UNIT V:

Optical Sources
and Detectors:
[T1]Introduction,
[T2] LEDs – structure –
Light source, Quantum
efficiency, Modulation of an
LED,

[T3] LASER diodes, Source

to Fiber power launching,
LASER diode to fiber
coupling,
[T4]LED coupling to single
mode fibers,
[T5] Fiber-Splicing, Optical
Fiber connectors,
[T6]Photo diodes – Principle
of Photo diodes, Avalanche
Photodiodes, Photo detector
noise, detector response
time,
[T7]Comparison of Photo
diodes.

[T1]Introduction ,

Optical Sources

The basic building blocks of an optical-fibre link are

the light source, the fibre and the detector .
There are broadly speaking two categories of device used as light sources:
light-emitting diodes (LEDs) and laser diodes.

What are the optical sources?

1. A device that provides radiant power in
the optical spectrum portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum, usually by
 converting other forms of power, such as
electrical power, to radiant power.

Optical Detectors

What is optical detector?

1. An optital detector is a device that converts light
signals into electrical signals, which can then be
amplified and processed.
2. Such detectors are one of the most important
components of an optical fiber communcation system

Which device used as optical detector?

Some important optical detector devices are: PIN diode

(P-type, intrinsic, n-type) Avalanche photodiode
(APD) , Photomultiplier Tube (PMT)

What are the three main types of optical sources

available in general?
The three most common types of optical sources used for data
communications are light-emitting diodes (LEDs), edge-
emitting semiconductor laser diodes, and vertical cavity
surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs).

Optical Sources
1. Optical transmitter coverts electrical input signal into
corresponding optical signal.
2. The optical signal is then launched into the fiber.
3. Optical source is the major component in an optical transmitter .
4. Popularly used optical transmitters are Light Emitting Diode
(LED) and semiconductor Laser Diodes (LD)

Characteristics of Light Source of Communication

To be useful in an optical
link, a light source needs
the following
characteristics:

i. It must be possible
to operate the
device continuously
at a variety of
 temperatures for
many years.
2. It must be possible to
modulate the light
output over a wide
range of modulating
frequencies. For fiber
links, the wavelength of
the output should
coincide with one of
transmission windows
for the fiber type used.
3. To couple large
amount of power into
an optical fiber, the
emitting area should be
small.
4. To reduce material
dispersion in an optical
fiber link, the output
spectrum should be
narrow.
5. The power requirement
for its operation must be
low.
6. The light source must be
compatible with the
modern solid state devices.
7. The optical output
power must be directly
modulated by varying
the input current to the
device.
8. Better linearity of
prevent harmonics and
intermodulation distortion.
9. High coupling
efficiency.
10. High optical output
power.
11. High reliability.
12. Low weight and low
cost.
Two types of light
sources used in fiber
optics are light emitting
diodes (LEDs) and
laser diodes (LDs).
[T2] LEDs – structure – Light source, Quantum
efficiency, Modulation of an LED

Double Heterojunctions
(DH):
In order to achieve efficient
confinement of emitted
radiation double
heterojunctions are used in
LED structure.
 A heterojunciton is a
junction formed by dissimilar
semiconductors.
Double heterojunction (DH)
is formed by two different
semiconductors on each side
of active region.
Fig. 3.1.1 shows double heterojunction (DH) light
emitter.
1. The crosshatched
regions represent the
energy levels of free
 charge.
2. Recombination occurs
only in active In GaAsP
layer.
3. The two materials have
different band gap
energies and different
refractive indices.
4. The changes in band gap
 energies create potential
barrier for both holes and
electrons.
5. The free charges can
recombine only in narrow,
well defined active layer
side.

6. A double heterojunction
 (DH) structure will
confine both hole and
electrons to a narrow
active layer.
7. Under forward bias,
there will be a large
number of carriers
injected into active region
where they are efficiently
 confined.
8. Carrier recombination
occurs in small active
region .
9. . Another advantage DH
structure is that the active
region has a higher
refractive index than the
materials on either side,
 hence light emission
occurs in an optical
waveguide, which serves
to narrow the output beam.
LED configurations
At present there are two main types of LED used in
optical fiber links
1] Surface emitting LED
2]Edge emitting LED.

Both devices used a DH structure to constrain the

carriers and the light to an active layer.
Example 3.1.1 : Compute the emitted wavelength from an optical source having x = 0.07.
Solution : x = 0.07

Eg = 1.513 eV
now
 Example 3.1.2 : For an alloy In0.74 Ga0.26 As0.57 P0.43 to be sued in Led. Find the
wavelength emitted by this source.

