3 Design Process

This chapter provides a detailed description of the algorithms used by the programs in the
design/check of structures in accordance with “Cold-Formed Steel Design Manual 2016.” The
implementation covers load combinations from Eurocode 1990:2002 [EN 1990:2002], which are
described in the section “Design Loading Combinations” in this chapter.

3.1 Notations
The various notations used in this chapter are described herein.

𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective cross-sectional area, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 Gross cross-sectional area, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 Net area of the cross-section, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑠𝑠 Area of the stiffener, mm2

𝐴𝐴𝑤𝑤 Area of the web, mm2

𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective width of element, mm

𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒1 , 𝑏𝑏𝑒𝑒2 Effective width of element, mm

𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 Appropriate width of the element, mm

𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , 𝐶𝐶3 Bending coefficient dependent on moment gradient used in

calculation of lateral-torsional buckling moment

𝐷𝐷𝑜𝑜 Outside diameter of pipes, mm

𝐷𝐷𝑖𝑖 Inside diameter of pipes, mm

𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁,𝑦𝑦 , 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁,𝑧𝑧 Shift of the centroid of the effective area relative to the center
of gravity of the gross cross-section on y-y and z-z axis,
respectively

Notations 11
Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝐸𝐸 Modulus of elasticity, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 Shear strength considering buckling, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 Ultimate strength, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Base yield strength, N/mm2

𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Average yield strength, N/mm2

𝐺𝐺 Shear modulus, N/mm2

𝑖𝑖𝑦𝑦 , 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧 Radius of gyration of full unreduced cross-section, mm

𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜 Polar radius of gyration of cross-section about shear center,

mm

𝐼𝐼𝑠𝑠 Effective moment of inertia of the stiffener, mm4

𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 or 𝐼𝐼22 Major moment of inertia, mm4

𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 or 𝐼𝐼33 Minor moment of inertia, mm4

𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 Torsion constant of the gross cross-section, mm6

𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 Warping constant of cross-section, mm6

𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Interaction factor

𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 Interaction factor

𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 Interaction factor

𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 Interaction factor

𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 , 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 Effective length factor for buckling about major and minor
axes, respectively

𝐾𝐾𝑡𝑡 Effective length K-factor for lateral-torsional buckling

𝐾𝐾 Spring stiffness of stiffener for distortional buckling, N/mm2

𝑘𝑘𝜎𝜎 Buckling factor of plate element

𝑘𝑘𝑑𝑑 Plate buckling coefficient for distortional buckling

𝑘𝑘𝑣𝑣 Shear buckling coefficient

𝐿𝐿𝑡𝑡 Lateral-torsional unbraced length of member, mm

Notations 12
Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝐿𝐿𝑥𝑥 , 𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦 Unbraced length of member for buckling about major and
minor axes, respectively, mm

𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal flexural strength, N-mm

𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal flexural strength due to distortional buckling, N-mm

𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Design bending moment about y-y and z-z axis, respectively,
N-mm

Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 Moment due to the shift of the centroidal y-y and z-z axis,
respectively

𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Characteristic value of resistance to bending moment about y-

y and z-z axis, respectively, N-mm

𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Plastic moment capacity of the cross-section consisting of the

effective area of flanges only, N-mm

𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Plastic moment capacity of the cross-section consisting of the

effective area of flanges and fully effective area of the web, N-
mm

𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal member (lateral-torsional0 buckling compressive

strength, N

𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal section (local and distortional) buckling compressive

strength, N

𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 , 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 Elastic critical force for buckling about major y-y and minor z-
z axis, respectively

𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 , 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 Elastic critical force for torsional and torsional-flexural

buckling, respectively

𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Design normal force, N

𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Characteristic value of resistance to compression

𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal tensile strength, N

𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑤 Slant height of the web

𝑡𝑡 Thickness of the element of the section, mm

𝑡𝑡𝑟𝑟 Reduced thickness for distortional buckling, mm

𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 Nominal shear strength, N

𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Effective section modulus of the effective cross-section, mm3

Notations 13
Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 Elastic section modulus of the gross cross-section, mm3

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 Plastic section modulus of the gross cross-section, mm3

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑓𝑓 the plastic section modulus of the section under bending

consisting of the effective area of the flanges only, mm3

𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑤𝑤𝑓𝑓 the plastic section modulus of the section under bending

consisting of the effective area of the flanges and the fully
effective area of the web, mm3

𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜 Distance from centroid to shear center in major y-axis

direction, mm

𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜 Distance from centroid to shear center in minor z-axis

direction, mm

𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 Partial factor for resistance of the cross-section

𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 Partial factor for resistance of the member to instability

𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 Partial factor for resistance of the cross-section in tension to

fracture

𝜆𝜆̅ Nondimensional slenderness

𝜆𝜆̅𝑑𝑑 Nondimensional slenderness for distortional buckling

𝜆𝜆̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Nondimensional slenderness for lateral-torsional buckling

𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝 Plate slenderness of the equivalent plate

𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝,𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 Reduced plate slenderness of the equivalent plate

𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 Relative web slenderness factor of shear buckling

𝜇𝜇 Poisson’s ratio of steel = 0.30

𝛼𝛼 Imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate buckling

curve according to the type of cross-section

α𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate curve for

lateral-torsional buckling

Φ Value to determine the reduction factor 𝜒𝜒

Φ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Value to determine the reduction factor 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

𝜒𝜒 Reduction factor for buckling

𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 Reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling

Notations 14
Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝜒𝜒𝑑𝑑 Reduction factor for distortional buckling

𝜌𝜌 Reduction factor in calculation of effective width of element

𝜎𝜎1 , 𝜎𝜎1 Stress at the opposite ends of the element computed on basis
of effective design width, N/mm2

𝜓𝜓 Stress ratio used to determine the effective width

3.2 Design Loading Combinations

The design load combinations are combinations of load cases for which the structure is designed
and checked. A default set of automated load combinations is available in the software, as
described in this section. These default combinations can be modified or deleted. In addition,
manually defined combinations can be added should the default combinations not cover all
conditions required for the structure of interest.

