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EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND LEADERSHIP
Author: Desislava Antonova Ivanova
Tutor: Jacob Guinot Reinders
DEGREE OF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION
AE1049 – FINAL PROJECT DEGREE
COURSE: 2015-2016
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
A. TABLE OF FIGURES……………………………………………….. 3
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................. 4
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................ 5
2. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ........................................................................................ 6
2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .......................................................................... 6
2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AT WORK .......................................................... 8
3. MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ................................................................ 9
3.1 MIXED MODEL .............................................................................................. 9
3.2 ABILITY MODEL .......................................................................................... 11
3.3 TRAIL MODEL ............................................................................................. 13
4. IMPORTANCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE .................................................... 14
5. LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE .................................................. 17
5.1 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE .. 18
5.2 TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE ..... 22
6. DISCUSSION .................................................................................................................... 24
7. RECOMMENDATIONS ................................................................................................... 26
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 28
WEBGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 33
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A. TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1: Mixed model by Goleman………………………………………………….……11
Figure 2: Salovey and Mayer model……………………..............................................12
Figure 3: Additive effect of transformational leadership……………………..……...19
Figure 4: Establishing Linkages between Emotional Intelligence and
Transformational Leadership ……………………………………………………........ 22
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ABSTRACT
Purpose: The main purpose of this document is to evaluate claims that emotional
intelligence is significantly related to transformational and transactional leadership
behaviour and also to analyse and explore the importance of emotional intelligence and
the ability to manage our emotions in order to be more successful in every organization
and personal life. In order to do so, the document first seeks to clarify the idea of
emotional intelligence and all the components, identifying the importance and benefits of
this type of intelligence in organizations.
Design/ methodology / approach: This document represents a theoretical review of
emotional intelligence, starting from the need to understand what it is, how to understand
it, how to improve it, what are the benefits in organizations and what types of leadership
use to be more emotional intelligent. In this document are used references to existing
literature related to emotional intelligence and leadership. This references are obtained
from the database of the University Jaume I.
Findings: Emotional Intelligence has a positive impact on organizations. Emotional
intelligence is the key to our relationships and interactions are successful and are
beneficial for all parties involved. Individuals with high emotional intelligence are able to
cope with different situations in a much more effective way. They are also able to manage
stress and cope with the changes happening within companies. Emotional intelligence
also influence on the physical and mental health. The emotional fitness is important
especially in leadership role whose essence is getting others to execute their jobs more
effectively. In addition, it has been found that the transformational and transactional
leader have certain traits that match the dimensions of emotional intelligence.
Originality / value: The document aims to analyze different approaches to emotional
intelligence, leadership, paying attention on transactional leadership and
transformational leadership, and how to improve emotional intelligence.
Key-words: emotional intelligence, leadership, transactional leadership,
transformational leadership, emotions, factors of emotional intelligence, benefits of
emotional intelligence.
Paper type: literature review
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1. INTRODUCTION
We constantly communicate and connect with different people on a daily basis. As a
result, every day we deal with emotions at some level that affect the way we behave
towards others and that shape our behaviour and forge the decisions that we make. In
order to connect easily and in the right way with people and ourselves, by making the
right decisions, we need to be able to understand emotions and how they affect us. This
is the key role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) which according to the field of psychology
refers to the control that one has over his or her emotions and the ability to understand
and interpret them as well as those of others (Mayer and Salovey, 1990).
The Pioneer in the study of EI, Goleman (2001) who focuses on emotional intelligence
on the workplace describes it as “… being able to motivate oneself and persist in the
face of frustrations; to control impulse and delay gratification; to regulate one's moods
and keep distress from swamping the ability to think; to empathize and to hope”. But
being emotionally intelligent doesn’t mean to only apply these qualities at work but also
in life. The ability to understand what other people are feeling and experiencing
emotionally it’s usually a non-verbal process that influences our connection with others.
In this way the use of Emotional intelligence leads eventually to personal achievements,
happiness and professional success. That is way, Goleman (2001) defends EI by stating
that “…is twice as important as the cognitive ability”. Also EI is considered, among many
authors and psychologists, to be a vital part of a successful leadership, performance and
team work in many organizations (Welch 2003; Vakola, 2004; Goleman, 1996). Those
who are able to manage properly their emotions and to label and understand the
emotions of others, can achieve positive outcomes in the line of production, apply a
model of a behavior to be followed, set a positive tone, inspire and motivate an entire
organization (Turner, 2004). EI is something that can be learned and is not something
that is acquired (Goleman, 2000). But whether one will be able to apply the knowledge
in life once it learns about EI is a different story. Usually while in the face of stress load
we may fail to apply EI by neglecting and dismissing our best intentions. In order to be
able to shift behaviors that stand up under stress and pressure we have to be able to
stay emotionally aware and be able to control stress and or overcome stress. All this can
be achieved by being emotionally intelligent.
For this theoretical review, which it is mainly studied EI and its benefits on people and in
particular on the leaders, it has divided in four main points. First is the theoretical
framework of EI. Subsequently, it is analyzed the three main models of emotional
intelligence. After, emotional intelligence it is related with transformational and
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transactional leadership. Finally, a general conclusion about the importance of emotional
intelligence in the workplace, for leaders and people in general, mentioning its benefits.
