Lecture 34

Rayleigh Scattering, Mie

Scattering

34.1 Rayleigh Scattering

Rayleigh scattering is a solution to the scattering of light by small particles. These particles
are assumed to be much smaller than wavelength of light. Then a simple solution can be found
by the method of asymptotic matching. This single scattering solution can be used to explain
a number of physical phenomena in nature. For instance, why the sky is blue, the sunset so
magnificently beautiful, how birds and insects can navigate without the help of a compass.
By the same token, it can also be used to explain why the Vikings, as a seafaring people,
could cross the Atlantic Ocean over to Iceland without the help of a magnetic compass.

339
340 Electromagnetic Field Theory

Figure 34.1: The magnificent beauty of nature can be partly explained by Rayleigh scattering
[182, 183].

When a ray of light impinges on an object, we model the incident light as a plane elec-
tromagnetic wave (see Figure 34.2). Without loss of generality, we can assume that the
electromagnetic wave is polarized in the z direction and propagating in the x direction. We
assume the particle to be a small spherical particle with permittivity εs and radius a. Essen-
tially, the particle sees a constant field as the plane wave impinges on it. In other words, the
particle feels an almost electrostatic field in the incident field.

Figure 34.2: Geometry for studying the Rayleigh scattering problem.

Rayleigh Scattering, Mie Scattering 341

34.1.1 Scattering by a Small Spherical Particle

The incident field polarizes the particle making it look like an electric dipole. Since the
incident field is time harmonic, the small electric dipole will oscillate and radiate like a
Hertzian dipole in the far field. First, we will look at the solution in the vicinity of the
scatter, namely, in the near field. Then we will motivate the form of the solution in the far
field of the scatterer. Solving a boundary value problem by looking at the solutions in two
different physical regimes, and then matching the solutions together is known as asymptotic
matching.
A Hertzian dipole can be approximated by a small current source so that

J(r) = ẑIlδ(r) (34.1.1)

In the above, we can let the time-harmonic current I = dq/dt = jωq

Il = jωql = jωp (34.1.2)

where the dipole moment p = ql. The vector potential A due to a Hertzian dipole, after
substituting (34.1.1), is

µ J(r0 ) −jβ|r−r0 |
A(r) = dr0 e
4π V |r − r0 |
µIl −jβr
= ẑ e (34.1.3)
4πr

Near Field
From prior knowledge, we know that the electric field is given by E = −jωA − ∇Φ. From a
dimensional analysis, the scalar potential term dominates over the vector potential term in
the near field of the scatterer. Hence, we need to derive the corresponding scalar potential.
The scalar potential Φ(r) is obtained from the Lorenz gauge that ∇ · A = −jωµεΦ.
Therefore,

−1 Il ∂ 1 −jβr
Φ(r) = ∇·A=− e (34.1.4)
jωµε jωε4π ∂z r

When we are close to the dipole, by assuming that βr  1, we can use a quasi-static approx-
imation about the potential.1 Then

∂ 1 −jβr ∂ 1 ∂r ∂ 1 z 1
e ≈ = =− 2 (34.1.5)
∂z r ∂z r ∂z ∂r r rr
or after using that z/r = cos θ,

ql
Φ(r) ≈ cos θ (34.1.6)
4πεr2
1 This is the same as ignoring retardation effect.
342 Electromagnetic Field Theory

This dipole induced in the small particle is formed in response to the incident field. The
incident field can be approximated by a constant local static electric field,

Einc = ẑEi (34.1.7)

The corresponding electrostatic potential for the incident field is then2

Φinc = −zEi (34.1.8)

so that Einc ≈ −∇Φinc = ẑEi , as ω → 0. The scattered dipole potential from the spherical
particle in the vicinity of it is given by

a3
Φsca = Es cos θ (34.1.9)
r2
The electrostatic boundary value problem (BVP) has been previously solved and3
εs − ε
Es = Ei (34.1.10)
εs + 2ε
Using (34.1.10) in (34.1.9), and comparing with(34.1.6), one can see that the dipole moment
induced by the incident field is that
εs − ε 3
p = ql = 4πε a Ei (34.1.11)
εs + 2ε

Far Field
In the far field of the Hertzian dipole, we can start with
1
E = −jωA − ∇Φ = −jωA − ∇∇ · A (34.1.12)
jωµε
But when we are in the far field, A behaves like a spherical wave which in turn behaves
like a local plane wave if one goes far enough. Therefore, ∇ → −jβ = −jβr̂. Using this
approximation in (34.1.12), we arrive at
 
ββ
E = −jω A − 2 · A = −jω(A − r̂r̂ · A) = −jω(θ̂Aθ + φ̂Aφ ) (34.1.13)
β

where we have used r̂ = β/β.

34.1.2 Scattering Cross Section

From (34.1.3), we see that Aφ = 0 while
jωµql −jβr
Aθ = − e sin θ (34.1.14)
4πr
2 It is not easier to get here from electrodynamics. One needs vector spherical harmonics [184].
3 It was one of the homework problems.
Rayleigh Scattering, Mie Scattering 343

Consequently, using (34.1.11) for ql, we have in the far field that4

ω 2 µql −jβr εs − ε a3
 
∼
Eθ = −jωAθ = − e 2
sin θ = −ω µε Ei e−jβr sin θ (34.1.15)
4πr εs + 2ε r

r
ε 1
Hφ ∼
= Eθ = Eθ (34.1.16)
µ η
p
where η = µ/ε. The time-averaged Poynting vector is given by hSi = 1/2<e {E × H∗ }.
Therefore, the total scattered power is
 π  2π
1
Ps = r2 sin θdθ dφEθ Hφ∗ (34.1.17)
2 0 0
2  π
a6
 