The default load combinations considered by the software for the EC3-3 are defined in the
following sections and handle dead (D), live (L), wind (W), and earthquake (E) loads. For other
load types, combinations should be manually generated.

The following two sections describe the automated load combinations generated by the software
for ultimate strength and serviceability, in accordance with EC0.

3.2.1 Ultimate Strength Combinations

The load combinations are defined based on EC0 equation 6.10 or the less favorable EC0
equations 6.10a and 6.10b [NDP].
∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,𝑗𝑗 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝛾𝛾𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)
∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,𝑗𝑗 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝛾𝛾𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ𝑄𝑄,1 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝜉𝜉𝑗𝑗 𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,𝑗𝑗 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝛾𝛾𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,1 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

Load combinations including earthquake effects are generated based on:

∑𝑗𝑗≥1 𝐺𝐺𝑘𝑘,𝑗𝑗 + 𝑃𝑃 + 𝐴𝐴𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + ∑𝑖𝑖>1 Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 𝑄𝑄𝑘𝑘,𝑖𝑖 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

The following load combinations are considered if the option is set to generate the combinations
based on EC0 equation 6.10.
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10)

Design Loading Combinations 15

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 + Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

The following load combinations are considered if the option is set to generate the combinations
based on the maximum of EC0 equations 6.10a and 6.10b.
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝐿𝐿 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 Ψ0,1 𝑊𝑊 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10a)

𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝐿𝐿 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝑊𝑊 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

𝜉𝜉𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝐷𝐷 + 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,1 𝑊𝑊 ± 𝛾𝛾𝑄𝑄,𝑖𝑖 Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

𝐷𝐷 ± 1.0𝐸𝐸 + Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.12b)

The variable values and factors used in the load combinations are defined as:

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = 1.35 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))

𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺,𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 = 1.00 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
𝛾𝛾𝐺𝐺,1 = 1.5 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
0.7 (𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙, 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠)
Ψ0,𝑖𝑖 =� [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.1)
0.6 (𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙)
𝜉𝜉 = 0.85 [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.2(B))
Ψ2,𝑖𝑖 = 0.3 (assumed office/residential) [NDP] (EC0 Table A1.1)

3.2.2 Serviceability Combinations

The following characteristic load combinations are considered for the deflection checks:
𝐷𝐷 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)
𝐷𝐷 + 𝐿𝐿 (EC0 Eq. 6.10b)

Design Loading Combinations 16

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

3.3 Calculation of Nominal Strengths

In calculation of nominal strengths, all cross-sections are treated as thin-walled section and
classified as Class 4 slenderness. Additionally, the section properties such as neutral axis,
moment of inertia and section modulus are measured and calculated to the centerline of the
elements of the cross-section. The program performs several checks of width-to-thickness ratio
of each of the elements of the cross-section for the applicability limits of the design provisions
as described in Section 5.2 in the EC3-3 (Table 3-1). Warning messages are provided in the
design report as any of these limits are not satisfied. It is worth noting that as the width-to-
thickness ratios are not satisfied, the provisions and equations to calculate the nominal strengths
provided by EC3-3 are technically no longer valid and the user should use the limits established
by custom experimental testing.

The effects of rounded corners of the cross-section are also checked to determine whether they
can be ignored. As 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 5𝑡𝑡 and 𝑟𝑟 ≤ 0.1𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 where 𝑟𝑟 is the inside radius of the corner, 𝑡𝑡 is the
thickness, and 𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 is the flat width of the flange measured to the points of intersection of the
midlines of the elements, the effects of rounded corners are ignored, and the properties of the
cross-section are calculated assuming that the section consists of plane elements with sharp
corners. Otherwise, the section properties are determined using the formulations as described in
Part I in Vol. 1 of the AISI 2016 (AISI, 2016.)

The nominal strengths in compression, tension, bending, and shear are computed for cold-formed
steel members in accordance with the subsequent sections. The nominal compression strengths
for all shapes of sections are calculated based on their geometric (or principal) axes of buckling.
For C, Hat, I-Shape, T, Box, and Pipe sections, the principal axes coincide with their geometric
axes. For Z and Single Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint condition is examined to
determine the buckling axes and all computations are based on those.

The nominal flexural strengths for all shapes of sections are calculated based on their geometric
(or principal) axes of bending. For the C-Section, Hat, I-Shape, T, Box, and Pipe sections, the
principal axes coincide with their geometric axes. For Z section, nominal flexural strength is
calculated based on geometric axes. For Single Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint
condition is examined to determine the bending axes and all computations are based on those.

