm, calculate the gas pressure from the gas supply. Density pgas
of mercury is 13.6  103 kg m-3.
h


Ans: h = 5 cm = 0.05 m,  = 13.6  103 kg m-3

pgas = patm +  g h = 1.01  105 + 13.6  103  9.8  0.05 = (1.01 + 0.067)  105 Pa
= 1.077  105 Pa = 1.08  105 Pa
(OR) pgas = patm + pHg = 76 cm Hg + 5 cm Hg = 81 cm Hg
48 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

3.5 ARCHIMEDES' PRINCIPLE

Buoyancy: When bodies are immersed in a liquid there is loss in weight. This is because of
a property of liquids called buoyancy.
1. Since buoyant force is directed upward, it is called upward thrust.

Let us consider a block which is totally immersed in a liquid of density .

Let the top of the block be at the depth of h from the surface of the liquid, the thickness of
the block be H, and the top and the bottom surface areas be both A.
The volume of the block is V = A H.
Since the block is totally immersed in the liquid, the volume of the block V is equal to the
volume of the liquid displaced by the block.
the pressure on the top surface of the block is p1 = patm +  g h
the pressure on the bottom surface of the block is p2 = patm +  g (h + H)
the downward force which is acting on the block is F1 = A p1 = A [patm +  g h]
the upward force which is acting on the block is F2 = A p2 = A [patm +  g (h + H)]
The forces acting on the sides of the block cancel out.
The net force acting on the block in the upward direction is F,
F = F2 – F1
= A p2 – A p1 = A [patm +  g (h + H)] – A [patm +  g h] =  g AH
This force is called the buoyant force or upward thrust.
Since the volume of the block is V = A H, we have
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 49

F =  g V = mg = w
Therefore, it is found that
upward thrust = weight of liquid displaced
Archimedes' principle: The upward thrust acting on a body which is immersed in a
liquid is equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by the body.

2. Archimedes' principle is true not only for liquids but also for gases.
3. The densities of various substances can be obtained by using Archimedes' principle.
Apparent Weight of a Body
Apparent weight: The weight of a body when it is immersed in a liquid is called apparent
weight.
4. Apparent weight is less than the actual weight of the body because of the upward thrust of
the liquid acting on it.
50 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Let the volume of the body be V and its density be , density of the liquid be 0.
Weight of the body before it is immersed in a liquid is its actual weight,
wi = mg = V g
The upward thrust of the liquid = 0 V g
The weight of the body immersed in the liquid (apparent weight) is,
wf = wi  upward thrust = V g – 0 V g = (– 0) V g
wf   0 Vg   0 
 
wi Vg 

Floating Body in a Liquid

5. If the weight of the body is greater than the upward thrust, the body will sink.
6. If the weight of the body is smaller than the upward thrust, the body will rise up to the
surface.
7. A body will float in a liquid (fluid) if the upward thrust acting on it is equal to its weight.
If the volume of the immersed portion of the body is Vs,
the upward thrust is F =  Vs g, where  is the density of the liquid.
The weight of the body is w = mg =  V g,
where  is density of the body, V is the volume of the body.
Since the body is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it is zero.
The magnitude of upward thrust acting on it is equal to its weight.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 51

weight = upward thrust

 V g =  Vs g
 Vs

0 V
8. The ratio of the density of the floating body to the density of the fluid is equal to the ratio
of the immersed volume of the body to the volume of the whole body.
Chapter 3: Exercise 3.5
R36: (1) An ocean-liner was loaded at the port of Yangon. Would the ocean-liner sink deeper
or not when it reached the ocean?
Ans: Let the volume of the ocean-liner = V m3
the volume of the ocean-liner immersed in Yangon port = Vsy m3
the volume of the ocean-liner immersed in seawater = Vss m3
the density of ocean-liner = , the density of fresh water = w,
the density of seawater = s
Vs 
The portion which is immersed is, =
V o
Vsy 
At Yangon Port,  (1)
V w
Vss 
At the ocean,  (2)
V s
Vsy s
From (1) and (2), 
Vss  w
The density of seawater is greater than that of fresh water,
s > w and thus Vsy > Vss
It would not sink deeper in the sea.
(OR) The amount of submerged portion for a floating body is inversely proportional
to the specific gravity of the liquid.
The greater the specific gravity of the liquid, the less the floating body submerges.
The density of seawater is greater than that of the water at Yangon Port.
The ocean-liner would not sink deeper when it reached the ocean.
52 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

R36: (2) Why is the weight of a body lost when it is immersed in a liquid?
Ans: This is because of a property of liquids called buoyancy.
R36: (3) Under what condition can a body float in a liquid?
Ans: A body will float in a liquid if the upward thrust acting on it is equal to its weight.
R36: (4) A steel block floats in mercury but sinks in water. So how does a steel ship manage
to float in water?
Ans: There is far more air in a ship than steel, (because a ship is hollow and contains air),
so the average density of the ship is less than that of water. (use g = 10 m s-2)
E08: The weight of a body in its normal condition is 300 N and it is 200 N when immersed
in water. Find the density and volume of the body. (g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: wi = 300 N, wf = 200 N, = density of water = 1000 kg m-3, = density of body = ?,
the volume of the block = V = ?,
The weight of the body before immersed in water = wi =  g V
The apparent weight if immersed in water = wf = wi – Fup =  g V - 0 g V = (  0) g V
wi 
=
wf   o
300 

200   1000
  = 3000 kg m-3
wi 300
V  = 0.01 m3
g 1000  10
E09: An iceberg is a large piece of freshwater ice, which has a density of 0.920 × 103 kg m-3
at 0 C. Ocean water has a density of about 1.025 × 103 kg m-3. What fraction of an
iceberg lies below the surface?
Ans: density of ice = = 920 kg m-3, density of sea water =  = 1025 kg m-3,
volume of the ice = V, volume of the ice immersed in sea water = Vs
VS  920
The portion which is immersed is,   = 0.8976 = 89.76 % = 89.8 %
V 0 1025
Nearly about 89.8 % of the block lies below the surface.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 53

E10: A helium balloon is designed to support a load of 1000 kg. If the balloon is filled with
helium what should its volume be? (The mass of helium is not included in the net load
of 1000 kg, density of air = 1.29 kg m-3, density of helium = 0.18 kg m-3)
Ans: mass of load = mload = 1000 kg, Fup
density of air = air = 1.29 kg m , density of helium = He = 0.18 kg m ,
-3 -3

volume of the balloon = V = ?

Since it is in equilibrium, wgas
total downward forces = total upward forces wload

weight of load + weight of gas = buoyant force

mload g + He g V = air g V
dividing through by g, mload + He V = air V
m 1000
V  = 900.9 m3
air  He 1.29  0.18
Q06: An object of density 2  103 kg m-3 weighs 100 N less when it is weighed while
completely submerged in water than when it is weighed in air. What is the actual
weight of this object?
Ans: = density of water = 1000 kg m-3, = density of body = 2  103 kg m-3,
the actual weight of the body = wi = ?
The weight of the body before immersed in water = wi
The apparent weight when immersed in water = wf
wi  wf = 100 N, wf = wi  100 N
wi =  g V
wf = wi – Fup =  g V - 0 g V = (  0) g V
wi 
=
wf   o
wi 2000

wi  100 2000  1000
2 wi – 200 = wi
wi = 200 N
54 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q07: A weighted rod floats with 6 cm of its length under water. What length is under the
surface when the rod floats in brine (density 1200 kg m-3)?
Ans:  = density of the rod,  = density of water,  = density of brine,
w b

V = volume of the rod, V = volume of the rod immersed in water,

sw

V = volume of the rod immersed in brine, h = length of the rod immersed in water,
sb sw

h = length of the rod immersed in brine, A = bottom and top surface areas of the rod
sb

Assume (i) the rod has regular shape

(ii) the volume does not change in water and brine
For a body floating in a liquid in equilibrium,
Vs 
The portion which is immersed is, =
V o
Vsw 
In water,  (1)
V w
Vsb 
In brine,  (2)
V b
w Vsb
From (1) and (2), 
b Vsw
 w Ahsb
 (V = Ah)
 b Ahsw
1000 hsb

1200 6  10 2

hsb = 5 ×10-2 m = 5 cm
Q08: Why is it easier to float in the sea than in a swimming pool?
Ans: The density of sea water is greater than that of fresh water. The denser the liquid, the
higher an object will float in the liquid. The submerged portion in the sea water is less
than that in the water in the swimming pool. Thus, it is easier to float in the sea than in
a swimming pool.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 55

Q09: A fish rests on the bottom of a bucket of water while the bucket is being weighed on a
scale. When the fish begins to swim around, does the scale reading change? Explain.
Ans: In either case, the scale is supporting the bucket, the water, and the fish.
Therefore, the weight remains the same when the fish begins to swim around.
However, the reading on the scale can change if the net centre of mass accelerates in
the vertical direction.
Q10: A beaker containing water and placed on a pan is balanced by the weight which is in
the other pan of the balance. Explain what will happen if a man immerses his finger in
the water without touching the beaker.
Ans: If a man immersed his finger in the water, there would be upward thrust on the finger.
Some water has to be displaced for the finger according to the Archimedes’ principle.
This displaced water will show unbalance of the balance.
Q11: A lead block of density 11.5 g cm-3 floats in mercury of density 13.6 g cm-3. (i) What
portion of the block immerses in mercury? (ii) What force is needed to press the block
to immerse totally if the mass of the block is 2 kg? (g = 10 m s-2)
Ans: Density of lead block =L = 11.5 g cm-3, density of mercury = = 13.6 g cm-3,
volume of the lead block = V, volume of the lead block immersed in mercury = Vs
Vs/V =? m = 2 kg, the force needed to press the block to immerse totally = Freq = ?
The portion which is immersed is,
Vs  11.5  103
= = = 0.8455 = 84.55 % = 85 %
V o 13.6  103 Freq Fup
Nearly about 85 % of the block lies below the surface.
Since the block is in Equilibrium, w
total downward force = total upward force
Freq + w = Fup (because it)
m
Freq = Fup – w = 0g V – mg = 0g × mg

 0   13.6  103 
= mg   1  2  9.8    1 = 3.652 N (downward)
    11.5  103 
 
56 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q12: A plastic cube 30 cm on each side and with a mass of 20 kg floats in water. What
fraction of the volume of the cube is above the surface of the water?
Ans: mass of the cube = m = 20 kg
volume of the cube = V = (30  10-2 m)3 = 27  103 m3
m 20
density of the cube =     3
= 0.74  103 kg m-3
V 27  10
density of water = 0 = 1  103 kg m-3
volume of the cube immersed in water = Vs
VS  0.74  103
The portion which is immersed is,   = 0.74 = 74 %
V 0 1  103
The portion which is above the surface of water = 100 %  74 % = 26 %
Q13: A 30 kg balloon is filled with 100 m3 hydrogen. What force is needed to hold the
balloon to prevent it from rising up? (density of hydrogen is 0.09 kg m-3, density of air
is 1.29 kg m-3, g = 10 m s-2)
Ans: mass of the balloon = m = 30 kg, volume of the balloon = V = 100 m3, Fup
density of hydrogen = H = 0.09 kg m , density of air = air = 1.29 kg
-3
m-3
the force needed = F =?
F wH
Since it is in equilibrium, wballoon
total downward forces = total upward forces
weight of the balloon + weight of H2 + Force required = buoyant force of air
wballoon + wH + F = Fup
F = Fup – wballon – wH
= air gV – mballon g – H g V
= 1.29  10  100 – 30  10 – 0.09  10  100
= 900 N (downward)
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 57

3.6 PASCAL'S LAW

1. Any increase in pressure at the surface of an enclosed fluid must be transmitted to every
other point in the fluid.
2. The above concept was first recognized by French scientist Balise Pascal in 1650.
Pascal's law: When a fluid completely fills a vessel, and a pressure is applied to it at any
part of the surface, that pressure is transmitted equally throughout the whole of the enclosed
fluid.
3. The concept of Pascal's law is very useful in practice in the working principle of the
hydraulic brakes and hydraulic presses.