Solution : Comparing the alloy with the quartenary alloy composition. In1-x Gax As P1-y it
is found that
x = 0.26 and y= 0.57
Eg = 1.35 – 0.72 y + 0.12 y2
Using
Eg = 1.35-(0.72 x 0.57) + 0.12 x 0.572

Eg = 0.978 eV
now

Quantum Efficiency and Power

The internal quantum efficiency (ηint) is
defined as the ratio of radiative
recombination rate to the total
recombination rate.

Where,

Rr is radiative recombination rate.

Rnr is non-radiative recombination rate.

If n are the excess carriers, then radiative life time,

and non-radiative life time,

The internal quantum efficiency is given The

recombination time of carriers in active region is
τ. It is also known as bulk recombination life time.
Therefore internal quantum efficiency is given as
–

If the current injected into the LED is I and q is

electron charge then total number of re
combinations per second is –

Optical power generated internally in LED is given as –

 1.Not all internally generated photons will
available from output of device.
2.The external quantum efficiency is used to
calculate the emitted power.
3.The external quantum efficiency is defined
as the ratio of photons emitted from LED
to the number of photons generated
internally.
It is given by equation

The optical output power emitted from LED is given as –

 Example 3.1.3 : The radiative and non radiative recombination life times of minority
carriers in the active region of a double heterojunction LED are 60 nsec and 90 nsec
respectively. Determine the total carrier recombination life time and optical power generated
internally if the peak emission wavelength si 870 nm and the drive currect is 40 mA.

Solutions:
Given : λ = 870 nm 0.87 x 10-6 m
τr = 60 nsec.
τnr = 90 nsec.
I = 40 mA = 0.04 Amp.
i) Total carrier recombination life time:

ii) Internal optical power

iii)

iv)

Example 3.1.4 : A double heterjunciton InGaAsP LED operating at 1310 nm has radiative
and non-radiative recombination times of 30 and 100 ns respectively. The current injected is
40 Ma.
 Calculate – Bulk recombination life time. Internal quantum efficiency Internal power level.

Solution : λ = 1310 nm = (1.31 x 10-6 m)

τr = 30 ns
τnr = 100 ns
i) I = 40 MA – 0.04 Amp.
Bulk Recombination Life time (τ) :

Internal quantum efficienty (ηint)

Internal power level (Pint) :

Advantages and Disadvantages
of LED :

Advantages of LED
Simple design.
 Ease of manufacture.
 Simple system integration.
 Low cost.
 High reliability.

Disadvantages of LED
1. Refraction of light at semiconductor/air interface.
2. The average life time of a radiative recombination is
only a few nanoseconds, therefore
3. Modulation BW is limited to only few hundred
megahertz.
4. Low coupling efficiency.
 5. Large chromatic dispersion.
Comparison of Surface and Edge Emitting LED
LED type Max. modulation freq. (MHz) Output power (mW) Fiber coupled power
Surface emitting 60 <4 < 0.2
Edge emitting 200 <7 < 1.0

[T] Modulation of an LED,

LED Modulation
Since the light ouput from an LED has a region
where it is linearly proportional to the forward
, it is useful
current through the diode
for producing a light level
which is proportional to
some signal.
That signal can then be send
 through a fiber optic cable
and detected on the other
end.
What is meant by modulation
bandwidth of LED?

LED modulation bandwidth,

generally −3 dB modulation
bandwidth, is defined as the
frequency at which the LED light
output power (LOP) decreases at
a low reference frequency to its
half-value.

[T]LASER
diodes
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
The laser is a device which amplifies the light,
hence the LASER is an acronym for light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation.
The operation of the device may be described by
the formation of an electromagnetic standing wave
within a cavity (optical resonator) which provides
an output of monochromatic
highly coherent radiation.
Principle :
Material absorb light than emitting.

Three different fundamental process occurs between the two energy states of an

atom.

1] Absorption
2) Spontaneous emission

3) Stimulated emission.

Laser action is the result of three process

1. absorption of energy packets (photons)

2. spontaneous emission,

3.and stimulated emission.

(These processes are represented by the simple two-energy-level diagrams).

Where E1 is the lower state energy level.

E2 is the higher state energy level.

Quantum theory states that any atom exists only in certain discrete energy state, absorption or
emission of light causes them to make a transition from one state to another.
The frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference in energy E
between the two states.
If E1 is lower state energy level. and E2 is higher state energy level
E = (E2 – E1) = h.f. Where, h = 6.626 x 10-34 J/s (Plank’s constant).
An atom is initially in the lower energy state, when the photon with energy (E2 – E1) is
incident on the atom it will be excited into the higher energy state E2 through the absorption of
the photon
When the atom is initially in the higher energy state E2, it can make a transition to
the lower
energy state E1 providing the emission of a photon at a frequency corresponding
E to
= h.f.

The emission process can occur in two ways.

1. By spontaneous emission in which the atom returns to the lower

energy state in random manner.
2. By stimulated emission when a photon having equal energy to the
difference between the two states (E2 – E1) interacts with the atom
causing it to the lower state with the creation of the second photon.