The nominal strengths in compression and flexure due to global buckling depend heavily on the
unbraced length about the axis of bending, and for lateral-torsional and distortional buckling.
These unbraced lengths can be specified as a fraction of the member length in the Overwrites.
By specifying a ratio for an unbraced length type, the number of brace points will be internally
determined, and the braced point locations will be arranged such that they are symmetric over
the center line of the member, and the unbraced length at the ends of the member will always be
less than or equal to the specified unbraced length 𝐿𝐿𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ≤ 𝐿𝐿 (Figure 3-1). By default, the
unbraced length ratios about major and minor axes of bending are determined by the analysis of
structures, and the unbraced length ratios for lateral-torsional buckling is taken as unity.

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 17

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

Figure 3-1: Braced point locations by Overwrites

The lateral-torsional bracing condition can also be specified by point and/or uniform bracing in
the Lateral Bracing option under the Design menu. However, the bracing condition assigned by
this option will be overwritten by the user-specified unbraced length ratio for lateral-torsional
buckling in the Overwrites.

Both nominal compression and flexural strengths in consideration of the limit state of local and
distortional buckling are calculated using the Effective Width Method (Appendix B).

For all sections, the nominal shear strengths are calculated for directions aligned with the
geometric axes.

The calculations of the nominal strengths are not performed for General and Section
Designer sections.

Table 3-1 Width-to-thickness ratios for applicability of Effective Width Method

Element of cross-section Limiting value

𝑏𝑏
≤ 50
𝑡𝑡

𝑏𝑏
≤ 60
𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐
≤ 50
𝑡𝑡
𝑐𝑐
0.2 ≤ ≤ 0.6
𝑏𝑏

𝑏𝑏
≤ 500
𝑡𝑡

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 18

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

3.3.1 Nominal Tensile Strength

This section applies to the members subject to axial tension. The design tensile strength is taken
as the lower value obtained according to the limit states of yielding of gross section under tension
and tensile rupture in the net section.
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ≤ 𝐹𝐹𝑛𝑛,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC3-3 Eq. 6.1 & 8.4)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2
where
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 is the gross area of the cross-section
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 is the net area of the cross-section
𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 is the ultimate strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 is the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀2 is the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section in tension to fracture
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is the average yield strength and determined by:
𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑡𝑡 2 𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 +𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 + �𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑢 − 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 � ≤ (EC3-3 3.2.2 Eq. 3.1)
𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 2
𝑘𝑘 = 7 is the numerical coefficient for roll forming
𝑛𝑛 is the number of 90° bends in the cross-section. Fractions of 90° bends are
counted as fractions of 𝑛𝑛
𝑡𝑡 is the thickness of the section

3.3.2 Nominal Compressive Strength

The design compression strength is taken to be the least compression capacity of the members in
consideration of member buckling including flexural and torsional and flexural-torsional
buckling, and local and distortional buckling of the cross-section. The limit states of torsional
and flexural-torsional buckling are ignored for closed sections (Box and Pipe sections.) The
summary of limit states considered for each type of section is displayed in Table 3-2 below.

Table 3-2 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to Compression
Section Shape Limit States

With lips: FB, TFB, LDB

C
Without lips: FB, FTB, LB

With lips: FB, TFB, LDB

Hat
Without lips: FB, FTB, LB

With lips: FB, TFB, LDB

Z
Without lips: FB, FTB, LB

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 19

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

Table 3-2 Limit States Considered for the Sections Subjected to Compression

Box FB, LB

Pipe FB, LB

I-Wide Flange FB, TFB, LB

Tee FB, TFB, LB

With lips: FB, TFB, LDB

Angle
Without lips: FB, FTB, LB

FB = flexural buckling LB = Local buckling

TFB = torsional-flexural LDB = Local and distortional buckling
buckling

3.3.2.1 Member Buckling

The nominal member buckling compressive strength is the minimum value obtained according
to the limit states of flexural buckling and torsional-flexural buckling:
𝜒𝜒𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = (EC3-1 Eq. 6.48)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is the effective area of the cross-section calculated using the Effective Width
Method (Appendix B) and the uniform compressive stress equal to 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is the basic yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 is the partial factor for resistance of the member to instability
In above equation, 𝜒𝜒 is the reduction factor for the relevant buckling curve calculated as follows:
1
𝜒𝜒 = ≤ 1.0 (EC3-1 Eq. 6.49)
2 �
Φ+�Φ −𝜆𝜆
2

where
Φ = 0.5�1 + 𝛼𝛼�𝜆𝜆̅ − 0.2� + 𝜆𝜆2̅ �
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝜆𝜆̅ = �
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼 is an imperfection factor corresponding to the appropriate buckling curve as shown in Table
3-3. And the buckling curve is determined according to the type of cross-section as
illustrated in Table 3-4.
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the elastic critical force for the relevant buckling mode based on the gross cross-
sectional properties and calculated as described in subsequent sections.