The methodology followed to do this theoretical review it was, firstly search for the
principal authors of EI. Then, I looked for other articles and researches about the
relationship between emotional intelligence and leadership, focusing this theoretical
review on transformational and transactional leadership. Finally, I propose some
suggestions about the development of this type of intelligence.
2. EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
2.1 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Goleman (1996), defined emotional intelligence (EI) as: “Understanding one’s own
feelings, empathy for the feelings of others and the regulation of emotion in a way that
enhances living.” Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive, understand and
manage both your own emotions and the emotions of others. Emotional intelligence
facilitates relationships with others, handling stress state, overcoming obstacles and
achieving goals (Salovy and Mayer 1990).
Mayer, Salovey and Caruso (1990), define EI as the capacity to understand emotions to
enhance thinking. It includes the potential to exactly perceive emotions, to access and
generate emotions so as to assist thought, to comprehend emotions and emotional
knowledge. It also includes to be able to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote
emotional and intellectual growth.
Salovy and Mayer (1990) were among the earliest to put forward the name “emotional
intelligence” to describe the capacity of people to deal with their emotions. They
explained emotional intelligence as “the subset of social intelligence that involves the
ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate among
them and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and actions”.
In companies, as in the daily life of people, the ability to use one’s emotions in a positive
and constructive way in relationship with others is emotional intelligence. Having great
intellectual abilities may make you a superb fiscal analyst or legal scholar, but a highly
developed emotional intelligence will make you a candidate for CEO or a brilliant trial
lawyer” (Goleman, 1997, p. 76). In his book “Working with Emotional Intelligence”, the
author argue that people with high level of EI have not only greater mental health but
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also a great job performance and leadership skills. He also say that EI represent about
67% of the abilities deemed necessary for a greater performance in leaders, and
mattered twice as much as technical expertise or Intelligence quotient (IQ) (Goleman,
1998).
All definitions are rooted in emotions. Everything revolves around how they are identified,
controlled and can be "used" productively; both in our interior, that is, what we can do
with our emotions, our behavior and our relationships with others; and what we can do
with the emotions "of others", ie that we can identify or generate in others.
In addition, all of the above definitions, are an expression which includes different but
complementary skills and abilities to academic intelligence. The set of competencies of
emotional intelligence determine the behavior of people and their reactions and how they
face life and how they communicate with others. Therefore, EI is the intelligent use of
emotions.
In an organization, the most common emotions can be for example satisfaction,
enthusiasm, joy, confidence, anger, fear, worry, anxiety, frustration, sadness, among
many others. According to the above definitions, the ability to manage emotions does
not mean censoring, but involves understand them, accept them and channel them to
our benefit and that of the organization. Therefore, it is very important to properly manage
emotions, especially leaders, because otherwise, can block up communication, conflicts
can occur, interpersonal relationships deteriorate, which affects the performance of the
functions and the level of business productivity will be low. Analyzing the above
information it can be inferred that leaders with a high level of emotional intelligence, have
the ability to control their emotions and think before acting. They can manage their
emotions in order to not get nervous easily and feel comfortable in change and ambiguity.
This is often a difficult set of skills to master, especially under high levels of stress.
With EI, leadership is more effective, because EI helps foster better professional
relationships, it increases personal effectiveness and success, and it enhances a
leader’s critical, analytical, and strategic thinking skills, because it allows to the leader to
gain new perspectives on challenging situations (George, 2000).
In resume, Emotional Intelligence is the ability to deal with our emotions and comprehend
emotions and feelings of others through empathy in order to facilitate relationships,
manage stress, handle frustration and overcome all types of obstacles in the daily life
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and achieve goals and objectives. EI allows us to understand our emotions to handle
them in the best way.
2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE AT WORK
In recent times, the rapid expansion of the global market, the advancement of
technologies, the constant changes that companies face as well as the diversity of work
today, have increased the demand for emotionally intelligent employees. Because of
this, the topic managing emotions in the workplace have become a very popular topic of
critical research between organizational behaviorists (Hochschild, 1983; Rafaeli &
Sutton, 1989; Van Maanen & Kunda, 1989). There are many courses on emotional
intelligence created by specialists in professional development and have been very
successful but some authors recommend that the formation of emotional intelligence can
best be achieved "At work" (Clarke, 2004; Sluiss, Williams, and Hoeksema, 2002). In this
way people can develop skills that occur through leadership or participation in teamwork,
projects and professional tasks (Baron et al., 1999; Blumenfield, Soloway, Marx, Krajcik,
y Palincsar, 1991; Evered y Selman, 2001; Vince, 2004). The EI competencies and skills
that can be acquired in the workplace are as tangible benefits such as higher
performance changes and increases in merit pay and rank (Grewal, Kadis, Gall, Lopes,
and Salovey, 2006).
In the workplace, employees high on EI would be more aware of their own emotions and
from others, which in turn, could lead companies to better profits and less unnecessary
expenses and also they perform substantially better than employees low in EI (Rooy and
Chockalingam, 2004). Moreover, employees high in this type of intelligent show more
confidence in their roles, which permit them to face demanding tasks in positive way
(Thomas, Tram, Susanna 2006). According to Lopes (2006), EI promote to develop
strong and positive relationships with partners and co-workers and perform efficiently in
work teams. The author suggest that this benefits performance of workers by providing
emotional support and instrumental resources needed to succeed in their roles.