1 4 εs − ε 3
= β |Ei |2 r2 sin θdθ 2π (34.1.18)
2η εs + 2ε r2 0

But
 π  π  π
3 2
sin θdθ = − sin θd cos θ = − (1 − cos2 θ)d cos θ
0 0 0
 −1
4
=− (1 − x2 )dx = (34.1.19)
1 3
Therefore
 2
4π εs − ε
Ps = β 4 a6 |Ei |2 (34.1.20)
3η εs + 2εs

The scattering cross section is the effective area of a scatterer such that the total scattered
power is proportional to the incident power density times the scattering cross section. As
such it is defined as
2
8πa2 εs − ε

Ps
Σs = 1 2
= (βa)4 (34.1.21)
2η |Ei |
3 εs + 2ε

In other words,
Ps = hSinc i × Σs
It is seen that the scattering cross section grows as the fourth power of frequency since
β = ω/c. The radiated field grows as the second power because it is proportional to the
acceleration of the charges on the particle. The higher the frequency, the more the scattered
power. this mechanism can be used to explain why the sky is blue. It also can be used to
explain why sunset has a brilliant hue of red and orange. The above also explain the brilliant
glitter of gold plasmonic nano-particles as discovered by ancient Roman artisans. For gold,
4 The ω 2 dependence of the following function implies that the radiated electric field in the far zone is

proportional to the acceleration of the charges on the dipole.

344 Electromagnetic Field Theory

the medium resembles a plasma, and hence, we can have εs < 0, and the denominator can be
very small.
Furthermore, since the far field scattered power density of this particle is

1
hSi = Eθ Hφ∗ ∼ sin2 θ (34.1.22)
2η

the scattering pattern of this small particle is not isotropic. In other words, these dipoles ra-
diate predominantly in the broadside direction but not in their end-fire directions. Therefore,
insects and sailors can use this to figure out where the sun is even in a cloudy day. In fact,
it is like a rainbow: If the sun is rising or setting in the horizon, there will be a bow across
the sky where the scattered field is predominantly linearly polarized.5 Such a “sunstone” is
shown in Figure 34.3.

Figure 34.3: A sunstone can indicate the polarization of the scattered light. From that, one
can deduce where the sun is located (courtesy of Wikipedia).

34.1.3 Small Conductive Particle

The above analysis is for a small dielectric particle. The quasi-static analysis may not be
valid for when the conductivity of the particle becomes very large. For instance, for a perfect
electric conductor immersed in a time varying electromagnetic field, the magnetic field in the
long wavelength limit induces eddy current in PEC sphere. Hence, in addition to an electric
dipole component, a PEC sphere has a magnetic dipole component. The scattered field due
to a tiny PEC sphere is a linear superposition of an electric and magnetic dipole components.
5 You can go through a Gedanken experiment to convince yourself of such.
Rayleigh Scattering, Mie Scattering 345

These two dipolar components have electric fields that cancel precisely at certain observation
angle. This gives rise to deep null in the bi-static radar scattering cross-section (RCS)6 of a
PEC sphere as illustrated in Figure 34.4.

Figure 34.4: RCS (radar scattering cross section) of a small PEC scatterer (courtesy of Sheng
et al. [185]).

34.2 Mie Scattering

When the size of the dipole becomes larger, quasi-static approximation is insufficient to
approximate the solution. Then one has to solve the boundary value problem in its full glory
usually called the full-wave theory or Mie theory [186, 187]. With this theory, the scattering
cross section does not grow indefinitely with frequency. For a sphere of radius a, the scattering
cross section becomes πa2 in the high-frequency limit. This physical feature of this plot is
shown in Figure 34.5, and it also explains why the sky is not purple.

6 Scattering cross section in microwave range is called an RCS due to its prevalent use in radar technology.
346 Electromagnetic Field Theory

Figure 34.5: Radar cross section (RCS) calculated using Mie scattering theory [187].

34.2.1 Optical Theorem

Before we discuss Mie scattering solutions, let us discuss an amazing theorem called the
optical theorem. This theorem says that the scattering cross section of a scatterer depends
only on the forward scattering power density of the scatterer. In other words, if a plane wave
is incident on a scatterer, the scatterer will scatter the incident power in all directions. But
the total power scattered by the object is only dependent on the forward scattering power
density of the object or scatterer. This amazing theorem is called the optical theorem, and
the proof of this is given in J.D. Jackson’s book [42].
The true physical reason for this is power orthogonality. Two plane waves can interact or
exchange power with each other unless they share the same k or β vector. This happens in
orthogonal modes in waveguides [75, 188].
The scattering pattern of a scatterer for increasing frequency is shown in Figure 34.6. For
Rayleigh scattering where the wavelength is long, the scattered power is distributed isotrop-
ically save for the doughnut shape of the radiation pattern, namely, the sin2 (θ) dependence.
As the frequency increases, the power is scattered increasingly in the forward direction. The
reason being that for very short wavelength, the scatterer looks like a disc to the incident
wave, casting a shadow in the forward direction. Hence, there has to be scattered field in the
forward direction to cancel the incident wave to cast this shadow.
Rayleigh Scattering, Mie Scattering 347

In a nutshell, the scattering theorem is intuitively obvious for high-frequency scattering.

The amazing part about this theorem is that it is true for all frequencies.

Figure 34.6: A particle scatters increasingly more in the forward direction as the frequency
increases.Courtesy of hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu.