Spontaneous emission gives incoherent radiation while stimulated

emission gives coherent radiation.

Hence the light associated with emitted photon is of same frequency

of incident photon, and in same phase with same polarization.
It means that when an atom is stimulated to emit light energy by an
incident wave, the liberated energy can add to the wave in
constructive manner.
The emitted light is bounced back and forth internally between two
reflecting surface.
 [T] MODULATION OF LASER
DIODE
Modulating the output power of a laser diode can happen in two
ways: by changing the signal input/driving current 1,2 or by
alternating the continuous wave output after the light is
generated. In laser modulation, the current or voltage varies
with time to modulate the output signal from the laser.

Which modulation technique is used by

laser?
The technique, called the laser‐intensity‐modulation method (LIMM), is based
upon measurement of the pyroelectric current generated by the electret when it is
heated with a laser beam which is intensity‐modulated at frequencies varying from
200 to 2500 Hz.

What is a modulated laser beam?

It converts a sound source into light that travels across a room and then back
into sound with very little quality loss. Basically, the laser light is amplitude
modulated. This simply means that the amount of light the laser emits varies over
time. A solar cell can pick up the signal and convert it back into sound.
.

[T]Source to
Fiber power
launching
SOURCE TO FIBER POWER LAUNCHING:
The optical power that can couple into a fiber depends on the radiance or
brightness which is given through a diode drive current.
Radiance is the optical power radiated into a unit solid angle per unit emitting surface
areas and is generally specified in terms of Watts/cm2.

SOURCE TO FIBER POWER LAUNCHING:

In implementing an optical fiber link, two of the major system questions are now to launch
operation of optical power into a particular fiber from same type of luminescent source
and how to couple optical power from the fiber to other. A measure of the amount of
optical power emitted from a source that can be coupled into a fiber is usually given by the
coupling efficiency 𝜂 defined as:
𝜼 = 𝑷𝑭
𝑷𝑺
𝑃𝐹: Power couple into the fiber
𝑃𝑆: Power emitted from the light source
The launching and coupling efficiency depends on the type of fiber that is attached to the
source and on the coupling process.

The optical power that can couple into a fiber depends on the radiance or brightness which
is given through a diode drive current. Radiance is the optical power radiated into a unit
solid angle per unit emitting surface areas and is generally specified in terms of Watts/cm2.

SOURCE OUTPUT PATTERN: The optical power accepting capability of a fiber is

represented by a spatial radiation pattern of the source which is shown in figure:

Here the figure shows a spherical coordinate system characterized by R, θ and ϕ with the
polar axis. The radiance may be a function of both θ and ϕ and can also vary from point to
point on the emitting surface.
1). Surface emitter LED can be characterized by this output pattern, which means the source is equally
bright when viewed from any direction. The power delivered at an angle θ, varies as cosθ because the
projection area of emitting surface varies, so the emission area pattern follows:
𝑩(𝛉, 𝛟) = 𝐁𝟎𝐜𝐨𝐬𝛉
B0: radiance along the normal to the radiating surface.
2). For edge emitter LED, and laser diodes, more complex emission pattern exists. These devices have
different radiance B(θ,900) and B(θ,00) in the planes parallel and normal.
[T]LASER diode to fiber coupling
POWER COUPLING: The optical power coupling of any fiber can be calculated by the
symmetric source of brightness (B), area
𝐴𝑠and solid acceptance angle Ω𝑠

Here, the fiber end face is centered over emitting surface of the source
and is positioned as close as possible. So, the power coupled is:

0 0
𝑃 = ∫ 𝑑𝐴𝑠 ∫ 𝑑Ω𝑠𝐵(𝐴𝑠, Ω𝑠)
𝐴𝑟𝑓 2𝜋 Ω𝑓2𝜋 𝜃0,𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑚
𝑃=∫ ∫ [∫ ∫ 𝐵(𝜃, 𝜙)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑑𝜃𝑑𝜙] 𝑑𝜃𝑠𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 0 0 0
𝑟𝑚: upper integration limit of radiation
If the source radius 𝑟𝑠 is less than fiber core radius a, then 𝑟𝑚 = 𝑟𝑠; and for sources
areas larger than
𝑟𝑠 2𝜋the fiber𝜃0,𝑚𝑎𝑥
core area, 𝑟𝑚= a. For SLED, 𝑟𝑠 < 𝑎, so,
𝑃 = ∫ ∫ [2𝜋𝐵0 ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑑𝜃] 𝑑𝜃𝑠𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 0 𝑟𝑠 2𝜋 0
𝑃 = 𝜋𝐵0 ∫ ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃0,𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑑𝜃𝑠𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 𝑟𝑠 0 2𝜋
𝑃 = 𝜋𝐵0 ∫ ∫ 𝑁𝐴2𝑑𝜃𝑠𝑟𝑑𝑟
0 0
 where, L and T represents lateral power and transverse power distribution.