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 20

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

Table 3-3 Imperfection factors for buckling curves

Buckling curve a0 a b c d
Imperfection factor 𝜶𝜶 0.13 0.21 0.34 0.49 0.76

Table 3-4 Buckling curve for various types of cross-sections

Section Shape Axis of buckling Buckling curve

With Lips: Any b

C
Without Lips: Any c

With Lips: Any b

Hat
Without Lips: Any c

With Lips: Any b

Z
Without Lips: Any c

Box Any c

Pipe Any c

Equal flanges:
y-y a
I-Wide Flange z-z b
Unequal flanges:
Any c

Tee Any c

With Lips: Any c

Angle
Without Lips: Any c

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 21

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

3.3.2.1.1 Flexural Buckling

For flexural buckling, the elastic critical force 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is determined by:
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 = 2 (AISI E2.1-1 & Eq. 2.3.2.1.1-1)
�𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦 �
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 = (𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 )2
(AISI E2.1-1 & Eq. 2.3.2.1.1-1)

For Z and Single-Angle sections, the program checks for buckling axes. As the frame member is
attached to deck with through-fasteners or fully restrained against lateral-torsional buckling, the
buckling axes are the geometric axes, and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is calculated with 𝐾𝐾, 𝐿𝐿, and 𝐼𝐼 based on the
geometric axes. Otherwise, the buckling axes are the principal axes and and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is calculated
with 𝐾𝐾, 𝐿𝐿, and 𝐼𝐼 based on the principal axes.

3.3.2.1.2 Torsional and Torsional-Flexural Buckling

For torsional and torsional-flexural buckling, the buckling curve used is the buckling curve about
the z-z axis from Table 3-4.

3.3.2.1.2.1 Box and Pipe Sections

The limit states of torsional and torsional-flexural buckling are not considered for members with
closed sections, such as Box and Pipe sections.

3.3.2.1.2.2 I-Shapes with Equal Flanges

1 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 = �𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 + � (EC3-3 6.2.3(5) Eq. 6.33a)
𝑖𝑖02 𝐿𝐿2𝑇𝑇

𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 (EC3-3 6.2.3(5) Eq. 6.34)

3.3.2.1.2.3 C-Section with or without Lips, Hat-Section with or without Lips

2 2 𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = �1 + − ��1 − � + 4 � 0� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇
� (EC3-3 6.2.3(7) Eq. 6.35)
2𝛽𝛽 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖0 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦

3.3.2.1.2.4 I-Shapes with Unequal Flanges, Tee Sections

2 2 𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 𝑧𝑧
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = �1 + − ��1 − � + 4 � 0� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇
� (EC3-3 6.2.3(7) Eq. 6.35)
2𝛽𝛽 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 𝑖𝑖0 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧

3.3.2.1.2.5 Z Sections
Z section is considered as point-symmetric section and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 is taken as the lesser of 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇
as calculated in Section 3.3.2.1.2.2 and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 as determined in Section 3.3.2.1.1 using minor
principal axis of the section.

3.3.2.1.2.6 Single Angle Sections with Equal Legs

For angle section with equal legs, a check for buckling axes is performed. As the frame
member is fully restrained against lateral-torsional buckling, the buckling axes are the
geometric axes, the section is considered non-symmetric, and 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is calculated as the lowest
root of the cubic equation:

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 22

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝑦𝑦 2
2
�𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 ��𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 � − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 �𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑧𝑧 � � 0 � −
𝑟𝑟0
𝑧𝑧 2
2
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 �𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 − 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 � � 0 � = 0
𝑟𝑟0
where y- and z-axes are the major and minor geometric axes, respectively.

Otherwise, the bending axes are principal, the section is singly-symmetric about the major
principal axis, and 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 is determined as follows:
2 2 𝑁𝑁
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇 𝑦𝑦
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇𝑇𝑇 = �1 + − ��1 − � + 4 � 0� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑇𝑇
� (EC3-3 Eq. 6.35)
2𝛽𝛽 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦 𝑖𝑖0 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝑦𝑦

where y-axis is the major principal.

In the preceding equations,

𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 is the warping constant of the gross cross-section, mm6
𝐼𝐼𝑡𝑡 is the torsion constant of the gross cross-section, mm6
𝑥𝑥0 , 𝑦𝑦0 are the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid
𝑖𝑖0 = �𝑖𝑖𝑦𝑦2 + 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧2 + 𝑦𝑦02 + 𝑧𝑧02 = polar radius of gyration about the shear center (EC3-3 Eq. 6.33b)
𝑦𝑦𝑜𝑜2 +𝑧𝑧𝑜𝑜2
𝛽𝛽 = 1 − (EC3-3 6.2.3(7))
𝑖𝑖𝑜𝑜2
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 , 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 are the moment of inertia about the major and minor directions, respectively
𝐾𝐾𝑦𝑦 , 𝐾𝐾𝑧𝑧 are effective length factors in the major and minor directions, respectively
𝐾𝐾𝑇𝑇 is the effective length factor for torsional buckling, and it is taken equal to KLTB
in this program; it can be overwritten
𝐿𝐿𝑦𝑦 , 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 are effective lengths in the major and minor directions, respectively, mm
𝐿𝐿 𝑇𝑇 is the effective length for torsional buckling and it is taken equal the unbraced
length for lateral-torsional buckling 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 . 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 can be overwritten.
𝑖𝑖𝑦𝑦 , 𝑖𝑖𝑧𝑧 are the radii of gyration about the major and minor directions, respectively