34.2.2 Mie Scattering by Spherical Harmonic Expansions

As mentioned before, as the wavelength becomes shorter, we need to solve the boundary
value problem in its full glory without making any approximations. This can be done by
using separation of variables and spherical harmonic expansions that will be discussed in the
section.
The Mie scattering solution by a sphere is beyond the scope of this course.7 This problem
have to solved by the separation of variables in spherical coordinates. The separation of
variables in spherical coordinates is not the only useful for Mie scattering, it is also useful for
analyzing spherical cavity. So we will present the precursor knowledge so that you can read
further into Mie scattering theory if you need to in the future.

34.2.3 Separation of Variables in Spherical Coordinates

To this end, we look at the scalar wave equation (∇2 +β 2 )Ψ(r) = 0 in spherical coordinates. A
lookup table can be used to evaluate ∇·∇, or divergence of a gradient in spherical coordinates.
Hence, the Helmholtz wave equation becomes8

∂2
 
1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 1 2
r + sin θ + + β Ψ(r) = 0 (34.2.1)
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ ∂φ2

Noting the ∂ 2 /∂φ2 derivative, by using separation of variables technique, we assume Ψ(r) to
be

Ψ(r) = F (r, θ)ejmφ (34.2.2)

7 But it is treated in J.A. Kong’s book [31] and Chapter 3 of W.C. Chew, Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous

Media [34] and many other textbooks [42, 59, 154].

8 By quirk of mathematics, it turns out that the first term on the right-hand side below can be simplified

by observing that r12 ∂r ∂ 2

r = r1 ∂r
∂
r.
348 Electromagnetic Field Theory

∂ 2 jmφ
where ∂φ2 e = −m2 ejmφ . Then (34.2.1) becomes

m2
 
1 ∂ 2 ∂ 1 ∂ ∂ 2
r + sin θ − + β F (r, θ) = 0 (34.2.3)
r2 ∂r ∂r r2 sin θ ∂θ ∂θ r2 sin2 θ
Again, by using the separation of variables, and letting further that
F (r, θ) = bn (βr)Pnm (cos θ) (34.2.4)
where we require that
m2
  
1 d d
sin θ + n(n + 1) − Pnm (cos θ) = 0 (34.2.5)
sin θ dθ dθ sin2 θ
when Pnm (cos θ) is the associate Legendre polynomial. Note that (34.2.5) is an eigenvalue
problem, and |m| ≤ |n|.
Consequently, bn (kr) satisfies
 
1 d 2 d n(n + 1) 2
r − + β bn (βr) = 0 (34.2.6)
r2 dr dr r2
The above is the spherical Bessel equation where bn (βr) is either the spherical Bessel function
(1)
jn (βr), spherical Neumann function nn (βr), or the spherical Hankel functions, hn (βr) and
(2)
hn (βr). The spherical functions are related to the cylindrical functions via [34, 43] 9
r
π
bn (βr) = B 1 (βr) (34.2.7)
2βr n+ 2
It is customary to define the spherical harmonic as
s
2n + 1 (n − m)! m
Ynm (θ, φ) = P (cos θ)ejmφ (34.2.8)
4π (n + m)! n

The above is normalized such that

∗
Yn,−m (θ, φ) = (−1)m Ynm (θ, φ) (34.2.9)
and that
 2π  π
dφ sin θdθYn∗0 m0 (θ, φ)Ynm (θ, φ) = δn0 n δm0 m (34.2.10)
0 0

These functions are also complete10 if like Fourier series, so that

∞ X
n
X 0 0
∗
Ynm (θ0 , φ0 )Ynm (θ, φ) = δ(φ − φ )δ(cos θ − cos θ ) (34.2.11)
n=0 m=−n

9 By a quirk of nature, the spherical Bessel functions needed for 3D wave equations are in fact simpler than

cylindrical Bessel functions needed for 2D wave equation. One can say that 3D is real, but 2D is surreal.
10 In a nutshell, a set of basis functions is complete in a subspace if any function in the same subspace can

be expanded as a sum of these basis functions.

Bibliography

[1] J. A. Kong, Theory of electromagnetic waves. New York, Wiley-Interscience, 1975.

[2] A. Einstein et al., “On the electrodynamics of moving bodies,” Annalen der Physik,
vol. 17, no. 891, p. 50, 1905.
[3] P. A. M. Dirac, “The quantum theory of the emission and absorption of radiation,” Pro-
ceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical
and Physical Character, vol. 114, no. 767, pp. 243–265, 1927.
[4] R. J. Glauber, “Coherent and incoherent states of the radiation field,” Physical Review,
vol. 131, no. 6, p. 2766, 1963.
[5] C.-N. Yang and R. L. Mills, “Conservation of isotopic spin and isotopic gauge invari-
ance,” Physical review, vol. 96, no. 1, p. 191, 1954.
[6] G. t’Hooft, 50 years of Yang-Mills theory. World Scientific, 2005.
[7] C. W. Misner, K. S. Thorne, and J. A. Wheeler, Gravitation. Princeton University
Press, 2017.
[8] F. Teixeira and W. C. Chew, “Differential forms, metrics, and the reflectionless absorp-
tion of electromagnetic waves,” Journal of Electromagnetic Waves and Applications,
vol. 13, no. 5, pp. 665–686, 1999.
[9] W. C. Chew, E. Michielssen, J.-M. Jin, and J. Song, Fast and efficient algorithms in
computational electromagnetics. Artech House, Inc., 2001.
[10] A. Volta, “On the electricity excited by the mere contact of conducting substances
of different kinds. in a letter from Mr. Alexander Volta, FRS Professor of Natural
Philosophy in the University of Pavia, to the Rt. Hon. Sir Joseph Banks, Bart. KBPR
S,” Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society of London, no. 90, pp. 403–431, 1800.
[11] A.-M. Ampère, Exposé méthodique des phénomènes électro-dynamiques, et des lois de
ces phénomènes. Bachelier, 1823.
[12] ——, Mémoire sur la théorie mathématique des phénomènes électro-dynamiques unique-
ment déduite de l’expérience: dans lequel se trouvent réunis les Mémoires que M.
Ampère a communiqués à l’Académie royale des Sciences, dans les séances des 4 et

359
360 Electromagnetic Field Theory

26 décembre 1820, 10 juin 1822, 22 décembre 1823, 12 septembre et 21 novembre 1825.