Figure 3.14 Hydraulic disc brake system

Hydraulic Press
4. A hydraulic press is a very useful machine. It is used for baling jute, hay, cotton and also
for the pressing of the automobile bodies and for shaping steel and metal sheets.
5. Figure 3.15 shows how a small effort applied on a hydraulic press is turned into a large
force. Therefore, it is named force multiplier.
58 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

The pressure obtained by applying effort Fin on the Fou

Fin Fin
area Ain of small piston is pin  .
Ain Aou
in out
According to Pascal’s law, the pressure pin is equal to
the pressure pout exerted on the area Aout of large piston. Ain pout
pin
pin = pout
The upward force Fout on the area Aout is,
Fout = pout  Aout Fig 3.15: Schematic diagram
of hydraulic press
Fout = pin  Aout
Fin
Fout =  Aout
Ain
Assuming there is no friction in the hydraulic press system,
the work done by the effort equals the work done by the upward force.
Therefore, Fin in = Fout Lout
where, in = the distance travelled by the small piston
out = the distance travelled by the large piston
Hydraulic Lift
6. Another useful machine based on Pascal's law is
a hydraulic lift as shown in Figure 3.16.
7. By applying a small force on the small piston
produces a large upward force on the large
piston which can lift a large load.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 59

Chapter 3: Exercise 3.6

R38: Which machines are based on Pascal's law in daily life?
Ans: Hydraulic brake, hydraulic press, hydraulic lift, hydraulic Jack, hydraulic cylinder,
hydraulic dental chair, hydraulic office chair, ...
E11: The small piston of a hydraulic lift has a cross-sectional area of 3  10-4 m2 and its
large piston has a cross-sectional area of 2  10-2 m2. What must the downward force
be applied to the small piston for the lift to raise a load whose weight is 15 kN?
Ans: The area of the small piston = Ain = 3  10-4 m2
The area of the large piston = Aout = 2  10-2 m2
Weight of the load at the large piston = upward thrust on the large piston
Fout = 15 kN = 15  103 N
The downward force on the small piston = Fin =?
By Pascal’s law, pin = pout
Fin Fout

Ain Aout
4
Ain 3 3  10
Fin  Fout   15  10  = 225 N
Aout 2  10 2
Q14: The areas of the pistons of a hydraulic press are 2 in2, and 10 in2. How much effort
should be applied on the small piston to produce an upward thrust of 500 lb on the
larger piston?
Ans: the area of the small piston = Ain = 2 in2, the area of the large piston = Aout = 10 in2,
upward thrust = Fout = 500 lb, effort = Fin =?
By Pascal’s law, pin = pout
Fin Fout

Ain Aout

Ain 2 in 2
Fin  Fout   500 lb  = 100 lb
Aout 10 in 2
60 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q15: A hydraulic (water power) press consists of 1 cm and 5 cm diameter pistons. (i) What
force must be applied on the small piston so that the large piston will be able to raise
10 N load? (ii) To what height would the load be raised when the small piston has
moved 0.1 m?
Ans: diameter of the small piston = din= 1 cm = 1 × 10-2 m,
diameter of the large piston = dout = 5 cm = 5 × 10-2 m, load = Fout = 10 N,
(i) force applied on the small piston = Fin = ?
distance moved by small piston = in = 0.1 m,
distance moved by load = out =?
(i) By Pascal’s law, pin = pout
Fin Fout

Ain Aout

Fin Fout
 (because, A = r2 = ¼ d2)
 2  2
din dout
4 4

Fin = Fout 
din 2
 10 N 
110 m
2 2
= 0.4 N
d out 2 5 10 m
2 2

(ii) Assume, the input work (Win) = output work (Wout)

Win = Wout
Fin  in = Fout  out
Fin   in 0.4  0.1
 out   = 0.004 m
Fout 10
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 61

Q16: A 15 N force is exerted on one piston of a simple hydraulic press. Its area is 0.025 m2
and the area of another piston is 0.50 m2. Calculate (i) the pressure exerted on the liquid
by the small piston (ii) the pressure exerted on the large piston (iii) the force exerted
on the large piston (iv) the maximum weight of the load that can be lifted, if the weight
of large piston is 50 N.
Ans: the area of the small piston = Ain = 0.025 m2,
the area of the large piston = Aout = 0.50 m2,
the force exerted on the small piston = Fin = 15 N
(i) the pressure exerted on the liquid by the small piston = pin =?
Fin 15
pin   = 600 Pa
Ain 0.025
(ii) the pressure exerted on the large piston = pout =?
By Pascal’s law, pin = pout
pout = 600 Pa
(iii) the force exerted on the large piston = Fout =?
Fout = pout  Aout = 600  0.5 = 300 N
(iv) the maximum weight of the load that can be lifted = wout =?
the weight of large piston = 50 N
wout = Fout – the weight of large piston = 300 – 50 = 250 N
62 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 4
POWER AND EFFICIENCY
1. In physics, work is done only when an object moves under the influence of a force.
2. It is often useful to consider the rate at which work is done.
3. Whenever a force acting on an object produces a movement, work is done by the force
on the object and produces change in energy.
4. The rate of work or the rate of energy change is also important in practice.
4.1 POWER AND ITS UNITS
Work: Work may be defined as the scalar product of the force applied and the displacement.

5. In Figure 4.1 (a), if the force exerted by the man on roller is F, the distance moved along
the horizontal direction is s and the angle between F and s is , the work done by the
force is

W  F  s  fs cos
6. In Figure 4.1(b), if a man lifts an object to a certain height, the potential energy of object
will change.
7. The change in potential energy is equal to the work done on the object.
W = PE = mgh – 0 = mgh
8. The work done in lifting an object to a height is equal to the change in potential energy.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 63

Power
9. There are many cases where it is necessary to know the magnitude of the work done, but
for some other cases it is more important to know the rate of doing work rather than the
total amount of the work done.
Power: The rate of doing work is defined as power.
10. Let W be the work done in time period t.
W
The power P is, P
t
11. The unit for power in SI units is the watt (W).
1 watt: If the work done is 1 joule in 1 second, the power is 1 watt. [1 W = 1 J s-1]
12. The units of power which are larger than watt are kilowatt (kW) and megawatt (MW).
1 kW = 1000 W = 103 W, 1 MW = 1 000 000 W = 106 W
13. In the CGS system, the unit of power is erg s-1.
1 erg s-1: If the work done is 1 erg in 1 second, the power is 1 erg s-1.
14. In the British system, the unit of power is foot-pound per second (ft-lb s-1), and in British
engineering system, the unit of power is horse power (hp).
1 horse power: If the work done in 1 second is 550 ft-lb, the power is 550 ft-1b s-1 or 1 horse
power.
15. The relationships between different units of power are
1 W = 1 J s-1 = 107 erg s-1
1 hp = 550 ft-lb s-1 = 746 W = 746  107 erg s-1
16. If s is the displacement produced by a constant force F acting for the time t, the work
done is Fs.
Hence, the rate of doing work or power is
W Fs
P 
t t
s
P  Fv (because  v = average velocity)
t
P = Fv (for uniform motion, v  v )
17. Hence, power is equal to the product of force and velocity.
64 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

18. Although power is not a fundamental concept of physics, it is very useful in practice.
19. Power is not a fundamental concept like energy but it is a very important concept for
engineering works. For example, car engines, water pumps, refrigerators, air conditioner
and electric bulbs, etc., are specified according to their power consumption.
Chapter 4: Exercise 4.1
R43: (i) Two students climb up the stairs of a building and reach the top at the same time.
Their weights are different. Which student will expend more power?
Ans: The student having greater weight will expend more power because his change in
potential energy is greater, amount of work done is greater. Since the time taken are
the same, more work needs more power.
R43: (2) Which is more advantageous: to pay wages according to the amount of work done
or according to power?
Ans: If the work done are the same, to pay wages according to power is more advantageous.
If the work done are different, to pay wages according to amount of work done is more
advantageous.
E01: A 70 kg man is running up the stairs which is 3 m high in 2 s. (i) how much work is
done by the man? (ii) What is the power exerted by the man? (use g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: m = 70 kg, h = 3 m, t = 2 s,
(i) the work done by the man = W =? (ii) the power exerted by the man = P =?
(i) the work done = increase in potential energy of the man
W = PE = mgh = 70  9.8  3 = 2058 J
W 2058
(ii) P =  = 1029 W
t 2
E02: A water pump can raise 200 kg water to a height of 6 m in 10 s. Find the power of the
pump. (g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: m = 200 kg, h = 6 m, t = 10 s, the power of the pump = P =?
the work done = increase in potential energy of water
W = PE = mgh = 200  9.8  6 = 11760 J
W 11760
P  = 1176 W
t 10
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 65