3.3.2.2 Local and Distortional Buckling

The nominal compressive strength of members in consideration of local and distortional
buckling, 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , is determined using the Effective Width Method as described in Appendix B:
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
⎧ 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔
⎪ 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = �
𝜆𝜆 𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 (EC3-3 Eq. 6.2 & 6.3)
⎨ 𝑛𝑛 𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 �𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 +4�𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 −𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 ��1−𝜆𝜆�𝑒𝑒0,𝑖𝑖�� 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
⎪∑𝑖𝑖=1 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
≤
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔
⎩
where
𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 is the effective area of the cross-section obtained using the Effective Width
Method by assuming a uniform compressive stress equal to 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝐴𝐴𝑖𝑖 is the area of element 𝑖𝑖 of the cross-section
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is the basic yield strength
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 is the average yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 is the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section
For plane elements, 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 = 𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝 and 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0,𝑖𝑖 = 0.673
For stiffened elements, 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒,𝑖𝑖 = 𝜆𝜆̅𝑑𝑑 and 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0,𝑖𝑖 = 0.65. Both 𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝 and 𝜆𝜆̅𝑑𝑑 are calculated as described in
Appendix B

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 23

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

3.3.3 Nominal Flexure Strength

This section applies to members subject to simple bending about one geometric or principal axis.
For the C, Hat, I-Shape, T, Box, and Pipe sections, the principal axes coincide with their
geometric axes. For Z section, the nominal flexural strength is calculated based on geometric
axes. For the Single Angle sections, the lateral-torsional restraint is examined to determine the
bending axes according to the EN 1993-1-3 and all computations are based on that.

The nominal bending strength is the minimum value obtained considering the limit states of
lateral-torsional buckling, and local and distortional buckling as appropriate for different
structural shapes.

For members with box or pipe section, lateral-torsional buckling is not considered.

3.3.3.1 Lateral-Torsional Buckling

The nominal flexural strength, 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , in consideration of lateral-torsional buckling is calculated
as follows:
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 (EC3-1 Eq. 6.55)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1
where
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 = effective section modulus of the effective cross-section subjected only to
bending moment with a maximum stress 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = the basic yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 = partial factor for resistance of members to instability
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = the reduction factor for lateral-torsional buckling and calculated as follows:
1
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = ≤ 1.0 (EC3-1 Eq. 6.49)
�2
Φ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 +�Φ2𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 −𝜆𝜆 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

where
Φ𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.5�1 + 𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 �𝜆𝜆̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 0.2� + 𝜆𝜆2̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 �
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝜆𝜆̅𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = �
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝛼𝛼𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 = 0.34 is an imperfection factor corresponding to the buckling curve b, which is used
for all cross-sections.
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the elastic critical moment based on the gross cross-sectional properties and calculated
as follows:
𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 𝐿𝐿2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐺𝐺𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 2 0.5
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐶𝐶1 ��� � + + �𝐶𝐶2 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 − 𝐶𝐶3 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 � � − �𝐶𝐶2 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 − 𝐶𝐶3 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 �� (EC3-1993 F.2)
𝐿𝐿2𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 𝜋𝜋2 𝐸𝐸𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧
where 𝐼𝐼𝑧𝑧 , 𝐼𝐼𝑤𝑤 , and 𝐼𝐼𝑇𝑇 are the minor axis moment of inertia, warping constant, and torsion constant,
respectively; 𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is the effective unbraced length for the lateral-torsional buckling mode and is
defined as:
𝐿𝐿𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

where 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is the effective length factor for the lateral-torsional buckling mode, and 𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is the
unbraced length for the lateral-torsional buckling mode. For more details on these two factors,
please refer to Sections 5.5 and 5.6 in Chapter 5 of this manual.

𝑘𝑘𝑤𝑤 refers to end warping. It is defaulted to 1.0 and can be modified to have value ranging between

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 24

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

0.5 and 1.0 in the Overwrite, and 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 and 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 are calculated as:
𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 = 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 − 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠
0.5
𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 = 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 − � 𝑧𝑧(𝑦𝑦 2 + 𝑧𝑧 2 )𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝐼𝐼𝑦𝑦 𝐴𝐴
where 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 is the coordinate of the point of load application defaulted to be the coordinate on top
of the section, and 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 is the coordinate of the shear center. Both 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 and 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 are measured with
respect to the coordinate of the centroid of the section along the minor principle axis and can be
overwritten in the Overwrites.

The value of 𝑧𝑧𝑗𝑗 is calculated using the formula shown in Part I in Vol. 1 of the AISI 2016.

𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken from Table F.1.1 and F.1.2 in EC3-1992 (Tables 3-5 and 3-6, respectively.)
For the case of linear bending moment diagram as shown in Table 3-5, regression analyses have
been performed to determine the relationships of 𝐶𝐶1 and 𝐶𝐶3 as functions of 𝜓𝜓 and 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 , and 𝐶𝐶2 is
taken as zero:
2
0.9(−1.338𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 1.140𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 3.210) −1.0 ≤ 𝜓𝜓 < −0.5
⎧ 2
(0.176𝜓𝜓 2 − 0.461𝜓𝜓 + 0.625)(−1.338𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 1.140𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 3.210) −0.5 ≤ 𝜓𝜓 ≤ 0.75
𝐶𝐶1 =
⎨ 𝜓𝜓 − 0.75
⎩ 𝐶𝐶 − (𝐶𝐶 − 1) 0.75 < 𝜓𝜓 ≤ 1.0
0.25
2
where 𝐶𝐶 = 0.378(−1.338𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 1.140𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 3.210)
2
(2.01𝜓𝜓 3 − 3.647𝜓𝜓 2 + 2.2𝜓𝜓 + 7.783)(0.412𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 0.929𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 0.639) −1.0 ≤ 𝜓𝜓 ≤ 0.75
𝐶𝐶3 = � 𝜓𝜓 − 0.75
𝐶𝐶 − (𝐶𝐶 − 1) 0.75 < 𝜓𝜓 ≤ 1.0
𝐵𝐵 − 0.75
2 2
where 𝐶𝐶 = 8.230(0.412𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 − 0.929𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 0.639) and 𝐵𝐵 = −0.443𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 0.377𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 1.066

𝜓𝜓 = (𝑀𝑀1 /𝑀𝑀2 )
𝑀𝑀1 and 𝑀𝑀2 are the smaller and larger bending moment, respectively, at the ends of the
segment between lateral restraints in the plane of bending.