Bachelier, 1825.
[13] B. Jones and M. Faraday, The life and letters of Faraday. Cambridge University Press,
2010, vol. 2.
[14] G. Kirchhoff, “Ueber die auflösung der gleichungen, auf welche man bei der unter-
suchung der linearen vertheilung galvanischer ströme geführt wird,” Annalen der Physik,
vol. 148, no. 12, pp. 497–508, 1847.
[15] L. Weinberg, “Kirchhoff’s’ third and fourth laws’,” IRE Transactions on Circuit Theory,
vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 8–30, 1958.
[16] T. Standage, The Victorian Internet: The remarkable story of the telegraph and the
nineteenth century’s online pioneers. Phoenix, 1998.
[17] J. C. Maxwell, “A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field,” Philosophical trans-
actions of the Royal Society of London, no. 155, pp. 459–512, 1865.
[18] H. Hertz, “On the finite velocity of propagation of electromagnetic actions,” Electric
Waves, vol. 110, 1888.
[19] M. Romer and I. B. Cohen, “Roemer and the first determination of the velocity of light
(1676),” Isis, vol. 31, no. 2, pp. 327–379, 1940.
[20] A. Arons and M. Peppard, “Einstein’s proposal of the photon concept–a translation of
the Annalen der Physik paper of 1905,” American Journal of Physics, vol. 33, no. 5,
pp. 367–374, 1965.
[21] A. Pais, “Einstein and the quantum theory,” Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 51, no. 4,
p. 863, 1979.
[22] M. Planck, “On the law of distribution of energy in the normal spectrum,” Annalen der
physik, vol. 4, no. 553, p. 1, 1901.
[23] Z. Peng, S. De Graaf, J. Tsai, and O. Astafiev, “Tuneable on-demand single-photon
source in the microwave range,” Nature communications, vol. 7, p. 12588, 2016.
[24] B. D. Gates, Q. Xu, M. Stewart, D. Ryan, C. G. Willson, and G. M. Whitesides, “New
approaches to nanofabrication: molding, printing, and other techniques,” Chemical
reviews, vol. 105, no. 4, pp. 1171–1196, 2005.
[25] J. S. Bell, “The debate on the significance of his contributions to the foundations of
quantum mechanics, Bells Theorem and the Foundations of Modern Physics (A. van
der Merwe, F. Selleri, and G. Tarozzi, eds.),” 1992.
[26] D. J. Griffiths and D. F. Schroeter, Introduction to quantum mechanics. Cambridge
University Press, 2018.
[27] C. Pickover, Archimedes to Hawking: Laws of science and the great minds behind them.
Oxford University Press, 2008.
Sommerfeld Integral, Weyl Identity 361

[28] R. Resnick, J. Walker, and D. Halliday, Fundamentals of physics. John Wiley, 1988.
[29] S. Ramo, J. R. Whinnery, and T. Duzer van, Fields and waves in communication
electronics, Third Edition. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1995, also 1965, 1984.
[30] J. L. De Lagrange, “Recherches d’arithmétique,” Nouveaux Mémoires de l’Académie de
Berlin, 1773.
[31] J. A. Kong, Electromagnetic Wave Theory. EMW Publishing, 2008, also 1985.
[32] H. M. Schey, Div, grad, curl, and all that: an informal text on vector calculus. WW
Norton New York, 2005.
[33] R. P. Feynman, R. B. Leighton, and M. Sands, The Feynman lectures on physics, Vols.
I, II, & III: The new millennium edition. Basic books, 2011, also 1963, 2006, vol. 1,2,3.
[34] W. C. Chew, Waves and fields in inhomogeneous media. IEEE Press, 1995, also 1990.
[35] V. J. Katz, “The history of Stokes’ theorem,” Mathematics Magazine, vol. 52, no. 3,
pp. 146–156, 1979.
[36] W. K. Panofsky and M. Phillips, Classical electricity and magnetism. Courier Corpo-
ration, 2005.
[37] T. Lancaster and S. J. Blundell, Quantum field theory for the gifted amateur. OUP
Oxford, 2014.
[38] W. C. Chew, “Fields and waves: Lecture notes for ECE 350 at UIUC,”
https://engineering.purdue.edu/wcchew/ece350.html, 1990.
[39] C. M. Bender and S. A. Orszag, Advanced mathematical methods for scientists and
engineers I: Asymptotic methods and perturbation theory. Springer Science & Business
Media, 2013.
[40] J. M. Crowley, Fundamentals of applied electrostatics. Krieger Publishing Company,
1986.
[41] C. Balanis, Advanced Engineering Electromagnetics. Hoboken, NJ, USA: Wiley, 2012.
[42] J. D. Jackson, Classical electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, 1999.
[43] R. Courant and D. Hilbert, Methods of Mathematical Physics, Volumes 1 and 2. In-
terscience Publ., 1962.
[44] L. Esaki and R. Tsu, “Superlattice and negative differential conductivity in semicon-
ductors,” IBM Journal of Research and Development, vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 61–65, 1970.
[45] E. Kudeki and D. C. Munson, Analog Signals and Systems. Upper Saddle River, NJ,
USA: Pearson Prentice Hall, 2009.
[46] A. V. Oppenheim and R. W. Schafer, Discrete-time signal processing. Pearson Edu-
cation, 2014.
362 Electromagnetic Field Theory

[47] R. F. Harrington, Time-harmonic electromagnetic fields. McGraw-Hill, 1961.