E03: A crane lifts a 500 lb piano with a velocity of 2 ft s-1. Find the power of the crane in hp.
Ans: F = 500 lb, v = 2 ft s-1, the power of the crane = P =? (hp)
Since the force and the velocity are in the same direction, and assuming v is constant,
P = Fv = 500  2 = 1000 ft-lb s-1
1000
P= = 1.818 hp = 1.82 hp [because 1 hp = 550 ft-lb s-1]
550
Q01: A woman of 40 kg mass climbs up by pulling a rope 8 m long with a constant velocity
for 15 s. Find the power output of the woman. (use g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: m = 40 kg, h = 8 m, t = 15 s, power output of the woman = P =?
the work done = increase in potential energy of the woman
W = PE = mgh = 40  9.8  8 = 3136 J
W 3136
P=  = 209.1 W
t 15
Q02: The power output of the motor of a crane is 2 kW. With what speed can the machine
lift a 1000 kg load? (Use g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: P = 2 kW = 2000 W, m = 1000 kg, the speed = v =?
F = w = mg = 1000  9.8 = 9800 N
Since the force and the velocity are in the same direction, and assuming v is constant,
P 2000
Using P = Fv, v
 = 0.2041 m s-1
F 9800
Q03: A water pump is pumping up water from a well which is 200 m deep. (i) How much
work must be done by the pump to raise 1 kg of water? (ii) What is the power output
of the pump if it pumps up water at the rate of 10 kg min-1? (use g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: (i) h = 200 m, m = 1 kg, the work done to raise 1 kg of water by the pump = W =?
the work done = increase in potential energy of water
W = PE = mgh = 1  9.8  200 = 1960 J
(ii) m2 = 10 kg, h = 200 m, t = 1 min = 60 s, P =?
Let the work done to raise 10 kg of water by the pump = W2
W2 = PE2 = m2 gh = 10  9.8  200 = 19600 J
W 19600
P= 2 = = 326.7 W
t 60
66 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q04 A steam engine generating 5 hp is raising a load weighing 2000 lb. How high will the
load be raised in 10 s? (g = 32 ft s-2)
Ans: 1 hp = 550 ft-lb s-1
P = 5 hp = 5 × 550 ft-lb s-1
F = w = 2000 lb, t = 10 s,
the height = h =?
W PE mgh wh
P   
t t t t
Pt 5  550  10
h  = 13.75 ft
w 2000
Q05: If a car of mass 1200 kg is moving with a constant velocity of 37.5 m s-1 and
experiences a resistive force of 450 N, what is the power of the car engine?
Ans: F = 450 N, v = 37.5 m s-1, the power of the car engine = P =? (hp)
Since the force and the velocity are in the same direction, and v is constant,
P = Fv = 450  37.5 = 16 875 W
Q06: An electric motor in a washing machine has a power output of 1 kW. Find the work
done in 20 min.
Ans: P = 1 kW = 1000 W, t = 20 min = 20  60 s = 1200 s, the work done = W =?
W
P
t
W = P t = 1000  1200 = 1.2  106 W
Q07: In a tug-of-war, A-team is leading B-team. The rope is moving towards A-team at a
rate of 0.01 m s-1. If the tension of the rope is 4000 N, what is the power output of
A-team?
Ans: v = 0.01 m s-1, F = T = 4000 N, the power output of A-team = P =?
Since the force and the velocity are in the same direction, and assume v is constant,
P = Fv = 4000  0.01 = 40 W
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 67

Q08: The rate of doing work for the first worker is twice that of the second worker. But, the
working hours per day of the second is two and a half times that of the first. Who is a
better worker?
Let 1 = first worker, 2 = second worker
P1 = 2 P2, t2 = 2 ½ t1
W
Using P  ,
t
W1 P1t1

W2 P2t2
2 P2  t1 4
 
5
P2  t1 5
2
W2 > W1
The second worker is a better worker.
68 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.2 EFFICIENCY
1. Efficiency is another technical term that is derived from everyday usage.
2. In physics and engineering efficiency has a precise meaning.
3. Efficiency is used in association with machines and devices.
Simple Machine: A simple machine is a mechanical device that amplifies the magnitude of
a force and changes its position.
4. Simple machines are used to make work easier.
5. Nowadays, machines are just combinations or more complicated forms of the six simple
machines as shown in Figure 4.2 and Figure 4.3.
6. The six simple machines are lever, wheel and axle, pulley, inclined plane, screw and
wedge.

Figure 4.2 (a) The lever (b) wheel and axle (c) pulley

Figure 4.3 (a) Inclined plane (b) screw (c) wedge

Mechanical Advantage
7. The term mechanical advantage is used to describe how effectively a machine works.
Mechanical advantage: If a load L is raised steadily by a machine when an effort E is
applied, the mechanical advantage of the machine is defined as the ratio of load to effort.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 69

load
mechanical advantage 
effort
L
MA 
E
8. Suppose an effort E of 25 N is applied at one end of a crowbar and just overcomes the
resistance L of 100 N at the cover of a manhole,
L 100
then the mechanical advantage is, MA   =4
E 25
9. In practice, not all of the effort is used up in lifting the load, some of it is spent in
overcoming frictional forces present. The MA of a machine depends on the friction
present.
Velocity Ratio
10. In lifting a large load with a machine, the small effort applied will have to move through
a large distance for the heavy load to move through a small distance in the same time
interval.
Velocity ratio of a machine: The ratio of the distance moved by the effort to that of the load
in the same time is called the velocity ratio of the machine.
distance moved by effort
velocity ratio 
distance moved by load in the same time

seffort
VR 
sload
where, seffort = distance moved by the effort, sload = distance moved by the load
11. Suppose that in lifting a load with a pulley system, the effort moves through 250 cm
while the load moves through 50 cm in the same time interval,
seffort 250 cm
then the velocity ratio is, VR   =5
sload 50 cm
12. The velocity ratio of a machine VR is usually much greater than 1.
70 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Efficiency
13. In lifting a load with a machine, work is done on the load; this work obtained is called
the output work.
14. Also work is done by the effort during the same time interval, this work supplied is called
the input work.
Efficiency of the machine: The ratio of output work to input work is defined as the
efficiency of the machine.
output work
efficiency   100 %
input work
Wout
efficiency   100 %
Win
15. Efficiency is generally expressed in the percentage form.
Efficiency Related to Mechanical Advantage and Velocity Ratio
output work
efficiency   100 %
input work
load  distance moved by load
efficiency   100 %
effort  distance moved by effort

load distance moved by load

efficiency    100 %
effort distance moved by effort

1
efficiency  MA   100 %
VR

MA
efficiency   100 %
VR
16. It is impossible, in practice, to build a perfect machine for which output work is equal to
input work; input work always exceeds output work. Therefore, the efficiency of a
machine must always be less than 100 %.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 71

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.2

R47: Is it possible to build a machine having 100% efficiency? Explain.
Ans: It is impossible, in practice, to build a perfect machine for which output work is equal
to input work; input work always exceeds output work. Therefore, the efficiency of a
machine must always be less than 100 %.
E04: A machine with a velocity ratio of 8 requires 1000 J of work to raise a load of 500 N
through a vertical distance of 1 m. Find the efficiency and mechanical advantage of the
machine.
Ans: VR = 8, input work = Win = 1000 J, load = L = 500 N, sload = 1 m,
efficiency =? mechanical advantage = MA = ?
output work = Wout = L  sload = 500  1 = 500 J
Wout 500
efficiency =  100 % =  100 % = 50 %
Win 1000

MA
efficiency =  100 %
VR
MA
50 =  100
8
MA = 4
E05: A crane lifts a 100 kg block of concrete through a vertical height of 16 m in 20 s. If the
power supplied to the motor driving the crane is 1 kW, what is the efficiency of the
motor?
Ans: m = 100 kg, h = 16 m, t = 20 s, Pin = 1 kW = 1000 W
the work done on the concrete = output work of motor = Wout
Wout = change in potential energy of the concrete block
= mgh = 100  9.8  16 = 15 680 J
Wout 15 680
output power of motor = Pout =  = 784 W
t 20
Wout P 784
efficiency of the motor =  100 %  out  100 %   100 %  78.4 %
Win Pin 1000
72 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E06: A box of mass 40 kg is pushed up an inclined plane of length 13.0 m and height 5.0 m
above the ground level. If the applied force on the box is 200 N parallel to inclined
plane, find (i) MA (ii) VR (iii) output work and input work (iv) efficiency for this case.
Ans: seffeot = 13 m, sload = 5 m, effort = E = 200 N, m = 40 kg
load = L = weight of the box = mg = 40  9.8 = 392 N
L 392
(i) MA    1.96
E 200
seffort 13
(ii) VR    2.6
sload 5
(iii) output work = Wout = change in potential energy of the box
= mgh = 40  9.8  5 = 1960 J
(iv) input work = Win = effort  distance moved by effort
= E  seffort = 200  13 = 2600 J
MA 1.96
(v) efficiency =  100 %   100 % = 75.38 %
VR 2 .6
Q09: A system of levers with a velocity ratio of 25 overcomes a resistance of 3300 N when
an effort of 165 N is applied to it, calculate: (i) the mechanical advantage (ii) its
efficiency
Ans: VR = 25, load (L) = 3300 N, effort (E) = 165 N,
mechanical advantage = MA =? efficiency =?
L 3300
MA    20
E 165
MA 20
efficiency =  100 % =  100 % = 80 %
VR 25
Q10: By using a block-and-tackle a man can raise a load of 720 N by an effort of 200 N.
Find the mechanical advantage of the method.
Ans: load (L) = 720 N, effort (E) = 200 N, mechanical advantage = MA =?
L 720
MA    3 .6
E 200
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 73

4.3 THE STRETCHING OF COILED SPRING

1. If a small load is attached to the free end of a suspended spring, the spring will be
stretched or elongated.
2. When the load is taken off, the spring will return to its original length and form.
3. If a bigger load is hung at the free end, the spring will again be elongated, but this time
elongation will be larger.
4. If we increase the load, the elongation will also be increased.
5. Whenever the load is removed the spring returns to its original length and form.

Elasticity: The ability to retain the original form when the applied force is removed is called
elasticity.
6. Not only the springs but also other objects such as threads and rubber bands have elastic
property.
Elastic limit: Elastic limit is a limit, beyond which if an elastic object is stretched, it will
not return to its original form.
7. Elastic limit is different for different elastic bodies.
Hooke's Law
8. Robert Hooke, the English scientist, noted that when an elastic body such as a spring is
stretched by a weight or a force, the amount of elongation of the spring is proportional
to the applied force that produces it so long as the elastic limit is not exceeded.
9. The amount of elongation is also called extension.
74 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Hooke's law: As long as the elastic limit of a body is not exceeded, the strain produced is
proportional to stress causing it.
In symbols, F  x (or) F = kx
where F is the applied force or stress, x is the elongation or strain and k is a constant.
10. For a spring, k is also called spring constant. The unit of k is N m-1.
11. Hooke's law expresses the elastic behavior of materials.
12. The directly proportional relationship between applied force and elongation, is shown
graphically by a straight line in Figure 4.5 (a).