Considering that nowadays in companies, there may be many stressful situations,
emotional intelligent employees, in this cases, have better resources to cope with
stressing situations and demanding tasks. This enable them to outperform in those
situations, which is a benefit for the company (Lopes, 2006). According to many authors,
the quality of the relationship between employees and the leader or supervisor could
interfere with the results of the subjective rating of the evaluation of job performance.
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Employees who are emotionally intelligent, devote more of their time working on
managing its relationship with supervisors. Therefore, the probability of obtaining better
results in performance assessment is higher for employees with high EI for employees
with low EI (Janssen, Onne and Van 2004).
Marchant (2013) suggest that “a business in which the staff are emotionally intelligent is
one which enables them to work together to maximum effectiveness. This can only
increase the organization’s success, however measured”. According to the author, EI is
applicable to every human interaction in business as staff motivation and also customer
service, brainstorming to company presentations, etc.
Given the above information, a business or organization in which the staff are emotionally
intelligent is one of this type of organizations which enables them to work together to
maximum effectiveness. The benefits of this is the increase of organization’s success.
3. MODELS OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Currently there are three principal models of EI: mixed model, ability model and trait
model.
3.1 MIXED MODEL
The mixed model was introduced by Goleman and this model is concentrated on EI as
a wide range of skills and competencies that drive leadership performance.
Goleman (1995) has studied and analyzed the emotional intelligence and affirms that
the development of emotional intelligence includes five levels. In addition, the author
states that the development of emotional intelligence has to go through the five levels
gradually.
According to Daniel Goleman, this five main elements of Emotional intelligence are:
• Self-awareness: Individuals that are emotionally intelligent maintains an awareness of
the way they behave and they are aware of the labels that are placed upon them. The
self-awareness leads individuals to be able to operate within the norms established for
each particular role (Averill, 1980).
Scheff (1983) describe emotions as being culturally specific, where people have to
interpret and appraise the cultural expectations of certain emotional displays, and act
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accordingly. Individuals who are self-aware comprehend the role they must represent, a
role that is assigned by the community in which they interact. The self-awareness allows
individuals to put priority to the different problems so that less important problems are
separated and set aside while the most urgent problems are addressed (Abraham, 1999;
George, 2000). This can be especially useful when working in teams. People who have
a high level of self-awareness are easy to work together and solve problems more easily.
The most important problems are easier to perceive and solve. Minor conflicts are easily
swept aside by emotionally intelligent individuals in order to take precedence of the
project issues.
• Self-regulation. It is the ability to control your own emotions in healthy ways. This
capacity helps to the person to be able to take initiative and also to adapt to changing
situations. People who lack this ability has to constantly struggle with the unpleasant
tensions but, people who have this capacity recover much more quickly from setbacks
and disappointments of life (Goleman, 1996, p80).
• Internal Motivation. Emotional tendencies that guide or facilitate reaching goals. It is
the ability to perform actions by oneself without the need to be driven by other factors to
keep the creative mind and find solutions. According to Goleman (1996), people who
have this skill tend to be more productive and effective in all companies. It is the ability
to self-induce emotions and positive moods, as confidence, enthusiasm and optimism.
• Empathy. The capacity to understand the emotional reactions of other people. This is
only possible when one has achieved self-awareness. This is because people cannot
understand others until they understand themselves. It is about 'Awareness of others'
feelings, needs, and concerns" (Goleman, 1996).
• Social skills. It is the ability to develop and maintain good relationships, communicate
clearly and effectively, be able to inspire and influence others, capacity to work well in a
team, and manage conflict. According to Goleman´s model this ability is about Adeptness
at inducing desirable responses in others". Social skills consists of four different skills:
leadership, the ability to establish relationships and maintain friendships, the ability to
resolve conflicts and the ability for social analysis. Therefore, this interpersonal
intelligence is the ability to understand others (Goleman, 1996, p72).
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Figure 1: Mixed model by Goleman
SOURCE: The Emotionally Intelligence Workplace. Cary Cherniss y Daniel Goleman, 2001
3.2 ABILITY MODEL
Emotions may interact with thinking and allow people to make better decisions
(Lyubomirsky et al. 2005). The ability model was developed and studied by Salovey and
Mayer (1997) and their conception of EI strives to define EI within the confines of the
standard criteria for a new intelligence. They defined EI as "the capacity to reason about
emotions, and of emotions, to enhance thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately
perceive emotions, to access and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to
understand emotions and emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so
as to promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Salovey, et, al.,2004).
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Figure 2: Salovey and Mayer model
Source: [Link]
The ability model, take emotions into account as practical sources of information that
help one to make sense of and navigate the social environment (Mayer and Salovey,
1997). The model suggest that individuals differ in their ability to process information of
an emotional nature and in their ability to relate emotional processing to a wider
cognition. This ability is seen to manifest itself in certain adaptive behaviors. The model
claims that EI includes four types of abilities:
The first one is the ability of Perceive emotions. This is the ability to detect and interpret
emotions in faces, pictures, voices, and cultural artefacts—including the ability to identify
one's own emotions. The ability to perceive emotions represents a basic aspect of
emotional intelligence as it makes all other processing of emotional information possible.
The second one is, the capacity of Using emotions, which is the ability to harness
emotions to facilitate various cognitive activities like thinking and problem solving. Person
who is emotionally intelligent is able to capitalize fully upon his or her changing moods
in order to best fit the task at hand.
