ECT 401 MICROWAVES & ANTENNAS Module II

MODULE II

Broad band antenna: Principle of Log periodic antenna array and design, Helical antenna: types and
design. Design of Microstrip Rectangular Patch antennas and feeding methods. Principles of Horn,
Parabolic dish antenna (expression for E, H and Gain without derivation), Mobile phone antenna –
Inverted F antenna.

References:

1. Microwave devices and Circuits –Samuel Liao

2. Antenna Theory and Design- Balanis

CLASSIFICATION OF ANTENNAS

Antennas are classified into two categories:

1. Resonant antennas
2. Non-resonant antennas

Resonant antennas

➢ Length of antenna will be exact multiple of λ/4

➢ Antennas are open at both ends
➢ They are not terminated in any resistance
➢ Used at fixed frequency
➢ In these antennas incident & reflected waves exists i.e standing waves exists
➢ Also called as standing wave antennas
➢ Patterns are bidirectional
➢ Also called as periodic antennas

Non-resonant antennas

➢ Length of the antennas is other than in multiples of λ/2

➢ At one end of antenna, it is excited and the other end is terminated in characteristic impedance.
➢ Operates over wide range of frequencies, therefore wideband antenna
➢ There are no reflected waves on this antenna, hence no standing waves
➢ Called as travelling wave antennas
➢ Produces uni-directional patterns
➢ Also called aperiodic antennas.

LOG PERIODIC ANTENNA

• frequency independent antenna

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• Impedance, radiation pattern and directivity remains constant irrespective of frequency.

• Also called as log periodic dipole antenna (LPDA) since dipole antennas are used as elements
• Radiation will be unidirectional or bidirectional with moderate gain
• Electrical properties repeat periodically with logarithm of frequency

Construction:

• Size of the structure changes with each repetition by a constant scaling factor such that it
expands or contracts.
• Dimensions increase in proportion to the distance from the origin.
• It is fed by a balanced two wire transmission line at the narrow end.
• Length of dipoles increases along the antenna such that included angle α remains constant

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• relationship between length and distance from origin is given by

R1 R2 R L L L
= = ...... = n =  = 1 = 2 = ...... = n where  is scaling factor ;  1 ;
R2 R3 Rn+1 L2 L3 Ln+1

• spacing between elements and length is related by

S n+1 Ln+1 1
= = = k; k  1
Sn Ln 

Another parameter that is usually associated with a log-periodic dipole array is the spacing factor σ
defined by

Regions of operation

3 regions of operation:

(i) included transmission line region (inactive region)

a) unloaded transmission line region
b) loaded transmission line region
(ii) active region
(iii)reflective region

Unloaded transmission line region

→ antenna elements are short compared with resonant length i.e L<< λ/2
→ element presents relatively high capacitive impedance
→ current is small and leads voltage by approximately 90º

Loaded transmission line region

→ length and spacing are short compared with resonant

length i.e L < λ/2
→ transposition of transmission line is introduced,
causing phase reversal
→ adjacent elements are nearly 180º out of phase
→ current leads by (π-βd) where d is the element spacing

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Active region

→ here L = λ/2
→ E plane radiation is maximum
→ Element impedance have resistive component
→ Current is large and almost in phase with voltage,
producing a strong radiation in the backfire direction

Reflective region

→ L > λ/2 towards far end

→ Element impedance becomes inductive and current lags
voltage

Design Procedure:

Assume the directivity (in dB), input impedance Rin (real), diameter of elements of feeder line (d),
and the lower and upper frequencies (B = fmax/fmin) of the bandwidth are specified.

1. Given D0 (dB), determine σ and τ from plot of τ vs σ for various values of directivity.
2. Determine α using

3. Determine bandwidth of active region Bar and slightly larger bandwidth Bs using

Where Bs = designed bandwidth, B = desired bandwidth, Bar = active region bandwidth

4. Find L using and N using

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5. Determine average characteristic impedance Za using

where ln /dn is the length-to-diameter ratio of the nth element of the array.

