The Meaning of Applied Linguistics (AL)

You have probably taken some courses in psycholinguistics, sociolinguistics, multilingualism

and some others where the word ‘linguistics’ or ‘applied’ have has mentioned. In this course,
you will get to know how some of these courses are related to language. Some of the questions
that Applied Linguistics tries to answer are:

-What kind of language should be the language of instruction in schools?

-What are the procedures for the choice of a language where there are many languages?

-How can we have valid language tests?

These and many more are questions that arise frequently and have to be answered by language
specialists. Our knowledge of applied linguistics will help us to answer some of these questions.
Many people have tried to define or describe what applied linguistic is, and below are some of
them.

Brumfit (1977) opines that: AL is the theoretical and empirical investigation of real world
problems in which language is a central issue.

Grabe (2000) proposes that: The focus of AL is on trying to resolve language based problems
that people encounter in the real world, whether they are learners, teachers, supervisors,
academics, lawyers, service providers, those who need social services, test makers, policy
developers, dictionary makers, translators, or a whole range of clients. Grabe notes that
distinguishing between what linguistics and AL are concerned with is to distinguish between
theory and practice.

According to Schmitt and Celce-Murcia (2002): AL uses what we know about (a) language (b)
how it is learned and (c) how it is used in order to achieve some purpose or solve some problems
in the real world. Schmitt and Celce-Murcia note that traditionally, the primary concerns of AL
have been second language acquisition theory, second language pedagogy and the interface
between the two.
Davis and Elder (2006:11) note the following about AL: AL is, in our view, a coherent activity
which theorises through speculative and empirical investigations real world problems in which
language is a central issue.

Some Subfields of Applied Linguistics

Below are the commonly regarded subfields of applied linguistics as noted Grabe (2002). These
subfields are the areas covered by Applied Linguistics.

1. Second Language Acquisition

Second language Acquisition theory deals with the range of variables- in particular, age of
immersion, quantity of input etc. which may interactively determine the level of ultimate
attainment.

2. Language Assessment and Testing

Language Assessment plays a gate-keeping role in terms of the functions they serve for
institutions and the corresponding preparedness of institutions to invest in their development and
validation. It has always involved the development and implementation of frameworks for
describing student’s progress in language learning over time.

3. Language Policy and Planning

The practical nature of language planning deals with the analysis of policy making in contexts
where language is a part. Language problems always arise, which could involve rival interest
reflecting relations among ethnic, political, social, and bureaucratic and class groupings.
Language policy and planning research then draws on knowledge far beyond linguistics to solve
such problems where necessary.

4. Lexicography

Lexicography is important and an integral part of applied linguistics in second/foreign language

learning and teaching at all ages and levels of education. It is concerned with the writing and
study of dictionaries for first/second/foreign language education. It also involves mono- bi- and
multilingual works and general children’s school, college, and specialised technical dictionaries.
 5. Multilingualism

This is the use of more than two languages within a speech community. Applied linguistics
deals with the sociological, psychological, attending problems etc and the implications of these
languages on the speech community.

6. Corpus Linguistics

This is aimed at improving language description and theory and Stubbs (2006) notes that the task
of applied linguistics is to assess the relevance of the language description to practical
applications. Corpus data are essentially for accuracy in the description of language use and have
shown how lexis, grammar and semantics interact.

Some of the supporting disciplines in Applied Linguistics are: Psycholinguistics, Education,

Sociolinguistics, English studies and Discourse studies

Language Learning Theories

Have you ever wondered how you learnt the language(s) you are speaking? Do you know that
some people have taken time to find out the kind of processes involved in language learning? In
this section, we shall be discussing some of the views of some scholars about language. Below
are some of them.

1. Behaviourist Theory

The first coherent theory of language learning was the behaviourist theory based on the work of
Pavlov and Skinner (Hutchinson &Waters, 1986). Using the behavioural patterns of some
animals in their experiment, the theory states that ‘language is a mechanical process of habit
formation which proceeds by means of frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence’.
It was based on the view that all learningincluding language learning-occurs through a process of
imitation, practice, reinforcement, habit formation and generalisation (Spada and Light bown,
2002). Simply put, language is learnt, like other psychomotor skills such as walking, jumping,
dancing, etc.; “the motto of behaviourism is that language is a verbal behaviour, learn-by-doing
activity in learning a language” (Demizeren, 1989:157).
To the behaviourists, the social environment is crucial, not as the source of linguistic stimuli that
learners need to form associations between the words they hear and the objects and events they
represent, but it provides feedback on learners’ performance (Spada and Lightbown, 2002).
Skinner (1957) claimed that when learners correctly produce language that approximates what
they are exposed to in the input, and these efforts receive positive reinforcement, habits are
formed.

Spada and Lightbown (2002) note that one of the ideas associated with behaviourism was the
notion that L1 habits which learners had already established would interfere with the formation
of new habits in the L2, hence, Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) which was proposed to
account for the role of the L1 in the L2 learning. However, (CAH) failed to predict errors that L2
learners were observed to make and those it predicted did not occur at all. It was then realised by
researchers that learners from different backgrounds made the same errors.

Some of the behaviourist precepts are:

a. The social environment is very crucial in language learning b. The teacher or facilitator has a
role to play in the language learning activity c. Errors must be corrected immediately; they are
not permitted in learning d. Frequent repetition is essential to effective learning.

2. Innatist or Mentalist Theory

This theory was developed in America by Noam Chomsky. As a result of the weaknesses in the
behaviourist theory, the ‘innatist or mentalist theory’ was introduced. The major principle or
tenet of mentalist theory is that everybody learns a language, “not because they are subject to a
similar conditioning process, but because they possess an inborn capacity which permits them to
acquire a language as a normal maturational process” (Wilkins, 1972:168 cited in Demizeren,
1989).