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The third one is related to Understanding emotions. It is the ability to comprehend
emotional language and differentiate complicated relationships among emotions. For
example, understanding emotions encompasses the ability to be sensitive to small
variations between emotions, and the ability to acknowledge and describe how emotions
evolve over time.
The last one is the ability to manage emotions. Managing emotions means to have the
ability to regulate emotions in both ourselves and in others in order to be able to harness
them, even negative ones and manage them to achieve intended goals.
In a research made by Bradberry (2003), the ability EI model has been criticized for
lacking face and predictive validity in the workplace. However, in terms of construct
validity, ability EI tests have great advantage over self-report scales of EI because they
make a comparison between individual maximal performance and standard performance
scales and do not rely on individuals' approbation of descriptive statements about
themselves (Brackett and Mayer, 2003).
3.3 TRAIL MODEL
Petrides (2007) suggest a conceptual distinction between the ability based model and a
trait based model of EI. In his book called "The location of trait emotional intelligence in
personality factor space” the author say that, Trait EI is "a constellation of emotional self-
perceptions located at the lower levels of personality." Therefore, trait EI refers to an
individual's self-perceptions of their emotional abilities. This definition of EI include
behavioral dispositions and self-perceived abilities. It is measured by self-report, as
opposed to the ability based model. The ability based model refers to actual abilities,
which have proven highly resistant to scientific measurement. Trait EI should be
investigated within a personality framework (Petrides and Furnham, 2001).
Acording to Petrides and Furnham (2001), in his book "On the dimensional structure of
emotional intelligence", thay consider that the trait EI model is general and subsumes
the Goleman model discussed above. The conceptualization of EI as a personality trait
leads to a construct that lies outside the taxonomy of human cognitive ability. This is a
significant distinction in as much as it bears directly on the operationalization of the
construct and the theories and suppositions that are formulated about it.
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4. IMPORTANCE OF EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Emotional Intelligence can be defined as an ability to manage emotions. Therefore, EI
can be worked on and improved. EI is important not only in the company but in the lives
of people, because the relationships between people are better handled. For example,
when there is a problem that causes a feeling of anger, if the person has a high level of
emotional intelligence, it would be able to identify these emotions, understand, analyze
and manage them in a way that does not affect others. “Various facets and components
of EI have been claimed to contribute to success and productivity in the workplace. EI is
claimed to predict occupational success because it influences one’s ability to succeed in
coping with environmental demands and pressures” (Bar-On, 1997). It has been found
that workers who have a high level of emotional intelligence are also declared to be adept
at designing projects that involve infusing products with feelings and aesthetics (Mayer
& Salovey, 1997). On the other hand, it has been observed that managers with high
Emotional Intelligence, show superior performance both in terms of contextual
performance (teamwork and cohesiveness) and task performance (quality of job
completed) (Carmeli, 2003). In this case, people with high level of EI have a high
performance at work, being able to work in team and the quality of job, generally
speaking is high. According to McClelland (1973) academic knowledge and intelligent
quotient (IQ) are not enough for good job performance. Gardner (1983) explain that
Comprehension and knowledge is not enough. Success in work and life does not depend
only of IQ. Social or interpersonal intelligence is differentiation of success in certain
professions. This means that a person with a high level of academic knowledge or a high
IQ, would not necessarily be able to handle your emotions well so that it can adequately
address any situation that may arise within the company. People with high IQ are not
always able to handle stressful situations or teamwork if not possess qualities and skills
emotional intelligence. To be successful and have a high performance in the company
is necessary to have not only intellectual but also emotional intelligence.
Other observations and studies made by Lopes, Salovey and Straus (2003), show that
analysts and clerical staff of the finance department with a higher level of Emotional
Intelligence on the Mayer, Salovey, and Caruso EI test (MSCEIT) are able to obtain
better performance bonus and achieve greater ranks than those scoring lower on the
test. Emotional Intelligence increase the possibility of the use of constructive conflict with
notable correlations between collaboration and awareness of own emotions, control of
own emotions, discussion of own emotions, recognition of own emotions, and
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management of others’ emotions (Jordan and Troth 2002). Thus, it is quite compelling
the evidence supporting the positive role of EI.
The ability to deal with our emotions and emotions of others in the best way, affects
different aspects as the performance at work, helping you to lead and motivate others or
navigate and manage the social complexities of the workplace. On the other hand, EI
also influence on the physical and mental health. The first step to improving EI is to learn
how to relieve stress. This is an important step because if people are not able to manage
their emotions, they are not going to be able to manage stress. High level of stress can
produce problems with health such as blood pressure, suppress the immune system,
increase the risk of heart attack, etc. In addition, a person capable of controlling stress
can prevent depression and anxiety. Being able to control emotions can avoid many
mental problems. Goleman (2001) found that the emotionally competent individual
encounters significantly less perceived stress than the emotionally incompetent. EI also
affects relationships in the way that when person is able to understand emotions and
how to control them, it will be easy to express how you feel and understand how others
are feeling. This is important because allows people to communicate more effectively
and build stronger relationships, both at work personal life.