For the cases in Table 3-6, 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken as shown in the table for 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 having value
of 0.5 and 1.0, and interpolated for other value of 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 within the range of 0.5 and 1.0. In Table
3-6 for the cases with simply-supported conditions, the values of 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 are exactly taken
from Table F.1.2 of the EC3-1992. The other two cases with fixed-end support conditions, 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 ,
and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken conservatively equal to those in the case with simply-supported conditions and
similar loading.

For any other cases, 𝐶𝐶2 and 𝐶𝐶3 are taken as zero, and 𝐶𝐶1 is calculated as follows:
12.5𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 2
𝐶𝐶1 = ≤ 0.9(−1.338𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 1.140𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 + 3.210)
2.5𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 + 3𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴 + 4𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 + 3𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶
where,
𝑀𝑀𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = absolute value of maximum moment in unbraced segment, N-mm.
𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴 = absolute value of moment at quarter point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 = absolute value of moment at the middle of the unbraced segment, N-mm.
𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 = absolute value of moment at three-quarter point of the unbraced segment, N-mm.

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 25

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

For the purpose of determining 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 , the program limits the value of 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 to be within
the range between 0.5 and 1.0. If 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is input to have the value less than 0.5 in the Overwrites,
it will be taken to be 0.5. Likewise, if it is input to have the value greater than 1.0, it will be taken
to be 1.0. If it is program determined, it will be defaulted to be 1.0. This condition of 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is not
imposed for any other calculations elsewhere.

𝐶𝐶1 should be taken as 1.0 for cantilevers. However, the program is unable to detect whether the
member is a cantilever. The user should overwrite 𝐶𝐶1 for cantilevers. The program also
defaults 𝐶𝐶1 to 1.0 if the minor unbraced length, 𝐿𝐿𝑧𝑧 , is redefined to be more than the length of the
member by the user or the program, i.e., if the unbraced length is longer than the member length.
The Overwrites can be used to change the value of 𝐶𝐶1 , 𝐶𝐶2 , and 𝐶𝐶3 for any member.

Table 3-5 Values of 𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 , 𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 , and 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑 for end moment loading. (Source: EC3-1992)
Loading and support Value of Values of factors
Bending moment diagram 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶3
conditions 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿
1.0 1.000 1.000
0.7 1.000 ---- 1.113
0.5 1.000 1.144
1.0 1.141 0.998
0.7 1.270 ---- 1.565
0.5 1.305 2.283
1.0 1.323 0.992
0.7 1.473 ---- 1.556
0.5 1.514 2.271
1.0 1.563 0.977
0.7 1.739 ---- 1.531
0.5 1.788 2.235
1.0 1.879 0.939
0.7 2.092 ---- 1.473
0.5 2.150 2.150
1.0 2.281 0.855
0.7 2.538 ---- 1.340
0.5 2.609 1.957
1.0 2.704 0.676
0.7 3.009 ---- 1.059
0.5 3.093 1.546
1.0 2.927 0.366
0.7 3.009 ---- 0.575
0.5 3.093 0.837
1.0 2.752 0.000
0.7 3.063 ---- 0.000
0.5 3.149 0.000

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 26

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

Table 3-6 Values of 𝐂𝐂𝟏𝟏 , 𝐂𝐂𝟐𝟐 , and 𝐂𝐂𝟑𝟑 for transverse loading cases. (Source: EC3-1992)
Loading and support Value of Values of factors
Bending moment diagram 𝐶𝐶1 𝐶𝐶2 𝐶𝐶3
conditions 𝐾𝐾𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿

1.0 1.132 0.459 0.525

0.5 0.972 0.304 0.980

1.0 1.365 0.553 1.730

0.5 1.070 0.432 3.050

1.0 1.046 0.430 1.120

0.5 1.010 0.410 1.890

The elastic critical moment, 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , of C, Hat, Z, I, T, and Angle sections is calculated as described
previously. The equation to calculate 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is only applicable to cross-sections symmetrical about
the minor axis of bending, which does not apply to Z and Angle sections. However, it is still
calculated using this equation given the available information. For Angle section, it is assumed
that the shear center coordinate 𝑧𝑧𝑠𝑠 is the projection on the axis along the direction of load
application 𝑧𝑧𝑎𝑎 in calculation of 𝑧𝑧𝑔𝑔 .

For Pipe and Box sections, the reduction factor for buckling 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 is taken as unity in the
calculation of flexural strength due to lateral-torsional buckling.

For Non-prismatic element with all sections along the element having similar shape, all properties
required for calculation of 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 is linearly interpolated from those properties of the two end
sections of the segment which the design section falls in. This procedure is also applied to Non-
prismatic element with sections having different shapes and may produce unexpected design
results.