13. If a spring is compressed, or stretched to an extension x, the work is done by the applied
force.
14. This work done is stored as the potential energy of the spring.
15. The work done is given by the area under the curve as shown in Figure 4.5 (b).
16. Since this area is ½ k x2, the elastic potential energy stored by the stretched spring is also
½ k x2 .
W = PE = ½ k x2
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 75

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.3

R49: (i) Are elastic limits of different elastic bodies different or the same? (ii) Can the
threads and rubber bands have elasticity?
Ans: (i) different (ii) Yes.
E07: A spring requires a load of 25 N to increase its length by 4 cm. The spring obeys Hooke's
law. What is the spring constant? How much load will give it to extend 12 cm?
Ans: stress = F = 25 N, strain = x = 4 cm = 4  10-2 m, spring constant = k =?
If x2 = 12 cm = 12  10-2 m, F2 =?
By Hooke’s law, F = k x
F 25
k  = 6.25  102 N m-1
x 4  10 2
F2 = k x2 = 6.25  102  12  10-2 = 75 N (Assume the elastic limit > 75 N)
E08: If a force stretches a spring with spring constant 100 N m-1, how much work is needed
to stretch the spring 0.4 m from its rest position?
Ans: spring constant = k = 100 N m-1, strain = x = 0.4 m, work needed = W =?
W = PE = ½ k x2 = ½  100  0.42 = 8 J
Q11: The length of an unstretched spring is 12.0 cm. What load is needed to stretch the
spring to a length of 15 cm? The spring constant is 100 N m-1.
Ans: unstretched length = 0 = 12 cm, stretched length =  = 15 cm,
spring constant = k = 100 N m-1,
strain = x = 15 cm – 12 cm = 3 cm = 3  10-2 m,
load = stress = F =?
By Hooke’s law, F = k x = 100  3  10-2 = 3 N
76 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

4.4: SOURCES OF ENERGY

1. Energy is the ability to do work or the total power derived from the natural resources we
use for transportation, domestic appliances and the manufacture of all kinds of products.
2. The energy exists in many forms and can be converted from one form to another.
3. Energy sources can be classified as two major sources: conventional sources and non-
conventional sources as shown in Figure 4.7. [conventional = normal]
Sources of energy
Conventional sources Non-conventional sources
Coal Solar energy
Petroleum Wind energy
Electricity Tidal energy
Firewood Biomass energy
Straw Energy from urban waste
Figure 4.7: Conventional sources and non-conventional sources
4. Conventional energy sources are non-renewable and non-conventional energy sources
are renewable energy sources.
Renewable Energy Sources
5. Renewable energy sources are sustainable energy sources. [sustain = maintain]
6. A renewable energy source is generated from unlimited natural sources (e.g. the sun, the
wind, the hydropower) and is always replenished and is safe to the environment. The
most popular renewable energy sources currently are solar energy, wind energy, hydro
energy, tidal energy, geothermal energy and biomass energy.
[replenish = make is full again]
Solar Energy
7. The sun is the primary source of energy.
8. Sunlight is a clean, renewable source of energy. It is a sustainable resource, meaning it
does not run out because the sun shines almost every day.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 77

9. With the help of photovoltaic technology, solar energy can be used to generate
electricity. Through solar photovoltaic cells, solar radiation gets converted into DC
electricity directly as shown in Figure 4.8 (a) and (b).

Figure 4.8 (a) Solar Cell Figure 4.8 (b) Solar Farm
10. The generated electricity can either be used as it is or can be stored in the battery.
Wind Energy
11. Wind is the natural movement of air across the land or sea.
12. The wind when used to turn the blades of a windmill turns the shaft to which they are attached.
This movement of shaft of the generator produces electricity as shown in Figure 4.9.
78 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

[Pitch control is the technology used to operate and control the angle of the blades in a
wind turbine.]
[The yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction
changes.]
[A nacelle is a cover housing that houses all of the generating components in a wind
turbine, including the generator, gearbox, drive train, and brake assembly.]
[Anemometer is a measuring device used to measure the wind speed of an area.]
[The wind vane measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to
orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind.]
Hydro Energy
13. The tides in the sea, the flowing water in rivers or from the dams are sources of hydro
energy.
14. Hydro energy uses flowing water to power machinery and generate electricity as shown
in Figure 4.10.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 79

15. For example; grain grinding machinery on farms and hydroelectric energy plants to
power cities.

Tidal Energy
16. Tidal energy is another form of hydro energy that uses tidal currents twice-daily to drive
turbine generator [Figure 4.11 (a) and (b)].
17. Although tidal flow, unlike some other hydro energy sources, is not constant, it is highly
predictable.

[An estuary is the wide part of a river where it joins the sea.]
80 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Geothermal Energy
18. Geothermal literally means heat generated by earth.
19. Geothermal energy is heat stored on the earth crust and being used for electric generation
(Figure 4.12) and also for direct heat application.

20. Geothermal energy harnesses the earth's underground hot water and steam for heat and
electricity. [harness = bring it under your control and use it]
21. Geothermal energy is more readily available in areas affected by volcanism.
Biomass energy
22. Biomass is plant or animal material used as fuel to produce electricity or heat (Fig 4.13).
23. The agricultural waste, wood, charcoal or dried dung are used as biomass.
24. Biomass can also be converted into other forms of energy such as methane gas, ethanol
and biodiesel.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 81

Roles of a Renewable Energy

25. The four major roles of renewable energy are (i) electricity generation, (ii) air and water
heating or cooling, (iii) fuel for transportation and (iv) rural energy services (off-grid).
26. The benefits of using renewable energy instead of fossil fuels are free source, sustainable
and emit zero or minimal amounts of greenhouse gases (GHG).
[Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Methane (CH4), Nitrous Oxide (NO), Chlorofluorocarbon-12 or
CFC-12 (CCl2F2), Hydrofluorocarbon-23 or HFC-23 (CHF3), Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6),
Nitrogen Trifluoride (NF3)]
82 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Non-renewable energy sources

27. Non-renewable energy comes from sources that will run out or will not be replenished
for thousands or even millions of years.
28. They are finite amount in existence.
29. Four main types of non-renewable energy sources are oil, natural gas, coal and nuclear
energy in Figure 4.14.

30. Oil, natural gas and coal are collectively called fossil fuels.
31. Fossil fuels were formed within the earth from dead plants and animals over millions of
years.
32. Non-renewable energy can be used for electricity, heating, manufacturing and
transportation.
Nuclear energy
33. Nuclear energy is produced by using elements like uranium and thorium, which cannot
be replenished.
34. Nuclear energy can be used to generate electricity by means of nuclear fission as shown
in Figure4.15 (a) and (b).
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 83

35. In a nuclear reactor, the nuclear fuel is used to carry out sustained fission chain reaction
to produce electricity at a controlled rate.

Chapter 4: Exercise 4.4

R54: (1) What are renewable and non-renewable energy?
Ans: See notes.
R54: (2) Write down the names of the sources of renewable energy.
Ans: See notes.
84 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

CHAPTER 5
HEAT AND THERMAL PHENOMENA
1. If heat is added to a substance, the state of that substance can also change.
5.1: UNITS OF HEAT
Heat: Heat is the amount of energy transferred from one object to another because of a
difference in temperature.
2. As heat is a form of energy, heat can be measured in energy unit.
3. The unit of heat is joule (J) in SI unit.
4. Other heat units are calorie (cal) in the CGS system and kilocalorie (kcal) in the MKS
system.
5. The heat unit in British system is the British thermal unit (Btu).
l kilocalorie: Heat required to change the temperature of l kilogram mass of water by l kelvin
is called l kilocalorie.
6. The German doctor, Robert Mayer, found first that the energy which represents 1 cal is
4.184 J.
7. The relations between heat units are
1 kcal = 4184 J = 103 cal
1 Btu= 1055 J
1 ft-lb = 1.356 J

Chapter 5: Exercise 5.1

R56: Why can the energy unit be used as the heat unit?
Ans: As heat is a form of energy, heat can be measured in energy unit.
E01: How many kilocalories are equal to 2 Btu?
Ans: 1 kcal = 4184 J
1 Btu= 1055 J
1 kcal
2 Btu= 2  1055 J  = 0.504 kcal
4184 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 85

5.2: HEAT AND INTERNAL ENERGY

Internal energy: The internal energy of a body is the sum of the total kinetic energy and
potential energy of the molecules in the substance.
1. The kinetic energy of molecules is energy due to their motions.
2. The kinetic energy is directly related to temperature.
3. The rise in temperature of a substance is due to an increase in the average kinetic energy
of the molecules.
4. Whenever there is a rise in temperature of a substance, there must be an increase in the
internal energy of the substance shown in Figure 5.1.
5. The potential energy is energy due to inter-molecular forces between the molecules. The
magnitude of potential energy stored depends on the distance between the molecules or
the particles in that substance.
6. The internal energy of the substance is known as its thermal energy.
7. The transfer of thermal energy from one substance to another is referred to as heat.
86 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 5: Exercise 5.2

R57: (1) Why does the temperature of a substance increase?
Ans: The rise in temperature of a substance is due to an increase in the average kinetic
energy of the molecules.
R57: (2) What happen to the internal energy of a gas when it is heated?
Ans: The internal energy of the gas increases.
E02: An egg contains 8  104 cal of the average energy value of food. If that calorie is the
thermal unit used in the physical science, express the energy value of food of the egg
in joules. (1 cal = 4.184 J)
Ans: The average energy value of food of the egg = 8  l04 cal
= 8  l04  4.184 = 3.35  l05 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 87

5.3: THERMAL CAPACITY

1. When an object at a certain temperature is placed in contact with another object at a
higher temperature, the thermal energy (heat) is transferred from the object at a higher
temperature to one at a lower temperature.
2. Since the object at the lower temperature receives additional heat energy, its temperature
increases.
Thermal capacity: The amount of thermal energy required to change the temperature of an
object by one degree is called the thermal capacity or heat capacity of the object.
Q
The thermal capacity of an object, C 
T
where, Q = the thermal energy required, T = T2 – T1 = the temperature change
C = thermal capacity
3. The SI unit of thermal capacity is joule per kelvin (J K-1).
4. The thermal capacity of an object depends on mass and type of the material it is made of.
5. The thermal capacity is an important property of materials.
6. An object having lower thermal capacity can be heated up easily.
7. Water has a relatively high thermal capacity.
8. Because of high thermal capacity, water is used to cool engines.
9. In cold countries, water is used to store heat in solar heating system of the houses.

10. Another common application is the use of hot water bags to keep warm. This relies on
the ability of hot water to store a large amount of energy.
88 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11. The high thermal capacity of water also affects the weather.
12. Suppose that the internal energy of n moles of a substance changes by Q due to the
temperature change T. The thermal capacity for 1 mole is molar thermal capacity.
1 Q
C
n T
13. The SI unit of the molar thermal capacity is joule per mole per kelvin (J mol-1 K-1).