[48] E. C. Jordan and K. G. Balmain, Electromagnetic waves and radiating systems.

Prentice-Hall, 1968.

[49] G. Agarwal, D. Pattanayak, and E. Wolf, “Electromagnetic fields in spatially dispersive

media,” Physical Review B, vol. 10, no. 4, p. 1447, 1974.

[50] S. L. Chuang, Physics of photonic devices. John Wiley & Sons, 2012, vol. 80.

[51] B. E. Saleh and M. C. Teich, Fundamentals of photonics. John Wiley & Sons, 2019.

[52] M. Born and E. Wolf, Principles of optics: electromagnetic theory of propagation, in-
terference and diffraction of light. Elsevier, 2013, also 1959 to 1986.

[53] R. W. Boyd, Nonlinear optics. Elsevier, 2003.

[54] Y.-R. Shen, The principles of nonlinear optics. New York, Wiley-Interscience, 1984.

[55] N. Bloembergen, Nonlinear optics. World Scientific, 1996.

[56] P. C. Krause, O. Wasynczuk, and S. D. Sudhoff, Analysis of electric machinery.

McGraw-Hill New York, 1986.

[57] A. E. Fitzgerald, C. Kingsley, S. D. Umans, and B. James, Electric machinery.

McGraw-Hill New York, 2003, vol. 5.

[58] M. A. Brown and R. C. Semelka, MRI.: Basic Principles and Applications. John
Wiley & Sons, 2011.

[59] C. A. Balanis, Advanced engineering electromagnetics. John Wiley & Sons, 1999, also
1989.

[60] Wikipedia, “Lorentz force,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lorentz force/, accessed:

2019-09-06.

[61] R. O. Dendy, Plasma physics: an introductory course. Cambridge University Press,

1995.

[62] P. Sen and W. C. Chew, “The frequency dependent dielectric and conductivity response
of sedimentary rocks,” Journal of microwave power, vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 95–105, 1983.

[63] D. A. Miller, Quantum Mechanics for Scientists and Engineers. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press, 2008.

[64] W. C. Chew, “Quantum mechanics made simple: Lecture notes for ECE 487 at UIUC,”
http://wcchew.ece.illinois.edu/chew/course/QMAll20161206.pdf, 2016.

[65] B. G. Streetman and S. Banerjee, Solid state electronic devices. Prentice hall Englewood
Cliffs, NJ, 1995.
Sommerfeld Integral, Weyl Identity 363

[66] Smithsonian, “This 1600-year-old goblet shows that the romans were
nanotechnology pioneers,” https://www.smithsonianmag.com/history/
this-1600-year-old-goblet-shows-that-the-romans-were-nanotechnology-pioneers-787224/,
accessed: 2019-09-06.

[67] K. G. Budden, Radio waves in the ionosphere. Cambridge University Press, 2009.

[68] R. Fitzpatrick, Plasma physics: an introduction. CRC Press, 2014.

[69] G. Strang, Introduction to linear algebra. Wellesley-Cambridge Press Wellesley, MA,

1993, vol. 3.

[70] K. C. Yeh and C.-H. Liu, “Radio wave scintillations in the ionosphere,” Proceedings of
the IEEE, vol. 70, no. 4, pp. 324–360, 1982.

[71] J. Kraus, Electromagnetics. McGraw-Hill, 1984, also 1953, 1973, 1981.

[72] Wikipedia, “Circular polarization,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular

polarization.

[73] Q. Zhan, “Cylindrical vector beams: from mathematical concepts to applications,”

Advances in Optics and Photonics, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 1–57, 2009.

[74] H. Haus, Electromagnetic Noise and Quantum Optical Measurements, ser. Advanced
Texts in Physics. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2000.

[75] W. C. Chew, “Lectures on theory of microwave and optical waveguides, for ECE 531
at UIUC,” https://engineering.purdue.edu/wcchew/course/tgwAll20160215.pdf, 2016.

[76] L. Brillouin, Wave propagation and group velocity. Academic Press, 1960.

[77] R. Plonsey and R. E. Collin, Principles and applications of electromagnetic fields.

McGraw-Hill, 1961.

[78] M. N. Sadiku, Elements of electromagnetics. Oxford University Press, 2014.

[79] A. Wadhwa, A. L. Dal, and N. Malhotra, “Transmission media,” https://www.

slideshare.net/abhishekwadhwa786/transmission-media-9416228.

[80] P. H. Smith, “Transmission line calculator,” Electronics, vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 29–31, 1939.

[81] F. B. Hildebrand, Advanced calculus for applications. Prentice-Hall, 1962.

[82] J. Schutt-Aine, “Experiment02-coaxial transmission line measurement using slotted

line,” http://emlab.uiuc.edu/ece451/ECE451Lab02.pdf.

[83] D. M. Pozar, E. J. K. Knapp, and J. B. Mead, “ECE 584 microwave engineering labora-
tory notebook,” http://www.ecs.umass.edu/ece/ece584/ECE584 lab manual.pdf, 2004.