The value of 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 can be overwritten in the Overwrites.

3.3.3.2 Local and Distortional Buckling

The Effective Width Method described in Section 5 of the EC3-3 is adopted to calculate the
flexural strength for the limit state of local and distortional buckling. The stress condition and
capacity of each element of the section are determined as described in Appendix B
Effective Width of Elements and Tables B-1 and B-2 of this manual. And the nominal flexural
strength is computed as:

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 27

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
, 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 < 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = �𝑓𝑓 �𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝜆𝜆 (EC3-3 Eq. 6.4 & 6.5)
𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 �𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 +4�𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 −𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 ��1− 𝜆𝜆�𝑒𝑒0 �� 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
≤ , 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0

where
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 = effective section modulus of the effective cross-section subjected only to
bending moment with a maximum stress 𝜎𝜎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = elastic section modulus of the gross cross-section
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 = plastic section modulus of the gross cross-section
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = the basic yield strength
𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 = the average yield strength
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 = the partial factor for resistance of the cross-section
𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 /𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0 is taken as the greatest ratio of 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒 /𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0 for all elements of the cross-section.
For doubly supported elements, 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒 = 𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝 and 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0 = 0.5 + �0.25 − 0.055(3 + 𝜓𝜓)
For outstand elements, 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒 = 𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝 and 𝜆𝜆̅𝑒𝑒0 = 0.673. Both 𝜆𝜆̅𝑝𝑝 and 𝜓𝜓 are calculated as described in
Appendix B

For Z section, because the nominal flexural strength due to lateral-torsional buckling is only
considered about the geometric axes, the effective section modulus is also calculated based on
bending about the geometric axes even though the section is point symmetric.

For angle section, when bending axes as determined in Section 3.4.4.1.6 are principal axes, the
calculation of effective width of elements and effective section modulus as described in Appendix
B is also applicable. The corresponding element stresses and effective width are calculated
accounting for the angle between principal and geometric axes.

3.3.4 Nominal Shear Strength

The nominal shear strengths are calculated for shears along the geometric axes for all sections.
In calculating nominal strength for shear, 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , it is assumed that there are no intermediate
stiffeners used to enhance shear strength of a section. The program calculates shear strengths
considering the limit state of shear buckling.

The nominal shear strength 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 is computed as:

ℎ𝑤𝑤
𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ℎ𝑤𝑤 𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏
𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = = (EC3-3 Eq. 6.8)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
where
ℎ𝑤𝑤 = height of the web measured between points of intersection of flange and web midlines.
𝑡𝑡 = thickness of the web
𝜙𝜙 = the slope of the web relative to the flanges. For all sections available for EC3-3
coldformed steel design, 𝜙𝜙 = 90°
𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = the shear strength considering buckling and computed as follows:

Calculation of Nominal Strengths 28

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

0.58𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 ≤ 0.83

𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 = �0.48𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 0.83 < 𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 < 1.40 (EC3-3 Table 6.1)
0.67𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 /𝜆𝜆2̅𝑤𝑤 𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 ≥ 1.40

where
𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 = 0.346 𝑤𝑤 � (EC3-3 Eq. 6.10a)
𝑡𝑡 𝐸𝐸
𝑠𝑠𝑤𝑤 = slant height of the web. If the effects of rounded corners can be neglected, it is equal to
ℎ𝑤𝑤 as defined above. Otherwise, it is the height measured between the midpoints of
the adjacent rounded corner elements as shown in Figure 3-2.

Figure 3-2: Notional height of the web

In minor direction of shear, the notional width of the flanges is used in place of the height of the
web for calculation of nominal shear strength. For I-section with different flanges, the width of
the larger flange is used to determine the slenderness 𝜆𝜆̅𝑤𝑤 and the shear stress 𝑓𝑓𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 , which is applied
with total area of both top and bottom flanges to calculate 𝑉𝑉𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 .

For pipe section, the EC3-3 is silent on shear capacity. Therefore, the provisions by AISC 360-
16 are applied to calculate shear capacity for pipe section as follows:
𝑉𝑉𝑛𝑛 = 𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 /2 (AISC G5-1)
where
1.60𝐸𝐸 0.78𝐸𝐸
𝐹𝐹𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 � 5 , 3 � ≤ 0.6𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 (AISC G5-2)
𝐿𝐿 𝐷𝐷 𝐷𝐷
� 𝑣𝑣 � �4 � 𝑡𝑡 �2
𝐷𝐷 𝑡𝑡

𝐴𝐴𝑔𝑔 = gross cross-sectional area of the pipe section

𝐷𝐷 = outside diameter of the pipe section
𝑡𝑡 = thickness of the pipe section
𝐿𝐿𝑣𝑣 = length of the member. The AISC 360-16 defines 𝐿𝐿𝑣𝑣 as the distance from maximum to
zero shear force, but the program uses the length of the member resulting in more
conservative design for shear.

3.4 Design of Members for Combined Forces

Previous sections of this design manual address members subject to only one type of force,
namely axial tension, axial compression, flexure or shear. This section addresses the design of
members subject to a combination of two or more of the individual forces.