Chapter 5: Exercise 5.3

R58: How is thermal energy related to temperature change?
Ans: Thermal energy is directly proportional to temperature change. The higher the
temperature change, the higher the thermal energy obtained by the body.
E03: When a piece of iron is cooled from 70 °C to 40 °C, the thermal energy released is
700 J. What is its thermal capacity?
Ans: T = 70 °C – 40 °C = 30 °C = 30 K,
Q = 700 J
Q 700
Thermal capacity = C   = 23.33 J K-1
T 30
Q01: The heat capacity of a piece of copper is 200 J C-1. What is the amount of heat
required to raise its temperature from 25 °C to 80 °C?
Ans: T = 80 °C – 25 °C = 55 °C, C = 200 J C-1, amount of heat required = Q =?
Q
C
T
Q = C T = 200  55 = 11 000 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 89

5.4: SPECIFIC HEAT CAPACITY

1. The thermal capacity is an important property of a substance. It depends on mass and
type of material.
2. The thermal capacity per unit mass of a substance is the specific heat capacity.
Specific heat capacity: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat needed to
change the temperature of a unit mass of that substance by one degree.
C Q
c 
m mT
where, c = specific heat capacity of the substance, C = thermal capacity of the substance,
m = mass of the substance, T = the temperature change, Q = heat change
3. If the mass of a substance is m and its specific heat capacity is c, the amount of heat
required to raise temperature T is, Q = m c T.
T is the temperature difference between the final and the initial temperatures.
4. The SI unit of the specific heat capacity is joule per kilogram per kelvin (J kg-1 K-1).
5. The other units used for the specific heat capacity are kcal kg1 C1 and cal g1 C1.
Chapter 5: Exercise 5.4
R59: How does the specific heat capacity of water moderate the climate in a region near a
large lake?
Ans: The specific heat capacity of water is much greater than the surrounding land and air.
In summer, as the lake absorbs much more heat than the surrounding land and air, the
surrounding region remains cool. In winter, when the surrounding land and air become
cold, the lake gives off the heat it has stored as its temperature drops. Thus, the
surrounding region remains warm.
E04: How much heat does it take to raise the temperature of 220 g of water from 25 C to
100 C? Specific heat capacity of water is 4184 J kg1 K1.
Ans: m = 220 g = 220  10-3 kg = 0.22 kg, c = 4184 J kg1 K1
T= (100  25) C = 75 C = 75 K
The amount of heat, Q = m c T = 0.22  4184  75 = 69 036 J
90 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q02: How much heat must be added to change the temperature of 0.15 kg helium from
30 C to 80 C without changing the volume?
(Specific heat capacity of helium is 5.18  103 J kg1 K1)
m = 0.15 kg, c = 5.18  103 J kg-1 K-1, T= (80  30) C = 50 C = 50 K
Q = m c T = 0.15  5.18  103  50 = 38.85  103 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 91

5.5: LAW OF HEAT EXCHANGE

Law of heat exchange: When heat is transferred from one object to another object the total
heat lost by one object is equal to the total heat gained by the other object.
Suppose that heat is transferred from an object A at the TA
TB
temperature TA to another object B at the temperature TB in Q
mA mB
A B
Figure 5.2. In this case, the system consisting of two objects A
and B must be regarded as an isolated system. When the final Fig 5.2 Heat transfer from
object A to object B due to
temperature T of the objects are the same, no heat is transferred. different temperatures

Heat lost by object A, Qlost = mA cA (TA – T) = mA cA (T)A

Heat gained by object B, Qgained = mB cB (T – TB) = mB cB (T)B
By the law of heat exchange; Qlost = Qgained
mA cA (T)A = mB cB (T)B
1. Since heat is a form of energy, the law of heat exchange is one particular statement of
the law of conservation of energy.
2. The specific heat capacity of a substance can be determined using the law of heat
exchange.
Calorimeter
3. A calorimeter is a device used to measure the heat flow of a chemical reaction or physical
change.
4. It mainly consists of a metallic vessel made of
copper or aluminium.
5. The metallic vessel with a stirrer for stirring
the contents in the vessel is kept in an
insulating jacket to prevent heat lost to the
environment.
6. There is a hole on the lid through which a
thermometer is inserted as shown in Figure 5.3.
92 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Determination of Specific Heat Capacity of a Sample

7. The sample whose specific heat capacity is to be determined is placed in a calorimeter.
8. When heating the calorimeter and the sample their temperature will change by T.
Heat gained by the sample = m c T
where, m = mass of the sample, c = specific heat capacity of the sample
Heat gained by the calorimeter = mc cc T
where, mc = mass of calorimeter, cc = the specific heat capacity of calorimeter
Total heat gained by the sample and calorimeter; Qgained = m c T + mc cc T
Heat lost by the heat supply; Qlost = Q

By the law of heat exchange, Qgained = Qlost

m c T + mc cc T =Q
Q  mccc T
c
mT
Chapter 5: Exercise 5.5
R61: Samples of copper and iron having equal mass heated with the same amount of heat
will achieve different temperatures. Which sample will reach the higher temperature?
[ciron > ccopper]
Ans: heat gained by copper = heat gained by iron
miron ciron (T)iron = mcopper ccopper (T)copper
ciron (T)iron = ccopper (T)copper (they have the same mass)
ciron > ccopper
(T)iron < (T)copper
Copper will reach the higher temperature.
(OR)
When the same amount of heat is added to two different objects of the same mass at
the same temperature, the object having lower specific heat capacity will reach higher
temperature. Since the specific heat capacity of copper is smaller than that of iron,
copper will reach the higher temperature.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 93

E05: The specific heat capacity of 0.4 kg mass of a calorimeter is 627.6 J kg-1 K-1. A
0.55 kg substance is in that calorimeter. The temperature of the calorimeter increases
by 4 K when 2450 J of energy is added to it. Find the specific heat capacity of the
substance in the calorimeter.
Ans: mc = 0.4 kg, cc = 627.6 J kg-1 K-1, m = 0.55 kg, Q = 2450 J, T = 4 K,
the specific heat capacity of the substance = c =?
Q  mccc T
c
mT
2450  0.4  627.6  4  2450  1004.16 1445.84
   = 657.2 J kg-1 K-1
0.55  4 2.2 2.2
Q03: A calorimeter at 10 C contains 0.1 kg of carbon. The calorimeter is made of
aluminium and has a mass of 0.02 kg. When 1000 J of energy is added to the
calorimeter and carbon, the temperature increases to 30 °C. Specific heat capacity of
aluminium is 898 J kg-1 K-1. Find the specific heat capacity of carbon.
Ans: mc = 0.02 kg, cc = 898 J kg-1 K-1, m = 0.1 kg, Q = 1000 J,
T = (30 – 10) C = 20 C = 20 K, the specific heat capacity of carbon = c =?
Q  mccc T
c
mT
1000  0.02  898  20 1000  359.2 640.8
   = 320.4 J kg-1 K-1
0.1 20 2 2
Q04: 1 L of water at 100 C is added to 4 L of water at 20 °C. What will be the final
temperature of the water? (Specific heat capacity of water is 4I84 J kg-1 K-1)
Ans:
4 L water Qgained 5 L water Qlost 1 L water
at 20 C at T C at 100 C

mass of 1 L water = 1 kg, mass of 4 L water = 4 kg,

Let final temperature be T C
Heat gained by 4 L water = Qgained = m20 cw (T)20 = 4  cw  (T – 20) J
Heat lost by 1 L water = Qlost = m100 cw (T)100 = 1  cw  (100  T) J
94 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

By the law of heat exchange,Qgained = Qlost

4  cw  (T – 20) = 1  cw  (100  T)
4T – 80 = 100 – T
5T = 180
T = 36
Final temperature = 36 C
Q05: 0.2 kg coffee at 80 C is poured into 0.5 kg of glass at 20 °C. What is the final
temperature of coffee? (Specific heat capacity of water = 4184 J kg-1 K-1, Specific
heat capacity of glass = 837 J kg-1 K-1)
Ans:
0.5 kg glass Qgained Final Qlost 0.2 kg coffee
at 20 C at T C at 80 C
Let final temperature be T C
Heat gained by glass = Qgained = mg cg (T)g = 0.5  837  (T – 20) J
Heat lost by coffee = Qlost = mc cc (T)c = 0.2  4184  (80  T) J
By the law of heat exchange,Qgained = Qlost
0.5  837  (T – 20) = 1  cw  (100  T)
418.5T – 8370 = 66 944 – 836.8 T
1255.3T = 75 314
T = 59.99 = 60
Final temperature = 60 C
Q06: 0.5 kg of water at 30 C is placed in refrigerator which can remove heat at an average
rate of 25 J s-1. How long will it take to cool the water to 5 C?
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4184 J kg-1 K-1)
Ans: m = 0.5 kg, c = 4184 J kg-1 K-1, T = (30  5) C = 25 C = 25 K
heat required = Q = m c T = 0.5  4184  25 J
removing 25 J of heat takes 1 s
0.5  4184  25
removing 0.5  4184  25 J of heat takes = 2092 s
25
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 95

5.6: CHANGE OF STATE AND LATENT HEAT

1. Most substances can exist in three states, i.e., solid, liquid and gas.
2. Water, for example, may exist in the form of ice, water and steam (Figure 5.4).

melting vaporization

freezing condensation

ice water steam

Figure 5.4: Change of states of water

Phase change: A transition from one of the three states (solid, liquid and gas) to another is
called a phase change.
3. The change from one phase to another takes place very abruptly at a definite temperature.
4. The temperature at which a phase change occurs depends on pressure.
Latent heat: The energy absorbed or liberated by a substance in a phase change is called the
latent heat.
Specific latent heat: The energy absorbed or liberated by a unit mass of substance in a phase
change is called the specific latent heat.
5. If L is the specific latent heat of an object, the heat needed to change the phase of that
object of mass m is Q = L m.
6. The SI unit of specific latent heat is joule per kilogram (J kg-1).
7. Phase changes for water are illustrated by the temperature-heat graph in Figure 5.5.
8. At point A, water can exist only as ice.
9. If the pressure is kept fixed throughout and heat is added to ice, the temperature rises
until it reaches to point B.
10. As more heat is added, the temperature does not rise, but the ice gradually melts into
water. The temperature remains constant until all the ice has melted at point C.
96 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11. Then, as more heat is added, the temperature of water steadily increases until reaches to
point D.