[T]LED coupling to single mode fibers

Q0LASER diode to fiber coupling, LED coupling to single mode fibers, Fiber, Splicing, Optical Fiber connectors,

Watch following ppt:

https://www.slideshare.net/bheemsain/foc-ppt-17068379

[T] Photo diodes – Principle of Photo diodes,

Photo diodes
Semiconductor photodiodes are the most commonly used detectors in optical fiber systems since they provide good performance,
being small in size, and are of low cost.
Semiconductor photodiodes are made of silicon, germanium, GaAs, InGaAs, etc.

What is the working principle of photodiode?

Principle of Photodiode: It works on the principle of the photoelectric

effect. The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the
junction of this two terminal semiconductor device is illuminated then
the electric current starts flowing through it.

What is detector response time in optical communication?

Response Time: this is a measure of how quickly the detector

can respond to variations in the input light intensity.
Noise: the level of noise (interference) produced in the device is
critical to its operation when levels of input light are low.
What is meant by detector response time?

An important characteristic of any photodetector is its response

time the time it takes for the detector output to change in
response to changes in the input light intensity.
Which photodetector has fastest response time in optical communication?
Semiconductor photodetectors, commonly referred to as
photodiodes, are the predominant types of photodetectors used in
optical communication systems because of their small size…

Q)Comparison of Photo diodes

What is the advantage of photo transistors over photodiodes?

Faster Response:
The response time of phototransistor is more than that of the photodiode, this provides the advantage of using the phototransistor
in our circuit.

Less Noise interference:

The major drawback of photodiodes especially that of avalanche photodiodes is that it is not immune to noise interference.

What are difference between PIN and APD photodiodes?

 1. They are high-sensitivity, high-speed semiconductor light sensors.
2. The main advantage of the APD is that it has a greater level of sensitivity
compared to PIN.
3. The avalanche action increases the gain of the diode many times, providing
much higher sensitivity. However, an APD requires a higher operating voltage.

Avalanche Photo Diode (APD)

 All detectors require a certain minimum current to operate reliably. The current
requirement translates into a minimum power requirement through Pin=IpRPin=IpR.
 Detectors with a large responsivity R are preferred since they require less optical
power.
 The responsivity of p–i–n photodiodes is limited while Avalanche photodiode (APDs)
can have much larger values of R.
Working of APD
 APD is similar to PIN diode the exception is the addition of high intensity electric field
region.
 In this region primary electron hole pairs are generated by the incident photons which
are able to absorb enough kinetic energy from strong electric field to collide with the
atoms present in this region, thus generating more electron hole pairs.
 The physical phenomenon behind the internal current gain is known as the impact
ionization.
 This impact ionization leads to avalanche breakdown in ordinary reverse bias. It
requires very high reverse bias voltage in order that the new carriers created by
impact ionization can themselves produce additional carriers by same mechanism.
 This process of generating more than one electron hole pair from incident photon
through ionization process is referred to as the avalanche effect.
 Thus the avalanche multiplication results in amplification of photodiode current.
 Multiplication factor: Multiplication factor M is a measure of internal gain provided by
APD. It is defined as the ratio of total multiplied output current to the primary un
multiplied current.

M=IIpM=IIp

Where I the Total multiplied output current

IpIp is the primary un multiplied current

Multiplication depends on physical and operational characteristics of photo detector device.

Operational characteristics include the width of avalanche region, the strength of electric
field and type of semiconductor material employed.
Comparison:

Sr PIN diode APD (Avalanche photodiode)

no.

1 PIN does not have high APD has high intensity electric field region.
intensity electric field region.

2 Photo current (IpIp) generated Photo current (IpIp) generated is more compared to PIN,
is less compared to APD
Ip=qNθ.M
Ip=qNθ,
q = electron charge,
q = electron charge,
Nθ= carrier number,
Nθ = carrier number
M = multiplication factor

3 Responsively of PIN is limited. Responsively of APD can have much larger values.

4 They exhibit lower noise levels. They exhibit higher noise levels as compared to PIN due
to impact ionization and photocurrent multiplication.
 5 Response time of PIN is half Response time of APD is almost double that of PIN.
that of APD.

What is the photodetector noise?

Photo detector noise is that undesired disturbance masks the signal in communication system. Photo detector
noise is that undesired disturbance masks the signal in communication system.

What are the types of noises found in optical detectors?

Noise sources in optical detectors
 Optical shot noise (Ns): inherent noise in counting a finite number of photons per unit time.
 Dark current noise (Nd): thermally induced “firing” of the detector.
 Read noise, or Johnson noise (NJ): thermally induced current fluctuation in the load resistor, while counting
photons.