[84] R. E. Collin, Field theory of guided waves. McGraw-Hill, 1960.

364 Electromagnetic Field Theory

[85] Q. S. Liu, S. Sun, and W. C. Chew, “A potential-based integral equation method for
low-frequency electromagnetic problems,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propa-
gation, vol. 66, no. 3, pp. 1413–1426, 2018.
[86] Wikipedia, “Snell’s law,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell’s law.
[87] G. Tyras, Radiation and propagation of electromagnetic waves. Academic Press, 1969.
[88] L. Brekhovskikh, Waves in layered media. Academic Press, 1980.
[89] Scholarpedia, “Goos-hanchen effect,” http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/
Goos-Hanchen effect.
[90] K. Kao and G. A. Hockham, “Dielectric-fibre surface waveguides for optical frequen-
cies,” in Proceedings of the Institution of Electrical Engineers, vol. 113, no. 7. IET,
1966, pp. 1151–1158.
[91] E. Glytsis, “Slab waveguide fundamentals,” http://users.ntua.gr/eglytsis/IO/Slab
Waveguides p.pdf, 2018.
[92] Wikipedia, “Optical fiber,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical fiber.
[93] Atlantic Cable, “1869 indo-european cable,” https://atlantic-cable.com/Cables/
1869IndoEur/index.htm.
[94] Wikipedia, “Submarine communications cable,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Submarine communications cable.
[95] D. Brewster, “On the laws which regulate the polarisation of light by reflexion from
transparent bodies,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol.
105, pp. 125–159, 1815.
[96] Wikipedia, “Brewster’s angle,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brewster’s angle.
[97] H. Raether, “Surface plasmons on smooth surfaces,” in Surface plasmons on smooth
and rough surfaces and on gratings. Springer, 1988, pp. 4–39.
[98] E. Kretschmann and H. Raether, “Radiative decay of non radiative surface plasmons
excited by light,” Zeitschrift für Naturforschung A, vol. 23, no. 12, pp. 2135–2136, 1968.
[99] Wikipedia, “Surface plasmon,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface plasmon.
[100] Wikimedia, “Gaussian wave packet,” https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Gaussian wave packet.svg.
[101] Wikipedia, “Charles K. Kao,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles K. Kao.
[102] H. B. Callen and T. A. Welton, “Irreversibility and generalized noise,” Physical Review,
vol. 83, no. 1, p. 34, 1951.
[103] R. Kubo, “The fluctuation-dissipation theorem,” Reports on progress in physics, vol. 29,
no. 1, p. 255, 1966.
Sommerfeld Integral, Weyl Identity 365

[104] C. Lee, S. Lee, and S. Chuang, “Plot of modal field distribution in rectangular and
circular waveguides,” IEEE transactions on microwave theory and techniques, vol. 33,
no. 3, pp. 271–274, 1985.
[105] W. C. Chew, Waves and Fields in Inhomogeneous Media. IEEE Press, 1996.
[106] M. Abramowitz and I. A. Stegun, Handbook of mathematical functions: with formulas,
graphs, and mathematical tables. Courier Corporation, 1965, vol. 55.
[107] ——, “Handbook of mathematical functions: with formulas, graphs, and mathematical
tables,” http://people.math.sfu.ca/∼cbm/aands/index.htm.
[108] W. C. Chew, W. Sha, and Q. I. Dai, “Green’s dyadic, spectral function, local density
of states, and fluctuation dissipation theorem,” arXiv preprint arXiv:1505.01586, 2015.
[109] Wikipedia, “Very Large Array,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Very Large Array.
[110] C. A. Balanis and E. Holzman, “Circular waveguides,” Encyclopedia of RF and Mi-
crowave Engineering, 2005.
[111] M. Al-Hakkak and Y. Lo, “Circular waveguides with anisotropic walls,” Electronics
Letters, vol. 6, no. 24, pp. 786–789, 1970.
[112] Wikipedia, “Horn Antenna,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horn antenna.
[113] P. Silvester and P. Benedek, “Microstrip discontinuity capacitances for right-angle
bends, t junctions, and crossings,” IEEE Transactions on Microwave Theory and Tech-
niques, vol. 21, no. 5, pp. 341–346, 1973.
[114] R. Garg and I. Bahl, “Microstrip discontinuities,” International Journal of Electronics
Theoretical and Experimental, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 81–87, 1978.
[115] P. Smith and E. Turner, “A bistable fabry-perot resonator,” Applied Physics Letters,
vol. 30, no. 6, pp. 280–281, 1977.
[116] A. Yariv, Optical electronics. Saunders College Publ., 1991.
[117] Wikipedia, “Klystron,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klystron.
[118] ——, “Magnetron,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cavity magnetron.
[119] ——, “Absorption Wavemeter,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absorption wavemeter.
[120] W. C. Chew, M. S. Tong, and B. Hu, “Integral equation methods for electromagnetic
and elastic waves,” Synthesis Lectures on Computational Electromagnetics, vol. 3, no. 1,
pp. 1–241, 2008.
[121] A. D. Yaghjian, “Reflections on Maxwell’s treatise,” Progress In Electromagnetics Re-
search, vol. 149, pp. 217–249, 2014.
[122] L. Nagel and D. Pederson, “Simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis,” in
Midwest Symposium on Circuit Theory, 1973.
366 Electromagnetic Field Theory

[123] S. A. Schelkunoff and H. T. Friis, Antennas: theory and practice. Wiley New York,
1952, vol. 639.