Figure 5.5: Temperature-heat graph for phase changes of water

Heat Heat Added Temp
Start 1 g ice 0 0 -10
ice -10 to 0 Q = m cice T 20.89 20.89 0
ice to water Q = m LF 333.5 354.39 0
0 to 100 Q = m cw T 418.4 772.79 100
water to steam Q = m LV 2255 3027.79 100
100 to 120 Q = m csteam T 39.26 3067.05 120
temperature (C)

heat added (J)

Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 97

12. Again, the temperature remains constant until all the water has been changed into vapour
(steam).
13. Then, additional heat will increase the temperature of the vapour.
14. It is found that the temperature does not change during phase change.
15. If the above procedure is repeated at a low enough pressure, ice changes directly into
vapour (from point A to point E) without passing through the liquid phase. Such direct
change from the solid phase to the gas phase is called sublimation.
16. Sublimation is used in the freeze-drying process which does not damage food and
preserves its quality and taste.
Chapter 5: Exercise 5.6
R62: Can heat be extracted from water at 0 C?
Ans: Yes. When water changes into ice, heat is extracted.
98 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

5.7: VAPORIZATION AND SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF VAPORIZATION

1. If water in a container is heated, the temperature will increase until it reaches 100 °C.
2. At 100 °C, the water boils and begins to vaporize.
3. If heat is added, the water keeps vaporizing. But the temperature of the boiling water
remains constant.
4. If heat is continually added, all the water turns completely into steam.
5. After that if more heat is added, the temperature of steam will increase.
Vaporization: The process of changing liquid into vapour is called vaporization.
Boiling point: The temperature at which a liquid vapourizes under normal pressure is called
its boiling point.
Specific Latent Heat of Vaporization: Heat that must be supplied to change 1 kg of liquid
at its boiling point from liquid phase to vapour phase is called the specific latent heat of
vaporization Lv of the liquid
6. Different liquids have different boiling points.
7. The boiling point of mercury is 357 C and that of water is is 100 C.
8. The exact value of the specific latent heat of vaporization of water is 2 255 176 J kg-1.
But 2.255  106 J kg-1 will be assumed for simplicity in calculations.
9. If steam at 100 C is cooled, it condenses back to water.
10. In this process, although the steam is losing heat, the temperature remains at 100 °C.
Condensation: The change of vapour or gas phase into liquid phase is called condensation.
11. In condensation, the substance releases heat.
12. In vaporization, the substance absorbs heat.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 99

Chapter 5: Exercise 5.7

R63: Why is getting burnt by steam at 100 C worse than that by hot water of the same
mass at 100 C?
Ans: Because steam at 100 C contains much more heat than water at 100 C. The specific
latent heat of vaporization of water is very large.
E06: How much heat is needed to change 5 kg of water at 100 C to steam?
(specific latent beat of vaporization Lv = 2.255  106 J kg-1)
Ans: m = 5 kg, Lv = 2.255  106 J kg-1
The heat needed is, Q = m Lv = 5  2.255  106 = 1.13  107 J
100 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

5.8: FUSION AND SPECIFIC LATENT HEAT OF FUSION

1. If a certain pieces of ice in a tray are heated, the temperature will increase.
2. After some time, some pieces of ice change into water.
3. The temperature of the mixture of water and ice will found to be at 0 °C.
4. The ice is melting continuously until all the ice turns to water without changing its
temperature.
5. After all the ice has melted, the temperature of water will rise if more heat is added.
Melting point: The temperature at which a solid melts under normal pressure is called the
melting point.
6. The melting point for ice under normal pressure is 0 °C.
Specific Latent Heat of Fusion: Heat required to melt 1 kg of a solid at its melting point is
called the specific latent heat of fusion Lf.
7. The exact value of the specific latent heat of fusion of ice is 333 464.8 J kg-1.
8. The approximate value, 3.335  105 J kg-1 will be assumed for simplicity in calculations.
9. The specific latent beat of fusion, specific latent beat of vaporization, melting point and
boiling point for some substances are given in Table 5.2.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 101

Chapter 5: Exercise 5.8

R64: A lead bullet at 327 °C melts after striking a steel plate. With what velocity does the
bullet strike the steel plate? (Latent heat of fusion of lead = 24.52  103 J kg-1, the
melting point of lead = 327 °C)
(Hint: all of the kinetic energy of the bullet changes into heat energy)
Ans: the velocity of the bullet = v =?
heat required to melt the lead bullet = Q = mLf
kinetic energy of the bullet = KE = ½ m v2
By the law of conservation of energy,
kinetic energy of the bullet = heat required to melt the bullet
½ m v2 = mLf

v  2L f  2  24.52  103 = 221 m s-1

E07: How much heat is required to melt 5 kg of ice at 0 °C?

(specific latent heat of fusion of ice is, Lf = 3.335  105 J kg-1)--
Ans: m = 5 kg, Lf = 3.335  105 J kg-1, heat required = Q =?
Q = mLf = 5  3.335  105 = 1.67  106 J
E08: Ice cubes at -10 °C with a total mass of 0.045 kg are mixed with 0.3 kg tea at 30 °C.
What is the final equilibrium temperature? (The specific heat capacity of tea is the
same as that of water, the specific heat capacity of ice is 2089 J kg-1 K-1.)
Ans: mice= 0.045 kg, mtea = 0.3 kg, cice = 2089 J kg-1 K-1, ctea = 4184 J kg-1 K-1,
If all the ice melts, the final temperature must be higher than 0 °C.
Let the final temperature be T.

ice Q1 ice Q2 water Q3 water + tea Q4 tea
at -10 C at 0 C at 0 C at T C at 30 C

heat needed to bring the ice at - 10 °C to 0 °C = Q1

Q1 = mice cice T1 = 0.045  2089  10 = 940.1 J
heat needed to melt the ice at 0 °C = Q2
102 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q2 = mice Lf = 0.045  3.335  105 = 15 010 J

heat needed to warm the melted ice at 0 °C to T = Q3
Q3 = mice cw T3 = 0.045  4184  T = 188.3 T J
heat lost by the tea in decreasing the temperature from 30 °C to 0 °C = Q4
Q4 = mtea ctea T4 = 0.3  4184  (30 – T) = 37 650  1255 T J
By the law of heat exchange,
total heat gained = total heat lost
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 = Q4
940.1 + 15 010 + 188.3 T = 37 650  1255 T
1443.3 T = 21699.9
1443 T = 21 700
T = 15.04 °C
Since the final temperature T is greater than 0 °C, all the ice melts.
Q07: How much heat is needed to melt 10 kg of ice at -10 C?
Specific latent heat of fusion of ice = 3.335  105 J kg-1,
Specific heat capacity of ice = 2089 J kg-1 K-1.
Ans:
10 kg ice Q1 10 kg ice Q2 10 kg water
at -10 C T1 = 10 C at 0 C at 0 C

mice = 10 kg
heat needed to change the temperature of ice from -10 C to 0 C = Q1
heat needed to melt the ice at 0 C = Q2
Q1 = mice cice T1 = 10  2089  10 = 2.089  105 J = 0.2089  106 J
Q2 = mice Lf = 10  3.335  105 = 3.335  106 J
Total heat needed = Q
= Q1 + Q2
= 0.2089  106 + 3.335  106
= 3.5439  106 J
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 103

Q08: Does all the ice melt when 0.15 kg of ice at 0 C is put into 0.25 kg of water at 20 °C?
What is the final temperature?
Ans: heat needed to melt 0.15 kg ice at 0 C = Q1
Q1 = mice Lf = 0.15  3.335  105 = 5.0  104 J
heat given off by 0.25 kg water when its temperature drops from 20 C to 0 C = Q2
Q2 = mw cw T3 = 0.25  4184  20 = 2.09  104 J
Since Q2 < Q1, all the ice does not melt.
Assume that m1 kg of ice melts.
heat needed to melt m1 kg of ice = Q = m1 Lf = m1  3.335  105 J
Q = Q2
m1  3.335  105 = 2.09  104
m1 = 0.06 kg
final ice = 0.15 – 0.06 = 0.09 kg
final water = 0.06 + 0.25 = 0.31 kg
The final condition is a mixture of 0.09 kg ice and 0.31 kg water at 0 C.
Q09: 0.2 kg of water at 0 C is poured into a container having liquid nitrogen at -196 C by
mistake. How much nitrogen vaporizes? The boiling point of nitrogen is -196 C and
its latent heat of vaporization is 200 800 J kg-1.
Ans: Q3 Q1
liquid N2 gas N2 ice Q2 ice water
at -196 C at -196 C at -196 C at 0 C at 0 C

let m kg of nitrogen (N2) vaporizes.

mw = mice = 0.2 kg, ice = 2089 J kg-1 K-1, (Lf)ice = 3.335  105 J kg-1,
(Lv)N2 = 2.008  105 J kg-1,
heat lost by water in changing water to ice = Q1
Q1 = mice(Lf)ice = 0.2  3.335  105 = 6.67  104 J
heat lost by ice in decreasing temperature from 0 C to -196 C = Q2
Q2 = mice cice T2 = 0.2  2089  196 = 8.189  104 J
104 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

heat needed to vaporize m kg of nitrogen = Q3

Q3 = mN2 (Lv)N2 = m  2.008  105 J
By the law of heat exchange,
total heat gained = total heat lost
Q3 = Q1 + Q2
m  2.008  105 = 6.67  104  8.189  104
m  2.008  105 = 1.486  105
m = 0.74
0.74 kg of nitrogen vaporizes.
Q10: A 10 kg mass of copper block is dropped from a height of 50 m. Assume all of the
potential energy change to heat, how much has the temperature increased when the
copper block strikes the ground?
(Specific heat capacity of copper = 385 J kg-1 K-1, g = 9.8 m s-2)
Ans: temperature increased by the copper block = T =?
mass of copper block = mcopper = 10 kg, height = h = 50 m,
ccopper = 385 J kg-1 K-1,
heat gained by the copper block = Q = mcopper ccopper T
potential energy of the copper block = mcopper gh
By the law of conservation of energy,
potential energy of the copper block = heat gained by the copper block
mcopper gh = mcopper ccopper T
gh 9.8  50
T   = 1.27 C
ccopper 385

(Assume the original temperature of the copper block is not at its boiling point. There
is no work done in striking the ground.) (Actually the increase in temperature is due
to air friction on its way down, and in striking the ground. Some of its potential energy
will be used to make sound and work done.)
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 105

5.9: DEPENDENCE OF MELTING POINT AND BOILING POINT ON PRESSURE

1. The melting point and boiling point vary with pressure.

2. Two significant points are the triple point and the critical point as shown in Figure 5.6.
Triple point: At the triple point, liquid, solid and vapour phases may all exist together.
Critical point: At the critical point, both the liquid and gas phases of a substance have the
same density, and are therefore indistinguishable.
3. The melting point of ice varies with atmospheric pressure.
4. The melting point of ice decreases as the pressure increases.
5. For an ice skater, the pressure of ice skates lowers the melting point of ice and melts the
ice under them. Hence, the blades can cut across the ice because of the very thin layer of
water is formed on top of the ice. However, the pressure exerts on the ice surface would
return to normal after the blade passes. The thin layer of water freezes again and the ice
rink won't become a pool of water.
6. The boiling point of water also varies with the atmospheric pressure.
7. An increase in external pressure will raise the boiling point of water. This is used in
pressure cookers. When a pressure cooker is in operation, the pressure inside it is twice
the normal atmospheric pressure. At this pressure, water boils at a higher temperature of
120 C and thus food can be cooked in a much shorter time.
106 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 5: Exercise 5.9

R65: How does the melting point of ice and boiling point of water change with pressure?
Ans: The melting point of ice decreases as the pressure increases.
An increase in external pressure will raise the boiling point of water.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 107