To Chomsky (1968), the child learner has innate properties of language because he/she masters
his/her native language in a very short time in spite of the highly abstract nature of rules. He
insisted that every human being is born into a society with a language acquisition device (LAD)
which embodies the nature and structure of human language. Language acquisition device
(LAD) is the language innate faculty which is responsible for language acquisition without any
need for the social environment.

This was later referred to as Universal Grammar (UG), which was described as “a specialised
module of the brain, pre-programmed to process language” (Spada and Lightbown, 2002:116).
Universal Grammar (UG) permits the child to acquire language during a particular
developmental period, called “critical period” for language acquisition. At each learning level,
the child subconsciously form hypotheses, and lists them in his/her linguistic formations and thus
he/she induces rules from his/her data.

However, it has been argued that language learning cannot be separated from the social
environment. The presence of people such as father and mother around the child learner
establishes a natural social environment. Therefore, language is not totally of inborn nature nor is
it just a matter of biological make-up. Also, language learning involves a learn-bydoing activity
to an extent. When the child realises that his/her hypothesis falls short, he/she makes necessary
corrections or modifications (Demizeren, 1989). Mentalist tenets are:

a. The language teacher is not needed. b. Errors are permitted because they serve as reflections of
learners’ language learning or acquisition process. c. The role of social environment is
undermined. 4. Language is innate.

3. Monitor Theory

This theory was propounded by Krashen (1982). Spada and Lightbown (2002), note that this
theory shares a number of assumptions with the Chomskyan Universal Grammar (UG), but its
scope is specifically second language acquisition. One of these assumptions is that human beings
acquire language without instruction or feedback on error. Krashen developed this theory in
terms of five “hypotheses” – the acquisition-learning hypothesis; the monitor hypothesis; the
input hypothesis; the natural order hypothesis; and the affective filter hypothesis (See Krashen,
1982; 2003).

The fundamental hypothesis of Monitor Theory is that there is a difference between

“acquisition” and “learning”. The monitor hypothesis suggests that in the case of spontaneous or
impromptu speeches, which originate in the system, what has been learned may be used to edit or
self-correct speech of the L2 learner (Spada and Lightbown, 2002). In order to state that L2
learners undergo a series of stages like L1 learners, Krashen (2003) presents the following five
hypotheses as the core of his language acquisition theory. They are as follows:

a. The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis

This hypothesis claims that we have two independent ways of developing language ability:
acquisition and learning. Language acquisition is a subconscious process. Nobody is aware when
it is happening. Language learning is done in school. It is a subconscious process. Error
correction helps learning. “When we make a mistake and someone corrects us, we are supposed
to change our conscious version of the rule” (Krashen 2003:1).

b. The Natural Order Hypothesis

This hypothesis claims that the parts of language are acquired in predictable order. That is, you
can predict which aspect of the language the learner will learn first. This theory seems to relegate
the language environment to the background. It is said that the order of first and second
languages are similar. This also depends on the individual and his/her exposure to the language.
In a situation where a learner has some natural deficiencies such as deafness, a natural order
hypothesis may not work.

c. The Monitor Hypothesis

This monitor hypothesis is an attempt to explain how acquisition and learning are used.
Language is normally produced using our acquired linguistic competence. Conscious learning
functions as a “monitor” or “editor”. Our conscious monitor corrects, inspects and scans
internally human subconsciously acquired competence. For instance, before a sentence is uttered,
our monitor or edit must scan the sentence for any error. This is referred to as “self-correction.”
Three conditions are stated by Krashen that, to successfully use the monitor, the acquirer must
know the rule. The acquirer must be thinking about correctness, or focus on form. The acquirer
must have the time.

d. The Input Hypothesis

The input hypothesis attempts to explain how language acquisition occurs. It reflects the view
that L2 learning occurs like L1 learning as a result of exposure to meaningful and varied
linguistic input which helps the learner’s developing competence (Spada and Lightbown 2002).

e. The Affective Filter Hypothesis

This suggests that a condition for successful acquisition is that the learner is motivated to learn
the L2 and, thus receptive to the comprehensive input (Spada and Lightbown 2002).This
motivation could be intrinsic or extrinsic. If intrinsic, it means the learner is naturally motivated
to learn the language and if extrinsic, it means the learner is motivated by social factors such as
jobs or social climbing. As reported by Spada and Lightbown (2002), Krashen (1982) has been
criticised on the ground that his “hypotheses” are vague and difficult to investigate empirically.
Nevertheless, the monitor theory has had a significant impact on the field of L2 learning and
teaching. His attempt to distinguish between “acquisition” and “learning” is laudable.

4. Socio-Cultural Theory of Language Learning

This theory was proposed by Vygostky (1987). Spada and Lightbown (2002) state that the
theorists working within a socio-cultural perspective of L2 learning operate from the assumption
that there is a dialectical relationship between culture and mind, and that all learning is first
social, then individual. Their argument is that through dialogue or communication, learners
construct knowledge and this knowledge is later internalised. In this theory, emphasis is laid on
the integration of the social, cultural, and biological elements.