[124] H. G. Schantz, “A brief history of uwb antennas,” IEEE Aerospace and Electronic
Systems Magazine, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 22–26, 2004.

[125] E. Kudeki, “Fields and Waves,” http://remote2.ece.illinois.edu/∼erhan/FieldsWaves/

ECE350lectures.html.

[126] Wikipedia, “Antenna Aperture,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna aperture.

[127] C. A. Balanis, Antenna theory: analysis and design. John Wiley & Sons, 2016.

[128] R. W. P. King, G. S. Smith, M. Owens, and T. Wu, “Antennas in matter: Fundamentals,

theory, and applications,” NASA STI/Recon Technical Report A, vol. 81, 1981.

[129] H. Yagi and S. Uda, “Projector of the sharpest beam of electric waves,” Proceedings of
the Imperial Academy, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 49–52, 1926.

[130] Wikipedia, “Yagi-Uda Antenna,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yagi-Uda antenna.

[131] Antenna-theory.com, “Slot Antenna,” http://www.antenna-theory.com/antennas/

aperture/slot.php.

[132] A. D. Olver and P. J. Clarricoats, Microwave horns and feeds. IET, 1994, vol. 39.

[133] B. Thomas, “Design of corrugated conical horns,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and
Propagation, vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 367–372, 1978.

[134] P. J. B. Clarricoats and A. D. Olver, Corrugated horns for microwave antennas. IET,
1984, no. 18.

[135] P. Gibson, “The vivaldi aerial,” in 1979 9th European Microwave Conference. IEEE,
1979, pp. 101–105.

[136] Wikipedia, “Vivaldi Antenna,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vivaldi antenna.

[137] ——, “Cassegrain Antenna,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassegrain antenna.

[138] ——, “Cassegrain Reflector,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassegrain reflector.

[139] W. A. Imbriale, S. S. Gao, and L. Boccia, Space antenna handbook. John Wiley &
Sons, 2012.

[140] J. A. Encinar, “Design of two-layer printed reflectarrays using patches of variable size,”
IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 49, no. 10, pp. 1403–1410, 2001.

[141] D.-C. Chang and M.-C. Huang, “Microstrip reflectarray antenna with offset feed,” Elec-
tronics Letters, vol. 28, no. 16, pp. 1489–1491, 1992.
Sommerfeld Integral, Weyl Identity 367

[142] G. Minatti, M. Faenzi, E. Martini, F. Caminita, P. De Vita, D. González-Ovejero,

M. Sabbadini, and S. Maci, “Modulated metasurface antennas for space: Synthesis,
analysis and realizations,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 63,
no. 4, pp. 1288–1300, 2014.

[143] X. Gao, X. Han, W.-P. Cao, H. O. Li, H. F. Ma, and T. J. Cui, “Ultrawideband and
high-efficiency linear polarization converter based on double v-shaped metasurface,”
IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 63, no. 8, pp. 3522–3530, 2015.

[144] D. De Schweinitz and T. L. Frey Jr, “Artificial dielectric lens antenna,” Nov. 13 2001,
US Patent 6,317,092.

[145] K.-L. Wong, “Planar antennas for wireless communications,” Microwave Journal,
vol. 46, no. 10, pp. 144–145, 2003.

[146] H. Nakano, M. Yamazaki, and J. Yamauchi, “Electromagnetically coupled curl an-

tenna,” Electronics Letters, vol. 33, no. 12, pp. 1003–1004, 1997.

[147] K. Lee, K. Luk, K.-F. Tong, S. Shum, T. Huynh, and R. Lee, “Experimental and simu-
lation studies of the coaxially fed U-slot rectangular patch antenna,” IEE Proceedings-
Microwaves, Antennas and Propagation, vol. 144, no. 5, pp. 354–358, 1997.

[148] K. Luk, C. Mak, Y. Chow, and K. Lee, “Broadband microstrip patch antenna,” Elec-
tronics letters, vol. 34, no. 15, pp. 1442–1443, 1998.

[149] M. Bolic, D. Simplot-Ryl, and I. Stojmenovic, RFID systems: research trends and
challenges. John Wiley & Sons, 2010.

[150] D. M. Dobkin, S. M. Weigand, and N. Iyer, “Segmented magnetic antennas for near-field
UHF RFID,” Microwave Journal, vol. 50, no. 6, p. 96, 2007.

[151] Z. N. Chen, X. Qing, and H. L. Chung, “A universal UHF RFID reader antenna,” IEEE
transactions on microwave theory and techniques, vol. 57, no. 5, pp. 1275–1282, 2009.

[152] C.-T. Chen, Linear system theory and design. Oxford University Press, Inc., 1998.

[153] S. H. Schot, “Eighty years of Sommerfeld’s radiation condition,” Historia mathematica,

vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 385–401, 1992.

[154] A. Ishimaru, Electromagnetic wave propagation, radiation, and scattering from funda-
mentals to applications. Wiley Online Library, 2017, also 1991.

[155] A. E. H. Love, “I. the integration of the equations of propagation of electric waves,”
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers
of a Mathematical or Physical Character, vol. 197, no. 287-299, pp. 1–45, 1901.

[156] Wikipedia, “Christiaan Huygens,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan Huygens.

[157] ——, “George Green (mathematician),” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George Green

(mathematician).
368 Electromagnetic Field Theory

[158] C.-T. Tai, Dyadic Greens Functions in Electromagnetic Theory. PA: International
Textbook, Scranton, 1971.

[159] ——, Dyadic Green functions in electromagnetic theory. Institute of Electrical &
Electronics Engineers (IEEE), 1994.