Design of Members for Combined Forces 29

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

In the calculation of the demand/capacity (D/C) ratios, first, for each station along the length of
the member, the actual member force/moment components are calculated for each design
combination. Then, the corresponding capacities are calculated. The D/C ratios are calculated at
each station for each member under the influence of each of the design combinations. The
controlling D/C ratio is then obtained, along with the associated station and design combination.
A D/C ratio greater than the D/C ratio limit (whose default value is 1.0) indicates exceeding a
limit state. At each station for each load combination, the governing D/C ratio is taken as the
largest calculated from the subsections below.

3.4.1 Section Subjected to Tension and Bending

The D/C ratio for section subjected to tension and bending is
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
+ + (EC3-3 Eq. 6.23)
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
+ − (EC3-3 Eq. 6.24)
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝑑𝑑 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied moments about major and minor axis, respectively
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied tension
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 moment capacity about major and minor axis, respectively, of the
cross-section for maximum tensile stress
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 moment capacity about major and minor axis, respectively, of the
cross-section for maximum compressive stress
𝑁𝑁𝑡𝑡,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 tension capacity of the cross-section

3.4.2 Section Subjected to Compression and Bending

The D/C ratio for section subjected to compression and bending is
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
+ + (EC3-3 Eq. 6.25)
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

+ − (EC3-3 Eq. 6.26)
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
where
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied moments about major and minor axis, respectively
Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 additional moments about major and minor axis, respectively, due
to the shifts of centroidal axes and taken as:
Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 and Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 , 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 the shifts of major y-y and minor z-z centroidal axis of the
effective cross-section with respect to the gross cross-section
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 , 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 moment capacity about major and minor axis, respectively, of the
cross-section for maximum tensile stress
𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 , 𝑀𝑀𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅,𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 moment capacity about major and minor axis, respectively, of the
cross-section for maximum compressive stress
𝑁𝑁𝑐𝑐,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 compression capacity of the cross-section

Design of Members for Combined Forces 30

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

3.4.3 Section Subjected to Shear Force, Axial Force, and Bending Moment
The D/C ratio for section subjected to an axial force 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , bending moments 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 and 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
about major and minor axes, respectively, and shear force 𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 > 0.5𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 and 𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 >
0.5𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 is:
2 2
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 2𝑉𝑉𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 2𝑉𝑉𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
+ + �1 − �� − 1� + +� − 1�
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

where
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 axial capacity of the cross-section
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 moment capacity about major and minor axis, respectively, of the
cross-section
𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 , 𝑉𝑉𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 shear capacity along major and minor axis, respectively
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑓𝑓 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀𝑓𝑓,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = plastic moment capacity of the cross-section consisting of the
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
effective area of flanges only
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑓𝑓 the plastic section modulus of the section under bending
consisting of the effective area of the flanges only (Figure 3-3
Right.) The plastic neutral axis is taken as that of the section
having effective area of the flanges and fully effective area of the
web.
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
𝑀𝑀𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = plastic moment capacity of the cross-section consisting of the
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀0
effective area of the flanges and the fully effective area of the web
𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 the plastic section modulus of the section under bending
consisting of the effective area of the flanges and the fully
effective area of the web (Figure 3-3 Left.)

The above equation has the form of equation 6.27 in the EC3-3 but is slightly different as it
includes the ratio contribution from the minor-axis loading and capacity of both moment and
shear.

Figure 3-3: Effective sections to compute plastic section moduli – Left: 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 – Right: 𝑊𝑊𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝,𝑓𝑓

Design of Members for Combined Forces 31

Cold-Formed Steel Frame Design EN 1993-1-3:2006 Design Process

3.4.4 Members Subjected to Bending and Axial Compression

The D/C ratio for member subjected to bending and compression is:
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
𝜒𝜒𝑦𝑦 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (EC3-1 Eq. 6.61)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1

𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 + Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸

𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 + 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 (EC3-1 Eq. 6.62)
𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1 𝛾𝛾𝑀𝑀1

where
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 applied compression and moments about major and minor axis,
respectively
Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 , Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 additional moments about major and minor axis, respectively, due
to the shifts of centroidal axes and taken as:
Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 and Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 = 𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 , 𝑒𝑒𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁 the shifts of major y-y and minor z-z centroidal axis of the
effective cross-section with respect to the gross cross-section
𝑁𝑁𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝐴𝐴𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 characteristic value of resistance to compression
𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑦𝑦 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 characteristic value of resistance to bending moment about y-y
axis
𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧.𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒,𝑧𝑧 𝑓𝑓𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 characteristic value of resistance to bending moment about z-z
axis
𝜒𝜒𝑦𝑦 , 𝜒𝜒𝑧𝑧 the reduction factors due to flexural buckling from Section 3.3.2.1
𝜒𝜒𝐿𝐿𝐿𝐿 the reduction factors due to lateral-torsional buckling from
Section 3.3.3.1
𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 , 𝑘𝑘𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 , 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 , 𝑘𝑘𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 interaction factors and calculated according to Annex A or Annex
B of the EC3-1 for class 4 cross-sections

The D/C ratio for member subjected to bending and compression is also computed by an
alternative formula:
0.8 0.8 0.8
𝑁𝑁𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 +Δ𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 +Δ𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧,𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸
� � +� � +� �
𝑁𝑁𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 𝑀𝑀𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏,𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅

The above equation has the form of equation 6.36 in the EC3-3 but is slightly different as it
includes the ratio contribution from the minor-axis loading and capacity of moment.

Design of Members for Combined Forces 32