5. The Acculturation Model

The acculturation model sees the learner adapting to a new culture. It was used to explain the
acquisition of an additional language by immigrants in naturalistic majority language contexts.
Barkhuizen (2006:561) notes that the theory emerged from a now famous case study of a 33year-
old Costa-Rican named Alberto who failed to acculturate to the target language community and
thus developed only a pidginised form of English. Schumann (1978:34), who was the proponent
of the study, explains his findings as follows: Second language acquisition is just one aspect of
acculturation and the degree to which a learner acculturates to the target language group will
control the degree to which he acquires the second language.
Acculturation is said to be expressed in terms of social distance (becoming a member of a target
group) and psychological distance (how comfortable learners are with the learning task). Welsh
(2001) used the acculturation model in investigating English learners’ perception of their
language learning within a home stay as an accommodation which includes full board and
lodging for students studying in a foreign country through which they may be exposed to the
culture, language and social structures of that country. Welsh noted that, for many of the
students, their expectations were not met. The study provided useful insights into the connection
between acculturation of international students and their experiences of language learning. Some
of the limitations that the model had are summarised below.

It does not explain the internal mechanisms of how an L2 is acquired. It is a psychological model
rather than a cognitive processing model. The model does not consider the language learner as
having a complex. It does not consider social identity that must be understood with reference to
larger and frequently inequitable social structures which are reproduced in day to day social
interaction (Norton Pierce 1993:13) as reported in Barkhuizen (2006:562). It focuses on group
differences between the language learners group and the group associated with the target
language.

6. The Intergroup Model

This emphasises ethnicity and the issues of social inequality as a social factor in L2 learning.
According to Giles and Brye (1982), language learners tend to define themselves in ethnic terms
and identify with their own group. They tend to make insecure social comparison with the
outgroup. Giles and Brye (1982) note the following as criticisms against the inter-group theory:
It is a theory which also takes into account the relationship between the learner’s group (in-
group) and the target language group (the out-group). Unlike the acculturation model which sees
the relationship between the groups as static or changing very slowly, inter-group theory
emphasises the dynamic nature of the interaction between the groups, specifically groups with
different ethno-linguistic identities.

Factors Responsible for the Rapidity and Accuracy of the Acquisition of a Language Let
us consider the following.

a. Input
Tucker (2003) notes that the quality and quantity of the ‘input’ makes the first difference. The
quantity of the exposure to the target language that a child has is greater than that of the adult.
The ‘input’ is the learning situation in form of exposure to the language in various ways that a
learner is opportuned to have. A child hears the language all day long at home, at play, in the
classroom, when rebuked, etc but an adult may be restricted to the classroom or home instructors
as a result of lack of time to study or listen to the language being spoken or read. It could even be
due to the pressure of work or inability to grasp some structures which may discourage the adult
learner from moving very fast. A classroom situation where an instructor may be speaking to 20
to 25 learners at the same time may not give enough room for individualised attention that could
aid learning. Relevance of the language to the lives of the adult may be another determining
factor in the acquisition of the language.

b. Age

Scholars have noted the issue of a ‘critical period’ after which successful learning may be
difficult to accomplish. Tucker notes that this period is usually tied to puberty because it has
been noticed that people go through significant changes physically, emotionally and in terms of
cognition during puberty. Three main changes noted in terms of language acquisition are
considered below.

i. The presence of muscular plasticity

A child’s plasticity is said to go away at about the age of five. Some psychologists note that it is
difficult for a learner to fully master pronunciation of a second language. The question that
readily comes to mind here is what then happens when young people and children above five
years old travel outside their countries to other countries and within one or two years they have
mastered the art of speaking the host language? This only shows that this claim may not be true
for all cases and this is why motivation is important in language learning. There have been cases
of children and young people from Nigeria who have settled in Europe or America after they
were five and have mastered to an appreciable extent the host language. It was actually taken
over as their first language as most lose their original language.

ii. Memorisation capabilities

It has been noted that as a person grows older, their ability to retain large amount of information
reaches its peak and then begins to decrease (Tucker (2003).

iii. Neurobiological changes

Tucker notes what she referred to as lateralisation hypothesis. This is related to neurology.
Medical science reports that as a person matures, the left hemisphere, which controls the
analytical and intellectual functions becomes more dominant than the right side, which controls
the emotional functions. This also affects language learning. Adults have the advantage of
getting the essentials of grammar and structure than children because of their cognitive
development. The disadvantage of this ability is that adults tend to still hold on to the structures
of their first language.

c. Motivation

Motivation has a lot to do with emotional changes. Children are easily motivated more than
adults. Tucker notes two ways by which adults can be motivated and these are, 1) integrative
motivation (encourages a learner to acquire the new language so as to be able to identify with
speakers of the target language); 2) instrumental motivation (encourages a learner to acquire
proficiency for practical purposes such as becoming a translator, doing research in different
areas.

d. Egocentricity

It has been reported that adults may get annoyed when corrected when learning another language
but children do not. Adults may even feel frustrated or threatened when learning a new language,
especially if it has to do with status enhancement. The adult sees mistakes most often as failures
rather than an avenue for correction.

Characteristics of L1 (First Language) and L2 (Second Language)

A person’s first language is usually seen as the first language learnt and still spoken. In some
cases, the first language may be lost, leaving the individual with the second and other languages
learnt later. This is referred to as language attrition. This can happen when young children move
to a new environment and the earlier learnt language is no longer spoken frequently. A person’s
first language may not even be the dominant language.

A second language is any language learned after the first language or the mother tongue. Ervin-
Tripp (1974) notes that it has been observed that the development of comprehension of syntax
and of morphological features follows the order in the mother tongue studies. She noted that
children of older ages learned much faster than younger children for the sample in the rage of
four through nine.

Age

Some researchers have claimed that one of the important things to note about a first and a second
language is the age the person learned the language. It is believed that a second language is
consciously learned and used after puberty while a first language is unconsciously acquired. In
most cases, people never achieve the same level of fluency and comprehension in their second
languages as in their first.