Goleman (1995, 1998) explains in his book that the emotional brain learns differently the
thinking brain. Dozens of experts in nearly 500 companies emphasize the crucial role of
EI in the best performance of any work "intelligence quotient (IQ) and technical skills are
important, but EI is the sine qua non of leadership". A supervisor can be very smart and
have the necessary skills to perform the jobs such as studies and knowledge but stress
that is present in the workplace, can cause emotional reactions. Therefore, a high level
of EI can help the leader to confront and handle these reactions in the best way.
According to Mayer and Salovey, (1990) the most effective leaders have in common one
crucial way that they all have a high degree of emotional intelligence. Intelligence
quotient and technical skills are also important, but they are the entry-level requirements
for executive positions. Without EI, a person can have the best training in the world, an
incisive, analytical mind, and an endless supply of smart ideas, but he still won’t make a
great leader. Another interesting data is that 90% of the difference between real leaders
and managers is average EI. This has been proven in competency models of 188
organizations (Goleman, 1998). In addition, resent studies show that, managers who
can’t handle their emotions like anger, reduce employee’s willingness to go above and
beyond in their work and increase employee turnover (Koning and Kleef, 2015).
According to a recent research made by the authors, leader’s expression of happiness
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can bring out positive emotions in followers that enhance their work performance and
increase their liking for the leader. Conversely, a leader’s expression of anger could
either enhance performance in the case that followers think that the leader is not pleased
about their work, or reduce performance if it brings out negative emotions.
According to Welch (2003), EI is an essential factor. He said that EI enables teams to
increase their performance. Moreover, in his research he found that the most effective
teams are the EI ones and that everyone and every team can improve and obtain a
higher levels of EI.
In addition, Turner (2004), say that EI is the softer component of the total intelligence
and it is present both in professional life and personal life of people. The traditional IQ is
related to the ability to learn, reason and understand. The author argues that IQ
contributes only 20% to the success of people while the ability to understand and interact
with people contributes 80%. In this case, the EQ is critical to the effectiveness of
leadership.
EI has a positive impact on organizational incomes. For example, a study made by
Goleman (1998) in 200 companies obtained results that indicate that 1/3 of productivity
is explained by technical skills, and 2/3 EI skills. In the case of executive positions, 4/5
of the results are explained by this kind of skills. Goleman (1998) states that a company
income grew by 2% for each 1% improvement in the emotional environment. Another
study found that 34% higher profit growth in organizations with high-EI managers
(University of Maryland).
On the other hand, the main cause of failure of executives is the difficulty in managing
change, do not work well together and poor interpersonal relationships (Center for
Creative Leadership). Competencies and skills of EI strengthen the capacity of the
company for its own development, its members and the community. According to the
information provided above, Emotional Intelligence, among other benefits, it helps
people to work better together and improves interpersonal relationships.
Emotional intelligence has been linked to the leadership at work (Caruso, Mayer and
Salovey, 2005); the capacity for empathy is related to the level of moral development
(Gozálvez, 2000), and this has also been linked with the
leadership (Daft, 2006).
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EI have numerous benefits. Emotional intelligence is positively correlated with better
social relations during work performance and in negotiations. EI is also positively
correlated with higher life satisfaction, self-esteem and lower levels of insecurity or
depression and it is negatively correlated with poor health choices and behavior. Having
high levels of EI can give to all people a real advantage in today’s competitive working
environment. It is all about the ability to recognize and understand the personal emotions
and personal skill at managing and dealing with other people’s emotional states. Put
simply, it is the ability to problem solve with or without emotion.
5. LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
There are numerous definitions of leadership, however these definitions have always
been debatable. Most scholars agree that the concept of leadership does not ascribe to
one specific definition. However, one of the definitions of leadership is provided by Burns
(1978) in his landmark publication, leadership: “Leaders inducing followers to act for
certain goals that represent the values and the motivations – the wants and needs, the
aspirations and expectations – of both leaders and followers”. A leader is a person who
is able to influence others. It is a reference person within a group. He/she is able to
transmit, motivate and lead the team forward (Antonakis, Cianciolo and Sternberg,
2004). Lord and Maher (1991) argue that leadership is fundamentally a process result of
a social perception, being the essence of it being perceived as a leader for others. The
leader also is a person who inspires confidence and contribution each person getting
their best. Normally, the leader pursues both the good of the company, as the particular
good of each of its members and gets everyone to feels identified with the project and
ensures that everyone feels part of the objectives of the company. Moreover there is
some consensus assume that leadership is needed to guide organizations and human
resources to strategic objectives (Zaccaro, 2001). Thus, people who are leaders, get a
motivated team to achieve the goals.
There are certain traits and characteristics that differentiate people who are considered
leaders of those who do not (Bass, 1990). This approach is based on different theories
of personality aimed at identifying individual differences between people. Some of the
personal attributes that characterize the leaders are: high levels of energy, intelligence,
intuition, foresight and persuasion. According Yukl (1992) this approach allows to say
what kind of person is right for leadership positions but does not indicate whether the
leader will be successful or not. However, there are some characteristics that seem to
17
be related to propose of effective leadership. These characteristics are a high energy
levels, stress tolerance, integrity, emotional maturity or emotional intelligence and self-
confidence (Bass, 1990; Kirkpatrick & Locke, 1991; Yukl, 1992). The first two
characteristics (high energy levels and stress tolerance) possible to meet the urgent
demands with which they often face those in positions of leadership. The first two
characteristics (high energy levels and stress tolerance) possible to meet the urgent
demands with which they often face those in positions of leadership. On the other hand,
Integrity and emotional maturity enabled the leader to maintain cooperative relations with
subordinates, superiors and all people in general. Finally self-confidence makes the
leader can achieve objectives more effectively and difficult to carry out a successful
influence over his followers.