CHAPTER 6:
VIBRATION OF STRINGS, RESONANCE AND
VIBRATION OF AIR COLUMNS
1. Most musical instruments produce sound due to vibration of the string and air column.
2. These vibrations give rise to waves known as stationary waves in the string or air column
and cause progressive waves to spread out from musical instrument.
3. Waves are classified as progressive waves and stationary waves.
4. Progressive waves spread out from the region in which they are produced.
5. Unlike progressive waves, stationary waves do not spread out, but remain in the region
in which they are produced. So they are also called standing waves.
Progressive waves: Sound waves which travel in air when we speak and water waves which
travel on the water surface when a stone is dropped are progressive waves.
6. Progressive waves carry energy through the medium.
Stationary waves: The waves produced in hollow tubes such as flutes and in string
instruments such as violins and mandolins are stationary waves.
6.1: STATIONARY WAVES
7. A stationary wave is the resultant wave by the superposition of two waves of the same
type having equal amplitudes and velocities travelling in opposite directions.
8. The formation of a stationary wave can be demonstrated as follows.
One end of a string is fastened to the vibrating arm of an electric vibrator and the other
end is held by the hand.
When the electric vibrator is activated
while the string is held tightly, the string
vibrates due to the electric vibrator.
The incident wave travels from the vibrator to the hand and the reflected wave travels
from the hand electric to the vibrator.
The resultant wave obtained from the superposition of the incident and the reflected wave
is a stationary wave as shown Figure 6.1.
108 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Principle of Superposition
9. Waves have linearity property.
Principle of superposition: When two or more waves pass the same point, the resultant
wave at that point is the sum of the individual waves. This is called principle of
superposition.
Constructive interference: If the resultant wave of two waves passing the same point has a
larger amplitude than that of the individual waves, this is said to be constructive interference.
Destructive interference: If the resultant wave of two waves passing the same point has a
smaller amplitude than that of the individual waves, this is said to be destructive interference.
10. If the resultant wave of two waves passing the same point has a zero amplitude, it is said
to be completely destructive interference. (Figure 6.2)

Nodes and Antinodes

11. One characteristic of every stationary wave pattern is that there are points along the
medium, which are called nodes and antinodes.
Nodes: The points marked N in a stationary wave (Figure 6.3) are always stationary. They
are called nodes.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 109

12. The points between nodes are vibrating with different amplitudes.
Antinodes: The mid-points between successive nodes have the largest amplitudes and are
called antinodes. (which are marked A in Figure 6.3.)
13. Nodes and antinodes always alternate and are equally spaced.
14. The distance between two successive nodes or two successive antinodes is equal to /2
where is the wavelength.
15. The distance from a node to the nearest antinodes is equal to /4.

Chapter 6: Exercise 6.1

R69: (1) Describe how stationary waves can be produced.
Ans: The formation of a stationary wave can be demonstrated as follows.
One end of a string is fastened to the vibrating arm of an electric vibrator and the other
end is held by the hand.
When the electric vibrator is
activated while the string is
held tightly, the string
vibrates due to the electric
vibrator.
The incident wave travels from the vibrator to the hand and the reflected wave travels
from the hand electric to the vibrator.
The resultant wave obtained from the superposition of the incident and the reflected
wave is a stationary wave as shown Figure 6.1.
R69: (2) How are antinodes and nodes created in a stationary wave?
Ans: An antinode is formed at a point where two waves make totally constructive
interference.
A node is formed at a point where two waves make totally destructive interference.
110 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E01: If the distance between two consecutive nodes of a stationary wave in a stretched
string is 0.5 m, (i) find the distance between two successive antinodes; (ii) find the
distance between a node and the nearest antinodes.
Ans: the distance between two consecutive nodes of a stationary wave = /2 = 0.5 m
the wavelength of the stationary wave =  = 1 m
(i) the distance between two successive antinodes = /2 = 0.5 m
(ii) the distance between a node and the nearest antinodes = /4 = 0.5/2 = 0.25 m
Q01: There are always points that do not move in stationary waves. (i) What are those points
called? (ii) How is the distance between two such successive points related to the
wavelength?
Ans: (i) Nodes (ii) The distance between two successive nodes is half the wavelength
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 111

6.2: VIBRATING STRINGS

1. In most of the musical instruments (for example, violin, mandolin, etc.) the stretched
strings act as a source of sound.
2. When the stretched strings are plucked, the stationary waves are produced.
3. The stationary waves have certain specific frequencies.
4. To understand why only certain frequencies can occur, consider a string of length 
rigidly fixed at both ends.
5. When the string is plucked the stationary waves with nodes at the fixed ends are formed.
6. The waves that are formed on the string are called harmonics.
7. The first four harmonics of the vibrating string are shown in Figure 6.4.


A

N N First harmonic (Fundamental)

A A
N N Second harmonic (First overtone)
N

A A A
N N N Third harmonic (Second overtone)
N

A A A A
N N N
N N Fourth harmonic (Third overtone)

where, N = node, A = antinode,  = length of the spring, = wavelength of the wave
Figure 6.4: Harmonics of vibrating string
8. The wavelength in Figure 6.4 can be labeled with a subscript n, where n is a positive
integer and is called harmonic number.
2
9. For the nth harmonic, n 
(n = 1, 2, 3, .... )
n
10. The corresponding frequencies are calculated from v = fn n, where v is the velocity of
wave in the string. The frequencies of the vibrating string of length  are,
nv
fn  (n = 1, 2, 3, ....)
2
112 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

11. The vibration of a string in one single segment is called the fundamental or the first
harmonic.
12. A musical tone which is part of the harmonic series above a fundamental note is called
an overtone.
13. The velocity of a wave in a vibrating string depends on the tension of the string and mass
per unit length of the string as follows,

T
v

where, v = velocity of the wave in the string, T = tension in the string,
 = mass per unit length of the string
14. The frequencies of the harmonics in the vibrating string can also be written in terms of
T and  as follows,

nv n T
General equation, fn   (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
2 2 

1 T
First harmonic, n = 1, f1 
2 

2 T
Second harmonic, n = 2, f2   2 f1
2 

3 T
Third harmonic, n = 3, f3   3 f1
2 
Mass per unit length of the string is the ratio of mass to length of the string.
m


But, m=V=A
A
  A

where, A = cross-sectional area of the uniform string,  = density of the material of the string
V = volume of the string, m = mass of the string
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 113

Chapter 6: Exercise 6.2

R72: How does the velocity of a stationary wave formed in a string, with both ends firmly
fixed, depend on the tension and mass per unit length of the string?
Ans: T
v

v = velocity of the wave in the string,
T = tension in the string,
m = mass of the string,
= m/ = mass per unit length of the string,
 = length of the string
The velocity of a stationary wave formed in a string, with both ends firmly fixed, is
directly proportional to the square-root of the tension and inversely proportional to
the square-root of mass per unit length of the string.
E02: Find the frequencies of the first three harmonics of the longest string of length 1.98 m
in a grand piano. The velocity of the wave in it is 130 m s-1.
Ans:  = 1.98 m, v = 130 m s-1, f1, f2, f3 =?
nv
The nth harmonic of a stretched string is, fn = , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
1  130
For the first harmonic or fundamental frequency, n = 1, f1 = = 32.83 Hz
2  1.98
2  130
For the second harmonic, n = 2, f2 = = 65.66 Hz
2  1.98
(or) f2 = 2f1 = 2×32.83 = 65.66 Hz
3  130
For the third harmonic, n = 3, f3 = = 98.48 Hz
2  1.98
(or) f3 = 3f1 = 3 × 32.83 = 98.49 Hz
114 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

E03: The wave velocity in the highest frequency violin string is 435 m s-1, and its length 
is 0.33 m. If a violin player lightly touches the string at a point, which is at a distance
/3 from one end, a node is formed at that point. What is the lowest frequency that
can now be produced by the string?
Ans: It is the third harmonic, and n = 3.
N N  N N
-1
= 0.33 m, v = 435 m s ,
touch
the lowest frequency that can now be produced by the string = f3 =?
nv
The nth harmonic of a stretched string is, fn = , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
3v 3  435
f3 = = = 1977 Hz
2 2  0.33
E04: The highest and the lowest frequency strings of a piano are tuned to the fundamentals
of fH = 4186 Hz and fL = 32.8 Hz. Their lengths are 0.051 m and 1.98 m respectively.
If the tension in these two strings is the same, compare the masses per unit length of
the two strings.

Ans: The nth harmonic of a stretched string is, fn = n T , n = 1, 2, 3, ...

2 

1 T
For the first harmonic, n = 1, f1 =
2 
T
=
2  f1 2
T
2
L

2   f  2    H f H 
H T   f 
   
2  H f H 2
2
 0.051  4186 
=  = 10.81
 1.98  32.8 
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 115

Q02: The distance between two successive nodes of stationary waves produced in a
stretched string is 0.4 m. Find the wavelength of that stationary wave. If the frequency
is 105 Hz, what is the velocity of the wave in the string?
Ans: Distance between two successive nodes = 0.4 m, f = 105 Hz, =? v = ?
Distance between two successive nodes = /2 = 0.4 m
wavelength =  = 0.8 m
using wave equation, v = f = 105 × 0.8 = 84 m s-1

Q03: Draw a graph which correctly describes the relation f  T for the stretched string.
(f = frequency of the string, T = tension in the string).
Ans: n T
fn  , where n,  and  are constant in this case. f
2 

Thus, f n  T and the graph is a straight line.

Q04: If the mass of a string of 1 m length is 0.3 g and its tension is 48 N, find the
fundamental frequency of the string.
Ans:  = 1 m, m = 0.3 g = 3 × 10-4 kg, T = 48 N, fundamental frequency = f1 = ?

m 3  104 kg
   3  10 4 kg m 1
 1m
n T
The nth harmonic of a stretched string is, fn = , n = 1, 2, 3, …
2 

1 48  1
For fundamental frequency, n = 1, f1 = = 0.5 × 400 = 200 Hz
2  1 3  10 4
116 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Q05: What is the tension required for a violin string to vibrate at the fundamental frequency
of 440 Hz? The length of the violin string is 0.33 m, its diameter is 0.05 cm and the
density of the string is 3.5 × 103 kg m-3.
Ans: f1 = 440 Hz, = 0.33 m, d = 0.05 cm = 5 × 10-4 m, = 3.5 × 103 kg m-3,
tension = T = ?
n T
The nth harmonic of a stretched string is, fn = ; n = 1, 2, 3, …
2 

1 T
For fundamental frequency, n = 1, f1 =
2 
m V
T  4 2 f12   4 2 f12   4 2 f12 
 
A 
 4 2 f12   4 2 f12    d 2   2 f12 d 2
 4
T = 5.5 × 103 × 3.14 × (0.33 × 440 × 5 × 10-4 )2 = 57.93 N
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 117

6.3: RESONANCE COLUMN AND ORGAN PIPES

Resonance and Resonance Frequency
D
1. Several pendulums of different lengths are suspended from a
flexible beam as shown in Figure 6.5. A C
B
2. If one of them such as A, is set up into oscillation, the others will
begin to oscillate because they are coupled by vibrations in
Fig 6.5: Example
flexible beam. of resonance
3. Pendulum C, whose length is the same as that of A, will oscillate with the greatest
amplitude since its natural frequency matches that of pendulum A which provides the
driving force.
4. The amplitude of the motion reaches a maximum when the frequency of driving force
equals the natural frequency of the system f0. Under this condition, the system is said to
be in resonance. The f0 is called the resonant frequency of the system.
Natural frequency: Natural frequency is the frequency at which a system tends to oscillate
in the absence of any driving force.
Resonance Column
5. If a vibrating tuning fork is placed over the open end of a glass tube partly filled with
water as shown in the Figure 6.6, the sound of the tuning fork can be greatly amplified
under certain conditions.
6. The length of air column in the tube can be varied by raising or lowering the water level.
7. At a certain length of air column, the loud resonant sound will be heard from the tube.
8. The resonant sound will be heard at certain different lengths of air
column.
9. The wave is sent down the air column in the tube and it is reflected
upwards when it hits the water surface.
10. Once again it is reflected downwards when it reached the source.
Fig 6.6 Adjustable
11. If the air column is just the proper length the reflected wave will resonance tube
be reinforced by the vibrating source as it travels down the tube a second time.
118 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