Similarities and Differences between L1 and L2

Below are some of the similarities and differences that some scholars have noted between L1 and
L2.

a. Speed

It is believed that the speed at which a first language is learnt is faster than that of a second
language. The acquisition of a second language can be a lifelong process for many people and
that most people never have native-like competence in the second language no matter the number
of years they spend learning it.

b. Stages

A lot of research has shown that basic sounds, vocabulary, using grammatical structures are
developed while learning a second language. The rate at which they are learnt however depends
on the individual for second language learning

c. Competence
LI speakers always try to achieve target language competence while L2 learners may be content
with less than target language competence or more concerned with fluency than accuracy (Ellis
1994). Ellis (1994) also notes that children normally achieve perfect L1 mastery but adult L2
learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery. Children are also noted to develop clear
intuitions about correctness while L2 learners are often unable to form clear grammaticality
judgments. In terms of overall success, Ellis notes that children normally achieve perfect L1
mastery while adult L2 learners are unlikely to achieve perfect L2 mastery.

Factors Responsible for Individual Differences

In the language aptitude review of the factors responsible for language learning, it is noted that
age is not included. Ellis (2006) argues that it is probably because ‘age’ does not belong to any
of the categories listed for differences by the researchers but it is seen to potentially affect
learner’s abilities, propensities, cognitions and actions as do other factors such as previous
learning experiences and learning situations. Age is also seen to affect the actual psychological
processes involved in learning, making younger learners able to access a language acquisition
device while older learners rely on general cognitive learning strategies. Ellis notes that the role
played by age in L2 acquisition demands an entirely separate treatment, which should be handled
on its own.

Three basic things have been highlighted by earlier scholars under cognitive abilities for
language learning. These are intelligence, language aptitude and memory. Shekan (1990)
administered language aptitude tests on children in the Bristol language project and found that
language aptitude was strongly related to measures of foreign language ability. Skehan explained
that the aptitude tests measured an underlying language learning capacity. Sasaki’s (1996) study
also suggests that language aptitude- i.e. ability to analyse linguistic structure and intelligence
are related. The work of Sparks, Ganschow and Patton (1995) also suggests that language
aptitude was one of the best predictions of the grades achieved by school foreign language
learners. Carroll (1995) identified four aspects of language aptitude as follows:

1. Phonemic coding ability ( i.e. the ability to code foreign sounds in a way that can be
remembered later)
 2. Grammatical sensitivity (i.e. the ability to recognise the grammatical functions of words
in sentences)
3. Inductive learning ability (i.e. the ability to identify patterns of correspondence and
relationships involving form and meaning)
4. Rote learning ability (i.e. the ability to form and remember associations between stimuli).

Processes of Language Learning

Language learning is in stages. It is like a child learning to walk. He/she starts by crawling. The
child then tries to stand, takes one step, then two, three until he/she is able to have a balanced
movement. Language learning starts with recognition of different features of the language and
this leads to identification and use of grammatically and semantically well-formed sentences in
the language.

1. Recognition

Recognition is important in the psychology of perception. It is an active process which extends

beyond the level of sounds, intonation patterns and rhythms of language to groups of sounds or
lexical words. Corder (1973:118-122) claims that the process is also called sentence
identification-analysis by synthesis. He notes that the criticism of this procedure is that it
suggests that in order to identify a sentence, we must first analyse it completely and see if the
structure of the sentence can be generated by the rules of the grammar we have internalised.
Sutherland (1966) suggests that we do not have to go through that cumbersome process but
sample or predict the structure of the utterance and act accordingly. That is, we should go into
the next phase of the performance. This accounts for why we often have to go over what we have
read before or listened to when we make mistakes in our receptive processing of utterances.

2. Identification

Corder notes that identification is the process of recognising utterances as grammatically and
semantically well formed. He further notes that it is not enough to identify utterances as
grammatical but linguistic terms, we have to internalise not only the grammatical but also the
lexical rules. These are rules that have to do with the semantic structure of the language with its
internal sense relations. Corder (1973) reports on Laver (1970) who identifies five chief
functions in speech production,which can be described as neuro-linguistic. These are ideational
(initiates the appropriate semantic content of any verbal message, planning process (constructs
an appropriate linguistic programme for the expression of the idea. The remaining processes are
the permanent storage of linguistic information, the execution of the programme which is the
actual set of articulatory actions; and the monitoring function which is simultaneous with the
execution.

Theories of Language Learning

Researchers ask questions on how the child and the learner acquires language skills. The answers
to their questions border on the theories of language acquisition and learning. Below are some of
them.

1. Language Learning

Language learning is a process whereby certain combinations of words and intonation of voice
are strengthened and are gradually made to occur in appropriate situations by the process of
discrimination learning (Corder, 1973). A speaker of any language can produce new sentences
and utterances all the time, which shows that the learner interacts with his/her environment. This
interaction helps him/her to have new language experiences that make demands on him/her to
either describe them or relate with other people concerning them. In learning a new language, a
learner also makes new utterances depending on the situation. The learner, however, builds on
the repertoire of his/her previous knowledge of the first language. The learning of language must
be related to the learning and knowledge of the world. Language learning can be seen from two
perspectives- inductive learning and deductive learning.

2. Inductive Learning

Inductive learning is ‘the creation and storage of abstract internal representations (linguistic
information) through a process of generalisation, classification and association’. (Corder,
1973:128) The inductive theory of language learning is based on the assumption that verbal
behaviour is not different in kind from other behaviour and is acquired in fundamentally the
same way (Skinner, 1957). Corder (1973:129) notes that by processes of conditioning, imitation,
practice, generalisation and reinforcement, the learner is able to process information and learn.