In a research made by Bardzill and Slaski (2003), they found that organizational leaders
must recognize the importance of Emotional Intelligence behavior and reward it actively.
A positive strengthening of an Emotional Intelligence environment make certain the
development of a service in the organization. This is orientated to the climate. Emotional
elements are in the dynamics of many aspects of modern organizations. In this case, the
role of EI is important and should be considered when designing organizational policies,
processes and procedures.
5.1 TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL
INTELLIGENCE
Transformational leadership is a style of leadership where a leader works with
subordinates to identify needed change. This type of leader is able to creating a vision
to guide the change through inspiration, and implement the change in tandem with
involved members of a team.
Bass (1985) describes the type of transformational leadership from the effects that the
leader have over his followers. Transformational leaders cause changes in their followers
from them aware about the importance and value that are of the results obtained after
performing the assigned tasks. In addition, the leader encourages followers to transcend
their personal interests under the objectives of the organization. This builds trust, respect
and loyalty from followers and also motivation to achieve more than what was originally
expected.
18
Figure 3: Additive effect of transformational leadership
Source: Adapted from “The implications of Transactional and Transformational Leadership for
Individual, Team, and Organizational Development”, by B. M. Bass and B. J. Avolio, 1990a.
Research in Organizational Change and Development, 4, 231-272
Transformational leadership try to improve the motivation, morality, and job-performance
of followers through different mechanisms. These mechanism include connecting the
follower's sense of identity to a project and to the collective identity of the organization.
This type of leader also mean to be a role model for followers in order to inspire them
and to raise their interest in the project. Other mechanism used by transformational
leadership is to challenge followers to take greater ownership for their work, and
understanding the strengths and weaknesses of followers, allowing the leader to line up
followers with tasks that improve their performance (Bass and Avolio, 1990).
Burns (1978) built his theory about transformational leadership. Mainly it has been
developed by Bass (1990). This model is the most researched and the most studied by
Avolio (1999) and Antonakis (2004). This theory understands leadership as an influence
process in which leaders influence their followers.
The concept of transformational leadership is the most complete component of the theory
of leadership. This theory tend to view leadership as a shared by several leaders from
different levels of the same organization, however the charismatic leadership approach
19
tends to focus on the individual personality of certain leaders process. A transformational
leader constantly seeks to change personal values among the followers in the way that
they can go beyond their self-interest for the good of the company. (Bass, 1985).
According to Bass (1985) there are 4 components to transformational leadership,
sometimes referred to as the 4 I's. This components are idealized influence (II),
Inspirational Motivation (IM), Individualized Consideration (IC) and Intellectual
Stimulation (IS). This type of leaders are described as people who hold positive
expectations for followers making them believe they can do things in the best way. The
extent to which a leader is transformational, is measured first, in terms of his influence
on the followers. As its name implies, transformational leadership is a process that
changes and transforms people. Various studies have found a relationship between
transformational leadership and the efficacy of organizations (Avolio, 1999; Avolio, Bass,
& Jung, 1995; Dumdum, Lowe, & Avolio, 2002).
Some of the features of transformational leadership described by Bass (1985) are for
example the charisma. Charisma is the possession of highly-developed emotional and
social communication skills. People who have charisma, are a brilliant and effective
communicators who communicate emotions very well, especially positive emotions
(Riggio, 2011). Analyzing the components of personal charisma, according to Riggio
(2011) there are three types of emotional skills and three social components. The first
emotional skill is the ability to Emotional Expressiveness. This means to be able to
accurately and spontaneously convey emotional messages through nonverbal channels.
Actually, it is expressiveness that is the most visible aspect of charisma. The second skill
is the ability of emotional sensitivity. This is the ability to read and precisely "decipher"
others' emotions and read nonverbal cues. This is where the charismatic person arise
"in tune" and "empathetic" with others. The last emotional ability is the emotional control
which is the capacity to regulate and control your emotional communication and
expressions and also be able to hide felt emotions, or mask them with a different
emotional. According to the author, Charismatic people are good emotional actors. The
three social components are principally, Social Expressiveness, social sensitivity which
means to be able to read the characteristics or "demands" of the social situation in order
to behave appropriately, and social control. This last one means to have self-confidence
in social situations.
Taking into account this characteristic of transformational leadership, there is a
relationship between emotional intelligence and charismatic person because there is an
emotional and social skills in common with emotionally intelligent people.
20
Leaders behave in such a way that they are taken as models
by his followers, they want to imitate them. They are admired, respected and trusted
them. They demonstrate high levels of ethical and moral behavior. Other characteristic
is the inspiration, leaders motivate and inspire their followers, encouraging the spirit
group and generate future expectations.
Intellectual stimulation is another characteristic of transformational leadership.
Leaders encourage their followers to be innovative and creative from generating new
questions and formulating old problems in new terms ideas. Individual errors or ideas
that differ from those of the leader cannot criticize.