12. In this way the wave is reinforced for a number of times and resonance is obtained from
these multiple reinforcements.
13. The tube shown in Figure 6. 7 will have an antinode near the open end and a node at the
water surface.
14. The water at that end will not allow the air molecules to move downward. So they cannot
move at the closed end and a node will be formed.
15. At the open end the air molecules can move out freely and an antinode will be formed at
the open end.
16. Resonance can only be produced under the situation where a node is formed at water
surface (closed end) and an antinode is formed at the open end.
17. The velocity of sound can be found using resonance
phenomena. c c
18. Figure 6. 7 shows the resonance phenomena at the length 1
2
of air column 1 and 2.
19. Since the antinodes lie just beyond the end of the tube, the
correction c is added to the length of the air column.
 3 Fig 6.7: First and second
20. Therefore, 1  c  and 2  c  .
4 4 resonance

21. The wavelength of vibrating air column is . = 2(2 - 1).

22. At the resonance, the frequency f of the tuning fork is equal to the frequency of vibrating
air column.
23. Thus, the velocity of sound is v = f .
Organ Pipe
24. The resonance phenomenon also occurs in an organ pipe.
25. The organ pipes produce sound from the vibrations of air column in a pipe.
26. Organ pipes are two types, closed organ pipe and open organ pipe.
27. In closed organ pipe, one end is opened and another end is closed. For example, whistle
is a closed organ pipe.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 119

28. In closed organ pipes, an antinode exists near the open end (blowing end) while a node
is formed at the closed end.
29. The resonant frequencies for a closed organ pipe are as shown in Figure 6.8.

A N  =1/4 1 =4/1 First harmonic (Fundamental)

N
A A N  =3/4 3 =4/3 Third harmonic (First overtone)

N N
A A A N  =5/4 5 =4/5 Fifth harmonic (Second overtone)

N N N  =7/4 7 =4/7 Seventh harmonic (Third overtone)

A A A A N

N = node, A = antinode,  = length of the tube,  = wavelength, f = frequency

Fig 6.8: Resonance phenomena in a closed organ pipe

30. The wavelength of the nth harmonic for the vibrating aircolumn in a closed organ pipe is
4
n  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
n
nv
31. The frequency of the closed organ pipe is, fn  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
4
where v is the velocity of sound.
v
32. For the first harmonic, n = 1, f1 
4
3v
33. For the third harmonic, n = 3, f3   3 f1
4
5v
34. For the fifth harmonic, n = 5, f5   5 f1
4
35. Closed organ pipe produces only odd harmonics.
36. Third harmonic of closed organ pipe is called first overtone.
37. Fifth harmonic of closed organ pipe is called and second overtone.
38. The resonance phenomena in open organ pipe are shown in Figure 6.9.
120 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

39. The stationary wave with a single node in the open organ pipe corresponds to
fundamental frequency (first harmonic).
40. The stationary wave with two nodes is second harmonic or first overtone.
41. A flute is an open organ pipe.

2
42. The wavelength for the nth harmonic of open organ pipe is, n  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
n
43. The frequencies of the vibrating air column in open organ pipe are,
nv
fn  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
2
44. A flute can be modeled as a pipe opens at both ends, while clarinet can be modeled as a
pipe closed at one end.
Beats
45. Beats are the periodic fluctuation heard in the intensity of sound when two sound waves
of slightly different frequencies interfere with one another as shown in Figure 6.10.
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 121

46. The number of beats per second or beat frequency is the difference in frequency between
the two sources.
47. fb = f2 – f1, where fb = beat frequency, f1, f2 = frequencies of the two sources

Chapter 6: Exercise 6.3

R76: A closed organ pipe bas a fundamental frequency of 256 Hz. What is the length of the
pipe? (Velocity of sound = 340 m s-1)
Ans: nv
The frequency of the closed organ pipe is, fn  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
4
For fundamental frequency, n = 1
v
f1 
4
v 340
  = 0.3320 m
4 f1 4  256
E06: Find the harmonics which will be formed in a closed organ pipe of length 0.4 m.
Velocity of sound in air is 340 m s-1.
Ans: nv
The frequency of the closed organ pipe is, fn  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
4
For fundamental frequency, n = 1
v 340
f1   = 212.5 Hz
4 4  0.4
3v
For the third harmonic, n = 3, f3   3 f1 = 3  212.5 = 637.5 Hz
4
5v
For the fifth harmonic, n = 5, f5   5 f1 = 5  212.5 = 1062.5 Hz
4
E07: A tuning fork is struck and placed over the open end of a resonance tube with
adjustable air column. If resonances occur when the air column is 17.9 cm and
56.7 cm long, find the velocity of sound from these values. Frequency of tuning fork
is 440 Hz.
122 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Ans: 1 = 17.9 cm, 2 = 56.7 cm, f = 440 Hz


For the first resonance, 1  c 
4
3
For the first resonance, 2  c 
4
. = 2(2 - 1) = 2 (56.7 – 17.9) cm = 2  38.8 cm = 77.6 cm = 0.776 m
Using wave equation, v = f  = 440  0.776 = 341.4 m s-1
Q06: Find the fundamental frequency of an open tube of length 4.5 m and diameter 2.5 cm.
(Assume velocity of sound is 340 m s-1)
Ans: = 4.5 m, d = 2.5 cm, v = 340 m s-1, f1 = ?
nv
The tube is open, the frequency of nth harmonic is: fn = , n = 1, 2, 3, ...
2
1 340
For the first harmonic or fundamental frequency, n = 1, f1 = = 37.8 Hz
2  4.5

Q07: What is the beat frequency of two tones with the frequencies 256 Hz and 260 Hz?
Ans: let f2 = 260 Hz, f1 = 256 Hz, beat frequency = fb =?
fb = f2 – f1 = 260 – 256 = 4 Hz
Four pulsating sounds will be heard.
Q08: A violist with a perfectly tuned a string (f = 440 Hz) plays an A note with another
violist, and a beat frequency of 2 Hz is heard. What is the frequency of the tone from
the other violin? Is there only one possibility?
Ans: fA = 440 Hz, fb = 2 Hz, fother =?
There are two possibilities.
fb = f2 – f1 where f2 = higher frequency and f1 = lower frequency
If fother > fA, fb = fother – fA
fother = fA + fb = 440 + 2 = 442 Hz
If fother < fA, fb = fA – fother
fother = fA  fb = 440  2 = 438 Hz
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 123

Q09: How is fundamental frequency of vibration of an organ pipe altered as the velocity of
sound increases?
Ans: nv
The frequency of the closed organ pipe is, fn  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
4
where v is the velocity of sound.
The frequencies of the vibrating air column in open organ pipe are,
nv
fn  , (n = 1, 3, 5, ...)
2
The frequency is directly proportional to the velocity of sound in air.
The fundamental frequency of vibration of an organ pipe will increase as the velocity
of sound increases.
124 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

6.4: INTENSITY OF WAVES

Intensity of a wave: The intensity of a wave is the power or energy per unit time transported
per unit cross-sectional area.
P
I
A
where, I = intensity of a wave, P = power, A = cross-sectional area
1. In SI units, the unit of intensity of a wave is watt per square metre. (W m-2).
2. If the air around the source is perfectly uniform, the sound power propagated in all
directions is the same.
3. In this situation, the propagated sound wave is represented by a spherical wave as shown
in Figure 6.11.

4. By considering the source of sound as a point source, sound wave can be distributed
uniformly over spherical wave front of area 4r2.
P P
5. Hence, the wave intensity at the distance r from the source is, I  
A 4 r 2

6. For a particular source, intensity varies inversely with the square of the distance from
the source.
1
I
r2
Dr Vince Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes 125

7. Intensity of a wave obeys inverse square law.

8. The intensity of a wave is directly proportional to the square of the amplitude of the
wave.
Noise Exposure Limit
9. Noise is a sound especially that is loud or unpleasant that causes disturbance in hearing.
10. Loudness of sound can be measured by decibel meter.
11. The unit of loudness (sound level) is decibel (dB).
12. Sound with very high intensities can be dangerous.
13. Above the threshold of pain (120 dB), sound is painfully loud to ear.
14. Brief exposure to levels of 140 to 150 dB can rupture eardrums and can cause permanent
hearing loss.
15. Longer exposure to lower sound (noise) levels can also damage hearing.
16. For example, there may be a hearing loss for a certain frequency range.
17. The permissible noise exposure limits for maximum duration per day is expressed in
Table 6.1.
Table 6.1 Permissible Noise Exposure Limits
Sr Sound Level Maximum Duration Sr Sound Level Maximum Duration per
(dB) per Day (h) (dB) Day (h)
1 90 8 6 102 1.5
2 92 6 7 105 1
3 95 4 8 110 0.5
4 97 3 9 115 0.25 (or less)
5 100 2
126 Grade 11 Physics Detailed Notes APEX

Chapter 6: Exercise 6.4

R78: If the distance from a point source of sound is increased by three times, by what factor
does sound intensity decrease?

Ans: I  1
r2

I1r12  I 2r2 2

I1r12 I1r12 1
I2    I1
r2 2
3r1 
2 9

Sound intensity decreases to 1/9 of its initial value.

E08: Find the sound intensity for a person sitting 2 m from the 25 W sound box.
Ans: P = 25 W, r = 2 m
P 25
Intensity of a sound wave, I   = 0.50 W m-2
A 4  3.142  22
Q10: A student is enjoying a picnic across the valley from a cliff. She is listening her radio
and notice a faint echo from the cliff. She claps her hands and the echo takes 1.5 s to
return. (i) Given that the speed of sound in air is 343 m s-1 on that day, how far away
is the cliff? (ii) If the intensity of the music 1.0 m from the radio is 1.0  10-8 W m-2,
what is the intensity of the radio music arriving the cliff?
Ans: time taken to return the sound from the cliff = 2t = 1.5 s
time taken by the sound to travel from the student to the cliff = t = 0.75 s
the velocity of sound = v = 343 m s-1
(i) the distance from the student to the cliff = d = vt = 343  0.75 = 257.25 m
(ii) Let r1 = 1.0 m, r2 = 257.25 m, I1 = 1.0  10-8 W m-2, I2 =?
1
I
r2

I1r12  I 2r2 2

I1r12 1.0  108  1.0 2

I2   = 1.511  10-13 W m-2
r2 2
257.25 2