3. Deductive Learning

According to Corder (1973:128), deductive learning is the discovery of the linguistic

information to be stored by a process of applying to the data some inborn theory about language.
Corder refers to some set of readymade inherited categories or concepts common to all human
language (linguistic universals). He refers to this latter theory as the nativist hypothesis which is
based on three considerations; first, all human language in spite of their obvious superficial
differences, show remarkable superficial similarities; second, the process of constructing a
theory from the data, i.e. the inductive theory would take too long, third, that the data on which it
works is too distorted and partial for the purpose.

The deductive theory assumes that language is peculiar to human beings-that they are born with
a specific programme for acquiring it. To Skinner (1957), it is learned by some sort of data-
processing by heuristic (aiding or guiding) processes of hypothesis formation and testing; that
language is a matter of rule-governed behaviour, not responses but rules for making responses.

Discourse Analysis

Discourse analysis is part of AL. It is a multidisciplinary field and has diversity of interests.
Many scholars have worked in this area of study and as we move ahead, you will get to know
some of them in this unit. Jaworski and Coupland (1999:3) assert that, for many linguists, ‘the
interest in discourse is beyond language in use. It extends to language use relative to social,
political and cultural formations, language reflecting and shaping social order and also shaping
individual’s interaction with society’. A lot of books have been written in discourse analysis.
Jaworski and Coupland (1999:6) note that the knowledge of the way we build language has
become very important and there is a growth of linguistic interest in analysis of conversation,
stories and written texts. They aver that we live in a changed political, social and technological
environment in which we have post-modern world of service industry, advertising and
communications media. In this kind of situation, discourse becomes work and the analysis of
discourse becomes correspondingly more important.

Trappes-lomax (2006:134) sees discourse as the study of language viewed communicatively

and /or of communication viewed linguistically. He notes the following definitions of discourse.
Discourse analysis is seen as:

1. The linguistic, cognitive and social processes whereby meanings are expressed and intentions
interpreted in human interaction 2. The historically and culturally embedded sets of conventions
which constitute and regulate such processes 3. A particular event in which such processes are
instantiated 4. The product of such an event especially in the form of visible text, whether
originally spoken and subsequently transcribed or originally written Trappes-lomax (2006:136)

These are views of different linguists on the description of discourse. Each of them described
discourse based on their own particular fashion on theories and techniques of a number of
disciplines for the study in language use-e.g. linguistics, psychology, pragmatics,
sociolinguistics, sociology and anthropology.

Approaches to Discourse Analysis

McCarthy et al. (2002:59) note that discourse analysts come from a number of different
academic disciplines and the field is a wide one. Below are the approaches that are directly
related to applied linguistics and language education.

1. Sociology-Conversational Analysis (CA)

This is concerned with the detailed organisation of everyday interaction. It focuses on class,
gender, age, groups, culture, etc. It deals mainly with informal discourse. CA was started by
Garfinkel’s (1967) ethnomethodology and Goffman’s (1974, 1981) frame analysis which grew
into a significant field of enquiry by Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson etc. Conversation analysis deals
with turn taking, openings, and closings in conversations, progression in conversations.

a. Turn Taking

This is the basic unit of speech in an individual’s contribution. A ‘turn’ is each occasion
someone speaks and ends when another person takes over. The rules that people follow in turn-
taking is important because this determines when another person starts speaking. It is important
that speakers avoid overlap so that speakers can hear and understand one another. Scholars in
conversation analysis also note what is called ‘speaker selection’ in that speakers are permitted to
take their turns or they are chosen or nominated. There can be what is called ‘selfselection’. This
is where a speaker cuts in and starts speaking when he has not been nominated to speak. Context
always determines ways by which speakers can get the next turn. You can have sentences such
as ‘by the way---’, ‘if I may come in---’ ‘Can I speak--’ etc. Back channel communications are
also important because it is a way of telling the listener that you are listening; examples are -
‘huh’, ‘ehh’ etc. There are also ways of predicting completion in conversations. All these
features help to facilitate communication

b. Adjacency Pairs

These are pairs of turns that are dependent on one another-

E.g. A: Good morning Bola B: Good morning Tinu A: How are you? B: I’m
fine. Thank you.

The A parts are the first pair-parts while the B parts are the second pairparts. These parts are
governed by cultural or socio-cultural contexts e.g. a greeting gets a greeting back. If something
else happens negatively, then communication breaks down and just as McCarthy et al. observe, it
can be referred to as ‘dis-preferred sequence’ e.g.:

A: Good morning B: Drop dead

2. Ethnography of Speaking

This approach was led by Hymes (1972), Saville-Troike (1989) and they are concerned with
situation and uses of patterns and functions of speaking as an activity in its own right [(Hymes
1974:3) in McCarthy et al. (2002:63)]. Speech events include interactions such as a conversation
at a party or ordering a meal. Hymes (1972) developed a speaking ‘grid’ which comprise several
components. Below is Hymes (1972) speaking grid:

S Setting = temporal and physical /circumstances

P = Participant speaker/sender/addressor hearer/receiver/audience/addresse

E = Endspurposes and goals Outcomes

A = Act sequence message form and content

K = Key tone /manner

I = Instrumentalities channel (verbal and nonverbal; physical forms of speech drawn from
community repertoires

N = Norms of interaction and interpretation specific properties attached to

speakinginterpretation of norms within cultural belief system

G = Genre, textual categories

This framework helped in the recognition of the close relationship between speech events and
their social or cultural contexts. McCarthy et al. also aver that it broadens the notions of
communicative competence.