And

6. Determine Z0/Rin using the plot of Relative characteristic impedance.

7. Find s using

Applications:

a) HF communication
b) All round monitoring

HELICAL ANTENNA

• Simplest antenna to provide circularly polarized waves

• UHF and VHF antenna used in extraterrestrial communications

Construction

Consists of a thick copper wire wound in the shape of a screw thread and used as an antenna in
conjunction with a flat metal plate called ground plate. It is fed between one and ground plate by a
coaxial cable.

The parameters on which its radiation depends are:

D – diameter of the helix

2a = d – diameter of helix conductor

S - turn spacing from centre to centre

 S  −1  S 
α – pitch angle = tan −1   = tan  
 D  C 

C- circumference of the helix =πD

L – axial length= NS

N=number of turns

L0 = length of one turn

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Pitch angle is the angle between a line tangent to helix and plane normal to helix axis

When α = 0°, then the winding is flattened and the helix reduces to a loop antenna of N turns. On the
other hand, when α = 90° then the helix reduces to a linear wire. When 0°< α < 90°, then a true helix
is formed with a circumference greater than zero but less than the circumference when the helix is
reduced to a loop (α = 0°).

Radiation characteristics

The radiation characteristics of the antenna can be varied by controlling the size of its geometrical
properties compared to the wavelength. The input impedance is critically dependent upon the pitch
angle and the size of the conducting wire, especially near the feed point, and it can be adjusted by
controlling their values. The general polarization of the antenna is elliptical. However circular and
linear polarizations can be achieved over different frequency ranges.

The helical antenna can operate in many modes; however, the two principal ones are the normal
(broadside) and the axial (end-fire) modes.

Normal mode operation

Here field is maximum in the broadside direction i.e in the direction normal to helix. Here L<<λ0 The
bandwidth and radiation efficiency is low in this mode. Both can be increased by increasing the helix
size.

The far field of small loop is given by

120 2 I sin 
. A where A is the area of the loop; A = D 4
2
E =
r 2

Far field of short dipole is given by

j 60 I sin 
E = .S
r

There is a phase difference of 90º between the fields. Ratio of magnitudes of these fields provides the
axial ratio.

60 I sin 
.S
E r S
 AR = = =
E 120 I sin 
2
2A
.A
r 2

If AR=1 polarization of the antenna becomes circular.

D 2  2 D2
Thus S = 2A  S = 2 S =
4 2

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C2
Since C = D; S =
2

C2
Then pitch angle  = tan −1
S
= tan −1 2 = tan −1 C
C C 2

This is the condition for pitch angle to get circular polarization.

Axial mode operation

In this mode the maximum radiation is in the end fire direction. Polarization is circular. This mode
occurs when S and D are of the order of one wavelength. This mode produces broad and directional
beam in the axial direction and minor lobes at oblique angles.

This mode gives broad bandwidth and good directional beam

in the axial direction. In axial mode, terminal impedance of
helical antenna lies between 100Ω to 200Ω. Terminal impedance is
given by

140C
R=


1
Axial ratio AR = 1+
2N

This is the more practical mode of operation.

Parameters:

65
Bandwidth =
D NS
 

115 3
BWFN =
D NS

 D  NS
2

Gain = 6.2 
   

 D  NS
2

Directivity = 15 
   

Advantages:

• Circular polarization over wide bandwidth

• Simplicity

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• More efficient
• Capability of receiving signal of arbitrary polarization

Uses:

• Transmitting or receiving signal in HF & VHF

• Satellite and space communications

MICROSTRIP OR PATCH ANTENNA

In space craft or aircraft where size, cost, performance, ease of installation and aerodynamic
profile are constraints low profile antennas like microstrip antennas are used. These antennas can be
flush mounted to metal or other existing surfaces and they only require space for the feed line which
is normally placed behind the ground plane.

→ Popular at frequencies above 100MHz.

→ Consists of a rectangular patch on a dielectric coated ground plane
→ The radiating element and the feed lines are normally photo etched on the dielectric substrate.
→ Coaxial feed lines where the inner conductor of the coaxial line is attached to the radiating
patch are widely used.
→ The strip is designed so that the pattern maximum is normal to the patch.