[160] W. Franz, “Zur formulierung des huygensschen prinzips,” Zeitschrift für Naturforschung
A, vol. 3, no. 8-11, pp. 500–506, 1948.

[161] J. A. Stratton, Electromagnetic Theory. McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1941.

[162] J. D. Jackson, Classical Electrodynamics. John Wiley & Sons, 1962.

[163] W. Meissner and R. Ochsenfeld, “Ein neuer effekt bei eintritt der supraleitfähigkeit,”
Naturwissenschaften, vol. 21, no. 44, pp. 787–788, 1933.

[164] Wikipedia, “Superconductivity,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superconductivity.

[165] D. Sievenpiper, L. Zhang, R. F. Broas, N. G. Alexopolous, and E. Yablonovitch, “High-

impedance electromagnetic surfaces with a forbidden frequency band,” IEEE Transac-
tions on Microwave Theory and techniques, vol. 47, no. 11, pp. 2059–2074, 1999.

[166] Wikipedia, “Snell’s law,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snell’s law.

[167] H. Lamb, “On sommerfeld’s diffraction problem; and on reflection by a parabolic mir-
ror,” Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 190–203, 1907.

[168] W. J. Smith, Modern optical engineering. McGraw-Hill New York, 1966, vol. 3.

[169] D. C. O’Shea, T. J. Suleski, A. D. Kathman, and D. W. Prather, Diffractive optics:

design, fabrication, and test. Spie Press Bellingham, WA, 2004, vol. 62.

[170] J. B. Keller and H. B. Keller, “Determination of reflected and transmitted fields by

geometrical optics,” JOSA, vol. 40, no. 1, pp. 48–52, 1950.

[171] G. A. Deschamps, “Ray techniques in electromagnetics,” Proceedings of the IEEE,

vol. 60, no. 9, pp. 1022–1035, 1972.

[172] R. G. Kouyoumjian and P. H. Pathak, “A uniform geometrical theory of diffraction for

an edge in a perfectly conducting surface,” Proceedings of the IEEE, vol. 62, no. 11, pp.
1448–1461, 1974.

[173] R. Kouyoumjian, “The geometrical theory of diffraction and its application,” in Nu-
merical and Asymptotic Techniques in Electromagnetics. Springer, 1975, pp. 165–215.

[174] S.-W. Lee and G. Deschamps, “A uniform asymptotic theory of electromagnetic diffrac-
tion by a curved wedge,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 24,
no. 1, pp. 25–34, 1976.

[175] Wikipedia, “Fermat’s principle,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat’s principle.

Sommerfeld Integral, Weyl Identity 369

[176] N. Yu, P. Genevet, M. A. Kats, F. Aieta, J.-P. Tetienne, F. Capasso, and Z. Gaburro,
“Light propagation with phase discontinuities: generalized laws of reflection and refrac-
tion,” Science, vol. 334, no. 6054, pp. 333–337, 2011.

[177] A. Sommerfeld, Partial differential equations in physics. Academic Press, 1949, vol. 1.

[178] R. Haberman, Elementary applied partial differential equations. Prentice Hall Engle-
wood Cliffs, NJ, 1983, vol. 987.

[179] G. A. Deschamps, “Gaussian beam as a bundle of complex rays,” Electronics letters,

vol. 7, no. 23, pp. 684–685, 1971.

[180] J. Enderlein and F. Pampaloni, “Unified operator approach for deriving hermite–
gaussian and laguerre–gaussian laser modes,” JOSA A, vol. 21, no. 8, pp. 1553–1558,
2004.

[181] D. L. Andrews, Structured light and its applications: An introduction to phase-structured

beams and nanoscale optical forces. Academic Press, 2011.

[182] J. W. Strutt, “Xv. on the light from the sky, its polarization and colour,” The London,
Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 41, no. 271,
pp. 107–120, 1871.

[183] L. Rayleigh, “X. on the electromagnetic theory of light,” The London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science, vol. 12, no. 73, pp. 81–101, 1881.

[184] R. C. Wittmann, “Spherical wave operators and the translation formulas,” IEEE Trans-
actions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 36, no. 8, pp. 1078–1087, 1988.

[185] S. Sun, Y. G. Liu, W. C. Chew, and Z. Ma, “Calderón multiplicative preconditioned efie
with perturbation method,” IEEE Transactions on Antennas and Propagation, vol. 61,
no. 1, pp. 247–255, 2012.

[186] G. Mie, “Beiträge zur optik trüber medien, speziell kolloidaler metallösungen,” Annalen
der physik, vol. 330, no. 3, pp. 377–445, 1908.

[187] Wikipedia, “Mie scattering,” https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mie scattering.

[188] R. E. Collin, Foundations for microwave engineering. John Wiley & Sons, 2007, also
1966.

[189] L. B. Felsen and N. Marcuvitz, Radiation and scattering of waves. John Wiley & Sons,
1994, also 1973, vol. 31.

[190] P. P. Ewald, “Die berechnung optischer und elektrostatischer gitterpotentiale,” Annalen

der physik, vol. 369, no. 3, pp. 253–287, 1921.

[191] E. Whitaker and G. Watson, A Course of Modern Analysis. Cambridge Mathematical

Library, 1927.
370 Electromagnetic Field Theory

[192] A. Sommerfeld, Über die Ausbreitung der Wellen in der drahtlosen Telegraphie. Verlag
der Königlich Bayerischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1909.
[193] J. Kong, “Electromagnetic fields due to dipole antennas over stratified anisotropic me-
dia,” Geophysics, vol. 37, no. 6, pp. 985–996, 1972.