3. Variation Theory

This theory was developed by Labov (1972) and has contributed, a lot, to discourse analysis. He
describes the structure of spoken narratives which has been very influential in language teaching.
Labov and Waletsky (1967) state the following as the overall structure of a fully formed
narrative of personal experience.

a. Abstract (summary of story with its points)

b. Orientation (place /time and situation)
c. Compilation ( temporal sequence of events, culminating in a crisis)
d. Evaluation (narrator’s attitude towards narrative)
e. Resolution (protagonist’s approach to crisis
f. Coda (point about narrative as a whole)

The Objectives of Language Teaching and the Motives of Language Learners

The main objectives of language teaching are to turn out people who possess sufficient skill in
the target language for their needs, that is the most relevant and useful repertoire of language.
We must be able to specify, in sociological terms, what domains the learners will require of the
language, in what domains the language is needed and for what purposes they need the language,
in what social groups or languages they are going to operate, what their roles in the community
are. The teaching strategies to use also depend on all these variables that surround the learners.
Scholars have, over the years, introduced different methods or strategies for getting the best out
of the learner.

Methodology in Language Teaching

According to Adamson (2006), methodology is employed loosely in language teaching. It is

commonly used interchangeably with ‘methods’ and ‘pedagogy’. Methodology is then defined as
‘the study of the system or range of methods that are used in teaching, while a method is a single
set of practices and procedures that are derived from theory or theorization which impinges on
the design of a curriculum plan, resources, and teaching and learning activities’. It encompasses
such methods as the direct method, audio lingual and so on. It includes all other methods the
teacher might devise in the process of teaching the learners.

Language Teaching Methods

Based on the variety of perspectives on language, there is a set of methods on language teaching
and learning which has evolved. They are as follows:

1. Grammar-Translation Method

Adamson (2006) reports that until the middle of the 20th century the grammar-translation
method was the predominant method for language teaching in most educational contexts. This
method was said to emerge from the learning of Latin and Greek, which were the classical
languages taught in Europe. The major objective of the method was to instil intellectual rigour
and to transmit the cultural values embodied in the literary canons to a new generation. During
this period, language was viewed as an academic discipline rather than a means of conducting
everyday social interactions. Priority was given to the written language. However, this method of
language teaching has limited practicability for communicating everyday situations or
experiences. Consequently, there was dissatisfaction with it toward the end of the nineteenth
century among language teachers. For example, the learner can be asked to translate the
following sentence in Yoruba language to English and vice versa:

Ma a lo sekolola (I’ll go to Lagos tomorrow.) Did you hear what I said? Se o gbonkantimo so?

The first one looks simple but the second one is not in that it is difficult to reflect the past ‘did’ in
Yoruba in the translation of the text. Other forms of focused exercises are memorisation of
lexical items, dictation, reading aloud and rote learning. However, towards the end of the
nineteenth century, language teachers in Europe became dissatisfied with this method.

2. Gouin’s Method-Series

Gouin’s method called Series came into existence as a result of dissatisfaction with grammar-
translation method. It was based on interactions from daily life. The teacher had to model a series
of statements, describing steps of the interaction in sequence; the learners imitate (Roberts, 1999
cited in Adamson, 2006). This method concentrated its interest on everyday language and on
children’s acquisition of mother tongue, which was believed came about initially through
listening and speaking (Richards & Rodgers, 1986). There was emphasis on the four skills-
listening, speaking, reading and writing. There was a focus on meaning and communication
skills of learners. For example, learners were encouraged to learn and concentrate on the
meaning of words, the meanings of words and the ability to speak well. Later, there were calls
for a more scientific approach to language learning. The call gave rise to the direct method as
expounded by Jespersen (1904).

3. Direct Method

This method of language teaching emerged as a result of several calls for a more scientific
approach to language learning; most notably from the Reform Movement that was founded in the
1880s (Knight, 2001 cited in Adamson, 2006). This method was the product of the movement.
This method is premised upon the belief that total immersion in the target language is conducive
to rapid progress in communicating as with first language. Rivers (1981) states that the role of
the teacher to provide contextual support for the learners, without recourse or reference to the
learners’ mother tongue as fast as possible. For example, a Yoruba learner of English language
should be totally immersed in the L2 without any recourse to the mother tongue so that the L2
learner can learn fast. This was probably what led to the ‘No Vernacular’ slogan of the early 50s
and 60s in Nigeria where school children were forbidden to speak any of the indigenous
languages in schools. I could remember that whenever anybody was caught in those days
speaking Yoruba in the secondary schools, the person was made to write imposition of ‘I WILL
NEVER SPEAK VERACULAR AGAIN’ a hundred times. To the proponents of the method, it
is believed that total immersion is the solution to quick language learning.

4. Audio-Lingual Method

This method came about as a result of experimentation by Skinner who worked with animals and
his behaviourist principles of learning (Adamson, 2006). Learning, in this method, is brought
about by positive reinforcement of current behaviour or utterances with correctness being
instilled by repetition or drilling. It focuses primarily on oral skills, with the teacher modelling
utterances. Learners are drilled to produce correct responses as errors are not tolerated and
special attention is on habit formation. This method consists of mechanical learning, which led to
the popularity of language laboratories.

For example the teacher can say;

Repeat after me; T: cow P: cow T: once again, cow P: cow

T: say it five times and spell it P: cow, cow, cow, cow, cow T: say this sentence; I saw a cow
yesterday Say it three times

5. Silent Way

This method of language teaching was propounded by Caleb Gattegno. According to Adamson
(2006), this method relies on problem-solving by the learners. The paramount goal of this theory
is to get learners produce the target language with little or no assistance from the teacher. This
means that the learners are made responsible for their own learning and to make them become
independent of the teacher. This method, as a matter of fact, is based on induction. The teacher
uses charts and coloured blocks to establish the meaning of model utterance, but the learners
have to apply inductive and self-monitoring techniques to build their own structural knowledge
of the target language. This method gets its name from the fact that it is a teacher dominant
approach. (Freeman & Freeman, 1992).