Other attribute to transformational leadership is the individualized consideration. Leaders
pay special attention to the individual needs of personal development of each of the
followers; the particular differences are recognized; monitoring is personalized but is not
seen as a control, leaders play a guiding role.
Bass (1998) considers transformational leaders allow their followers
successfully face conflict or stress, providing safety and tolerance
when there is uncertainty. Taking into account information on emotional intelligence, we
can deduce that this is related to transformational leadership. Therefore, to enable the
person to help his followers to cope with stress or have tolerance for uncertainty, the
leader must be emotionally intelligent and have the ability to do the same and influence
others.
Studies have analyzed the IE (Barling, Slater and Kelloway, 2000) find that there is a
relationship between EI and effective leadership. Bass and Avolio (1990) argue that
transformational leadership, provides organizational change, which is, according to
these researchers, the emotional intelligence of leader is closely linked to the use of
transformational behavior. Butler and Chinowsky (2006) found that EI is related to
transformational leadership, like the capacity for empathy. Some researchers (eg, Cann,
2004) emphasize that EI is an element of great importance for transformational
leadership, since the focus of leadership is the management of complex dynamic person
to them and social, including the role of emotions in the organization. Other research (eg
Sosik and Megerian, 1999) conclude that emotional intelligence is a strong requirement
for effective leadership.
Analyzing the relationship between transformational leadership and emotional
intelligence, it is established that elements of this type of intelligent such as empathy,
self-awareness and motivation have direct positive relation with transformational
21
leadership feature such as individual influence, individualized consideration and
inspirational motivation. It is inferred that leader who is emotionally intelligent will be able
to influence his followers with his individual personality and motivate them very well. Also
with enhanced EI competency the empathy will be more pronounced, and he can give
individualized consideration to his followers. The model is represented in the following
diagram (Kumar, 2014).
TABLE 4: Establishing Linkages between Emotional Intelligence and Transformational
Leadership
Source: Kumar, Sanjay. "Establishing Linkages between Emotional Intelligence and
Transformational Leadership". Ind Psychiatry J 23.1 (2014)
5.2 TRANSACTIONAL LEADERSHIP AND EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE
Burns (1978) also makes a distinction between transformational leadership and
transactional leadership. Burns (1978) described transactional leaders as leaders that
give a special importance to the work standards, assignments, and task-oriented goals.
In comparison to transformational leadership, transactional leadership occurring when
the leader recompense or disciplines the follower with regards to performance (Bass and
Avolio, 1994). Taking into account the hierarchy of needs of Maslow, transactional
leadership works at the basic levels of need satisfaction, where transactional leaders
focus on the lower levels of the hierarchy.
Transactional leadership makes followers being motivated by personal interests rather
than being influenced by their leaders to transcend their own needs towards the benefit
of the organization, typical of transformational leadership (Hargis, Wyatt and Piotrowski
2011). Transactional leadership usually occurs when leaders reward or, negatively
22
intervenes (sanction) taking into account performance of the followers. According to Bass
and Avolio (1994), usually transactional leadership consist of two sub dimensions:
Contingent reward: refers to an interaction between leader and follower guided by
reciprocal exchanges. The leader identifies the needs of followers and makes a
compromise between the needs of the group and of each person. The reward or the
sanctions are given in terms of meeting the objectives.
Management by exception: the leader intervenes only when necessary to make
corrections or changes in the behavior of followers. In general interventions are negative
and critical so that the objectives are not diverted from its course.
Transformational leaders look towards changing the future to inspire followers and
accomplish goals, whereas transactional leaders seek to maintain the status quo, not
aiming for progress (Judge and Piccolo 2004).
The relationship between transactional leadership and EI is that according to Weisinger
(2000), there is a high interrelation between Transactional leadership and Self-
Motivation. This relationship can be explained in the way that the author associates self-
motivation with productivity. Weisinger (2000) affirm that when a person is self-
motivated, then he/she will be able to begin a task or assignment, and move ahead to
the full completion, all the while dealing with any setbacks that may appear. Therefore,
Self-Motivation with Self- Awareness and less degree Emotional Mentoring, concentrate
attention on the process of task completion, rather than the other, which makes their
stronger association with transactional rather than transformational leadership appear
logical in hindsight (Weisinger, 2000).
23
6. DISCUSSION
By means of researches as well as scholarly reviews, this theoretical review has provided
information about the importance of emotional intelligent in organizations and the positive
impact that it have on leaders. In addition, it has be found that some leaders have
characteristics of EI.
EI is a set of abilities and skills that allow people to process information about emotions
efficiently and precisely. According to the models of EI, the emotionally intelligent
individual has abilities related to perceiving, using, understanding, and managing
emotional information.
Transformational leadership is the most contemporary and effective way of management
and is shown to be greatly dependent to the levels of El (Atwater and Yammarino, 1993).
George (2000), propose that leaders high in El are able to recognize, appraise, predict
and manage emotions. In this way leaders are able to empower work and motivate team
members. The author also argue that "EI of the team leader is important to the effective
functioning of the team. The emotionally intelligent team leader also provides a
transformational influence over the group."