Patch parameters
1. Operating frequency =100MHz
2. Wavelength  3m

3. Thickness of patch t 
100
4. Thickness of substrate h  

5. Length of patch l 
2
6. Width of patch w  
7. Dielectric constant  r  2

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→ As the thickness of the strip is very small, the waves generated within the dielectric substrate
undergo reflection to some extent when they arrive at the edge of the strip resulting radiation
of only small fraction of incident energy. Therefore the antenna is considered to be very
inefficient and it behaves more like a cavity rather than a radiator.
Z0
→ The characteristic impedance of patch antenna is given by Z =
 r
→ The radiation pattern is broad.
→ To improve the directivity of the antenna multiple microstrip radiators are used in cascade to
form an array.

Fringing Effects

Dimensions of the patch are finite along the length and

width. Amount of fringing is a function of dimensions of
the patch and the height of the substrate. Fringing makes
the microstrip look wider electrically compared to its
physical dimensions.

Some of the waves travel in the substrate and some in the sir.The smaller the εr , th more bowed
the fringing fields become, they extend away from the patch. Therefore using a smaller permittivity
for the substrate yields better radiation.

Feeding Techniques

1. Microstrip line feed

A conducting strip is connected directly to the edge of the microstrip patch.
Characteristics: easy to fabricate, spurious radiation is low, bandwidth is narrow

2. Coaxial feed
Inner conductor of the coaxial penetrates the substrate from the back of ground plane
without any contact with ground plane and is attached to radiation patch while the outer
conductor is connected to ground plane.
Characteristics: easy to fabricate, spurious radiation is low, narrow bandwidth.

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3. Aperture couple feed

Consists of high dielectric material for the bottom substrate, and thick low dielectric
material for top substrate. Two substrates are separated by a ground plane. On the
bottom side of lower substrate, there is a microstrip feed line whose energy is coupled
to patch through a slot on the ground plane separating the two substrates.
Characteristics: ground plane isolates feed from radiator and minimizes interference,
low bandwidth, more difficult to fabricate

4. Proximity coupled feed

Two dielectric substrates are used such that feed line is
between the two substrates and the radiating patch is on top
of the upper substrate.
Characteristics : Highest bandwidth, impedance matching
controlled by the length of feeding stub.

Disadvantages: inefficiency and very narrow band width

Design Procedure
1. For an efficient radiator, a practical width that leads to good radiation efficiencies is

where vo is the free-space velocity of light

2. Determine the effective dielectric constant of the microstrip antenna using

3. Once W is found , determine the extension of the length ΔL using

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4. The actual length of the patch can now be determined by

HORN ANTENNA

• It may be considered as opened out wave guide.

• A waveguide is capable of radiation into open space provided the same is excited at one end
and opened at other end.
• In waveguide a small portion of the incident wave is radiated and the large portion is reflected
back by the open circuit.
• The open circuit is a discontinuity which matches the waveguide to space very poorly.
• Also diffractions around the edges will provide poor radiation and a non-directive radiation
pattern.
• In order to overcome these difficulties the mouth of waveguide is opened out which assume
the shape of horn
• Abrupt discontinuity is replaced by a gradual transformation, then all the incident energy will
be radiated.
• This improves directivity and reduces diffraction.
• If flaring is done only in one direction, then a sectorial horn is produced.
• Flaring in the direction of Electric field and Magnetic field produces sectorial E-plane horn and
sectorial H-plane horn respectively.
• If flaring is done along both directions, then pyramidal horn is obtained.
• Flaring the walls of a circular waveguide a conical horn is formed.
• Function of electromagnetic horn is to produce a uniform wave front with a large aperture and
thus directivity is greater.

Various types of horns are shown below:

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Design Equations:

From the geometry of the figure ,

h
L h
cos = tan  = 2 =
L + L 2L
 h  −1  L 
 = tan −1   = cos  
 2L   L + 
2
h2
(L +  )2 = L2 + h  L2 + 2 L +  2 = L2 +
4 4

Neglecting δ2 ;

h2
L=
8

If flare angle is very large the wave front on the mouth of horn will be curved rather than plane,
resulting increased beam width and reduced directivity

If flare angle is very small, aperture will be smaller, resulting in reduced directivity.