For example, the teacher can place a lot of materials on the table in front of the pupils and he/she
expects the pupils to use their own selfmonitoring techniques to put sentences together in the
target language using the materials before them.

6. Suggest Opedia

It is a method of teaching a second language which attempts to incorporate different modes and
modalities. This method was developed by Bulgarian psychiatric-educator Lozanov (1982). His
ambition was to eliminate psychological barriers that people have of learning (Freeman and
Freeman, 1992). Stevick (1976) summarises Lozanoz’s view of learning into three principles: (1)
People are able to learn at rates many times greater than what is commonly assumed; (2) learning
is a ‘global’ event and involves the entire person; and (3) learners respond to many influences,
many of them non-rational and unconscious. Freeman and Freeman (1992) write that suggest
opedia uses drama, art, physical exercise, and de-suggestive-suggestive communicative
psychotherapy as well as the traditional modes of listening, speaking, reading, and writing to
teach a second language.

For example, the teacher can remove any form of anxiety about learning by providing a very
comfortable, relaxed environment with background music. This will reduce learner’s stress. The
teacher can also do some psychological counselling if need be.

7. Communicative Approach or Communicative Language Teaching

This is an alternative method of language teaching in which language is viewed essentially as

social practice, and the goal of language teaching as engendering the learner’s competence to
communicate in the target language. Communication is then viewed as social interaction
influenced by cultural context rather than being a fixed linguistic system. Adamson affirms that
these approaches-‘Communicative

Approach or Communicative Language Teaching’ are more of an umbrella term for a range of
curriculum design principles and teaching methods, all sharing the same underlying philosophy,
than a single or specific method. Bygate, Shekan & Swain (2001:02 cited in Adamson, 2006)
argue that Communicative Approach “was explicitly a postmethod approach to language
teaching…in which the principles underlying the use of different classroom procedures were of
paramount importance, along with a package of teaching materials.”

These views are united by common principles, which include language as principally an
expression of meaning at the discourse level. The teacher is seen as the facilitator and motivator
as well as source of knowledge. Adamson (2006) notes that the acceptance of the communicative
approach principles were spurred by the functionalnotional approach, which organise the
syllabus according to language functions, that is, everyday use of language which involves
interactions such as buying food, giving direction, offering advice and so on and notions
(concepts such as time, quantity, and location).

For example, the teacher can create a buying and selling corner where pupils will be able to
interact with the materials, other pupils and their teacher so that they can develop communicative
competence in the target language.

Adamson further states that the strong form of the communicative approach is task-based
learning, which was derived from other subject areas in the curriculum. Drawing on the
constructivist views of learning, particularly those of Vgostsky and Bruner, task-based learning
advocates a learner-centred curriculum and teaching methods that have a strong element of group
work and autonomous activities. It emphasises competences-communicative competence,
strategic, cultural, and so on. Adamson cites Hong Kong as example of where task-based
learning has aided the achievement of cross-cultural goals which transcends language learning.

Language Planning

Language planning, according to Akindele and Adegbite (1999:74), ‘is a deliberate activity
systematically designed to select from, organize and develop the language resources of a
community in order to enhance the utilisation of such resources for development’. They identify
various activities that make take place while planning language, such as corpus and status
planning.

Language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the function, structure or acquisition of a

language within a speech community. It is noted that language planning is associated with
government planning that can also be used by non-governmental organisations or even
individuals.

It is noted that the goals of language planning differ from nation to nation. It is designed to make
changes for the benefit of communication. It may be that planning or improving effective
communication can also lead to other social changes such as language shift or assimilation,
which provides another motivation to plan the structure, function and acquisition of language.

It is very important to state that language policy is used as a synonym of language planning.
However, language policy is the underlying general linguistic, political and social goals of the
actual language planning process. This policy is very crucial to language planning. A typical
example is Nigerian National Policy on Education (NPE) which addresses language use in
education, government, politics, etc.(see Mesthrie et al., 2003).

Language Planning and Language Ideology

The following language ideologies motivate decision making in language planning: (1) linguistic
assimilation (2) linguistic pluralism (3) vernacularisation (4) internationalisation.

1. Language Assimilation

It is believed that every member of a society, irrespective of their native language should learn
and use the dominant language of the society in which they live- e.g. French in France, English
in the United States of America and Russia in the former Soviet Union (Adegbite and Akindele,
1999).

2. Linguistic Pluralism

This has to do with recognition and support of multiple languages within one society. For
example, the co-existence of French, German, Italian and Romanish in Switzerland; the shared
status of English, Malay, Tamil and Chinese in Singapore, and the shared nature of English,
French, Hausa, Igbo and Yoruba languages in Nigeria.

3. Vernacularisation
This is the restoration and development of an indigenous language along with its adoption by the
state, as an official language -e.g. Hebrew in the state of Israel.

4. Internationalisation

This is the adoption of a non-indigenous language of a wider communication as an official

language or a particular domain, e.g. the use of Singapore in India, the Philippines and Papua
New Guinea.

Importance of Language Planning

The core of language planning activity is national development. This development is perceived
in terms of political, socio-economic, educational, technological, and literary as well as language
development. It is the realisation that language planning can contribute or promote greatly the
development of various spheres of life in a nation that embarks on it. For example, in a
multilingual nation like Nigeria, there is need to coordinate the linguistic resources of the nation
to avert many problems like educational underdevelopment, ethno-linguistic agitation,
breakdown of information and communication gap between government and the people
(Adegbite and Akindele, 1999). Besides the reasons stated above, about eleven planning goals
are recognised by linguists.