Transformational Leadership behaviors have been related to leadership effectiveness
and business unit outcomes (Lowe et al., 1996; Waldman et al., 1987). More specifically,
Bass (1997), suggest that, transformational leaders produce better financial performance
than transactional leaders. In addition, Keller (1995) found that there are certain aspects
of transformational leadership that make group performance greater. Furthermore, Lowe
et al. (1996) found that in most of the studies, transformational leadership behaviors as
charisma, individualized consideration and intellectual stimulation are closely related to
leadership effectiveness. Another interesting fact is that the success of leaders depends
on two factors. On the one hand, the success of leaders depends on the interaction that
has the leader with group members or leadership style. On the other hand, it depends
on the degree of control that the leader have over certain situations. Additionally, there
are three variables that help achieve control in different situations: the leader's
relationship with the group, the structure of tasks and power of the leader (Contingency
Theory of Fiedler and Chemers, 1984). This aspects of transformational leadership that
make the group performance greater as the good interaction with the group members or
the degree of control of leaders in some situations is also related to EI. Social skills of EI
is one of this characteristics that help people to have a good relationship with others. El
is "essential to effective team interaction and productivity" (Prati, et. al., 1998). Also skills
24
as self-awareness and self-regulation which means to have control of the emotions, are
helpful to face different type of situations in the best way.
Taking in to account all the information, this characteristics as charisma, individual
stimulations and other as empathy that is a characteristic of transformational leadership,
also coincides with EI. The information analyzed in this review also found that people
with high EI is more effective, and this may be the reason of the transformational
leadership effectiveness because this type of leader possess EI skills. In addition,
emotionally intelligent leaders are capable of improving their empathetic capabilities and
also influence, motivate, inspire, encourage and persuade their followers which
ultimately can help them climb the leadership ladder themselves (George, 2000).
Transactional leaders are those who are task-motivated. So, they use to begin a task
and move ahead to the full completion. To do so, this type of leaders need the self-
motivation. In this case they also have EI skills as self-motivation and self-awareness
which explain the relationship between transactional leadership and EI. The fact that
such leaders have less emotional intelligence traits than transformational leaders, could
explain why some authors argue that in many situations, transformational leaders are
more effective and have better performance than transactional leaders.
Fiedler and Chemers (1984) suggest that transactional leadership perform best in
situations of high control or low control, in contrast, relationship-motivated leader
(transformational) leaders perform best in situations of moderate control. But, according
to the literature reviewed, there is not found sufficient evidence, what type of leadership
is better than another because it depends on the situation. Effective leadership required
to match the situation to particular leadership style. But what is clear is that leaders with
high level of EI are more effective. So, it is true that EI is beneficial and helps leaders to
face different situations both stress and uncertainty. It is shown that leaders who have a
high level of EI have better relationships and better team work among other benefits.
25
7. RECOMMENDATIONS
EI can develop two types of factors: personal factors and social factors. Personal factors
are related to the dimensions of emotional self-awareness, self-regulation and
motivation. On the other hand, social factors develop empathy, the ability to understand
others and social skills that focus on the influence, good communication, leadership,
teamwork skills among others. Emotions should be considered as a source of information
(Goleman, 2000).
It's good to control what you think in order to understand the emotions, because emotion
and thought provoke a feeling.
According to the theoretical review, EI can be developed by using the elements of the
mixed model proposed by Goleman (1995).
EI can be developed by Self-awareness, one of the elements of the elements of the
mixed model. Self-awareness means to be able to control your own emotions in healthy
ways. Being able to connect with the personal emotions, is a key element to
understanding how they influences thoughts and actions. Mindfulness practice, builds
self-awareness and also reduces stress. This type of practice consist to focusing the
attention on the present moment without judging the situation. Being able to appreciate
the moment, may help to shift the preoccupation, and brings a larger perspective on life.
Developing emotional awareness can help to manage stress. Emotional awareness can
be developed by learning the mindfulness meditation.
Emotional Intelligence can be developed using self-management. When people are
overwhelmed by stress, they sometimes can lose control of their emotions. Being able
to manage emotions could be helpful to make a certain and constructive decisions.
Staying emotionally present and being able to manage stress, people can learn to
receive all type of information without letting override the thoughts and self-control. In
this way people will be able to make better choices that allow the control of impulsive
feelings and behaviors, manage emotions in healthy ways, take initiative and adapt to
changing circumstances than can be present not only at work but also in daily life.
EI also can be developed by using social awareness. Social awareness is the ability that
allow people to understand the nonverbal cues others constantly send. In order to be
able to understand emotions of others, you will have to know how to suspend your
thoughts. This ability will allow people to experience nonverbal cues that change from
one moment to the next. It is important to try to pay attention what you feel and what you
26
experience emotionally as you listen to others. Everything that you experience is bringing
information about yourself.
Using relationship management also can be helpful to developed EI. Working well with
others is important especially in organizations. This is a process that begins with
emotional awareness and the ability to recognize, admit and understand what other
people are feeling or experiencing.
Some authors recommend that the formation of EI can best be achieved "At work"
(Clarke, 2004; Van der Sluiss, Williams, and Hoeksema, 2002). In the workplace, people
could be able to develop skills that occur through leadership or participation in projects,
professional task or working in teams (Baron et al., 1999; Blumenfield, Soloway, Marx,
Krajcik, y Palincsar, 1991; Evered y Selman, 2001; Vince, 2004).
Today we can say that from the initial charges to the highest charges there is a need to
have EI bases in order to thrive within a company.
“Educating the mind without educating the heart is no education at all.”
Aristotle
27
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