56 67
E = degree  H = degree where θE and θH are HPBW in E and H directions.
h w

7.5 7.5 A
Directivity D= h w =
 2
2

4.5 4.5 A
Power gain Gp = h w =
 2
2
Uses: Used at microwave frequencies for moderate power gains

Measurement of antenna parameters at laboratory

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PARABOLIC DISH ANTENNA

➢ microwave antenna making use of a reflecting surface

➢ simplest form uses plane reflector to direct electromagnetic energy in a desired direction, but
its difficult to collimate the beam.
➢ To better collimate the energy in the forward direction, two plane reflectors are joined together
to form a corner reflector.

➢ Parabolic reflector: The overall

radiation characteristics of a reflector can
be improved if the geometrical shape is
parabola. If a beam of parallel rays is
incident upon a parabolic reflector, the
radiation will converge at a spot which is
known as focal point. In the same
manner, if a point source is placed at the focal
point, the rays reflected by a parabolic
reflector will emerge as a parallel beam. The
rays that emerge in a parallel formation are
usually said to be collimated.
➢ The radiation pattern of an antenna
employing paraboloid reflector has a very
sharp major lobe accompanied by a number of smaller minor lobes.
140
➢ BWFN = degree where λ is free space wavelength, D is diameter of aperture.
D
70
HPBW = degree
D
D2
Directivity D = 9.87 2

D2
Power gain, when dipole antenna is used Gp  6.4
2
➢ It is seen that some of the desired rays are not captured by the reflector and this constitute spill
over. While receiving spill over increases noise pick up. Some radiation from primary radiator
occurs in the forward direction in addition to the desired parallel beam. This is known as back-

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lobe radiation. Back lobe radiation are not desirable as it can interfere destructively with
reflected beam.
➢ antenna placed at the focus of a paraboloid is known as feed radiator or primary radiator and
its radiation pattern is known as primary pattern. The parabolic reflector is known as secondary
radiator and the radiation pattern of entire antenna system is called secondary pattern.

Feed systems:

Parabolic reflector antenna consists of two components: reflector and a source of primary radiation at
the focus. The source is called as feed.

An ideal feed would be that radiator which radiates towards reflector in such a way that it
illuminates the entire surface of reflector and no energy is radiated in any other direction.

Eg: dipole antenna, horn antenna

• Axial or front feed – This is the most common type of feed, with the feed antenna located in
front of the dish at the focus, on the beam axis, pointed back toward the dish. A disadvantage
of this type is that the feed and its supports block some of the beam, which limits the aperture
efficiency to only 55–60%.

• Off-axis or offset feed – The reflector is an asymmetrical segment of a paraboloid, so the focus,
and the feed antenna, are located to one side of the dish. The purpose of this design is to move
the feed structure out of the beam path, so it does not block the beam. It is widely used in
home satellite television dishes, which are small enough that the feed structure would otherwise
block a significant percentage of the signal.

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• Cassegrain Feed

In this the primary radiator is positioned around an

opening near the vertex of the paraboloid instead of
focus. It employs a hyperboloid secondary reflector
whose one of the foci coincides with the focus of
paraboloid. The feed radiator is aimed at the secondary
reflector. Radiations from the feed radiator are reflected
from secondary reflector which illuminates the main
paraboloid reflector as if they had originated from the
focus. Then the paraboloid collimates the rays as usual.

Advantages:

(i) Reduction in spill over and minor lobe radiation

(ii) Ability to get an equivalent focal length much greater
than the physical length.
(iii)Ability to place the feed in a convenient location.
(iv) Capability for broadening the beam by moving one of
the reflecting surface.
• Gregorian feed

Similar to the Cassegrain design except that the

secondary reflector is concave, (ellipsoidal) in shape.

MOBILE PHONE ANTENNA – INVERTED F ANTENNA

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