1. Language Purification

This has to do with the purification of the usage of a language in order to preserve the linguistic
purity of the language so as to protect it from foreign influences and guard against language
deviation from within.

2. Language Revival

This is the attempt to turn a language with few or no surviving native speakers back into a
normal means of communication. For languages that are dying, they need to be revived. For
example, some minority languages are fast fading out in Nigeria because they have not been
committed to writing and the original speakers are dying out.

3. Language Reform
This is a deliberate change in specific aspects of language i.e. orthography, spelling or grammar
in order to facilitate use.

4. Language Standardisation

This is an attempt to give a particular language prestige as a regional language or dialect,

transferring it into one that is accepted as the major language or standard language of a region.

5. Language Spread

This is the attempt to increase the number of speakers of a language at the expense of another.

6. Lexical Modernisation

This has to do with word creation or adaptation. Many words come into a language through this
way and some of them eventually find their way into the dictionary.

7. Terminology Unification

This refers to the development of terminologies especially in technical domains.

8. Stylistic Simplification

This is the simplification of language usage in lexicon, grammar and style. The dictionary helps
a lot when they are incorporated.

9. Interlingua Communication

This has to do with the facilitation of linguistic communication.

10. Language Maintenance

This has to do with preservation of the use of a group’s native language as a first or second
language where pressures threaten or cause a decline in the status of the language.

11. Auxiliary Code Standardisation

It is the standardisation of marginal auxiliary aspects of language such as signs for the deaf.
The Process of Language Planning

Haugen (1966, 1987 cited in Mesthrie et al., 2003) developed a framework for the description of
the process of language planning. To him, language planning typically consists of four stages
which can either be sequential or not:

1. Selection 2. Codification 3. Implementation 4. Elaboration

1. Selection

Selection is the term used to refer to the choice of a language variety to fulfil certain functions in
a given society. For example, a language or its variety may be chosen to serve as medium of
instruction, official language, and religious language, and so on. In Nigeria, the English language
serves as the medium of instruction in schools and the nation’s official language. The indigenous
languages have certain roles, particularly in the states of the nation.

2. Codification

Codification in language planning refers to the creation of a linguistic standard or norm for a
selected linguistic code or variety of a language. This process is commonly divided into-
graphisation, (the development of writing system), grammatication (deciding on the rules/norms
of grammar), and lexicalisation (identifying the vocabulary).

3. Implementation

At the implementation stage, the socio-political realisation of the decision made in the stages of
selection and codification is realised. This includes the production of books, pamphlets,
newspapers and textbooks in the newly codified language as well as its introduction into new
domains such education, mass media and so on. While language experts are responsible for the
selection and codification processes, implementation is done by the state or government in
power. Mesthrie et al. (2003) citing Haugen (1983) and Cooper (1989:75-6) states that the
implementation of a new standard language or variety can involve marketing techniques to
promote its use.

4. Elaboration
This involves terminological and stylistic development of a codified or standardised language to
meet the continuing communicative demands of modern life and technology. There is always a
dissemination of new terms and different strategies of lexical enrichment. For example, three
strategies are used for lexical modernisation or elaboration in the Hausa language in Nigeria.
These are borrowing, extension of the meaning of a native term, and creation of new terms
(neologisms).

Types of Language Planning

Language planning activity can be divided into two: statusandcorpus planning. Heinz Kloss
(1967, 1969) distinguished the two basic types of language planning on the basis of the
distinction between language as an autonomous linguistic system and as a social institution
(Mesthrie et al., 2003).

1. Status Planning

This is the allocation or re-allocation of a language or variety to functional domain within a

society, which affects the status or standing of a language. Language status is the position of a
language vis-à-vis other languages. Simply put, status planning refers to all efforts to change the
use and function (either to narrow or broaden the function and use) of a language or its variety
within a given community.

Two different authors-Heinz Kloss and William Stewart have stipulated four qualities of a
language that determine its status.

A. Language origin-this has to do whether a given language is indigenous or imported to the

speech community.

B. Degree of Standardisation-the extent of development of a formal set of norms that define

correct usage

C. Juridical status = i. Sole official language (e.g., French in France; English in the United
Kingdom and Nigeria) ii. Joint official language (e.g. English and Afrikaans in South Africa;
French, German , Italian and Romanish in Switzerland) iii. Regional language (e.g. Igbo in
Nigeria; Marathi in Maharaslva, India) iv. Promoted language – lacks official status on a national
or regional level but is promoted and sometimes used by public authorities for specific functions
e.g. Spanish in New Mexico; West African Pidgin in Cameroon; Pidgin English in the Niger
Delta area in Nigeria. v. Tolerated language – neither promoted nor proscribed: acknowledged
but ignored (e.g. Native American languages) in the United States. vi. Proscribed language –
discouraged officially or by restriction.

D. Vitality-this has to do with the ratio or percentage of users of a language to another variable-
e.g. total population.

2. Corpus Planning

Corpus planning takes planners into greater linguistic expertise unlike status planning that is
undertaken by politicians and administrators. Corpus planning involves three important
processes or dimensions: graphisation, standardisation and modernisation.

a. Graphisation

This refers to development, selection and modification of scripts and orthographic conventions
of a language. It is noted that the use of writing in a speech community can have lasting socio-
cultural effects, which include easier transmission of material through generations,
communication with larger number of people and a standard against which varieties of spoken
language are often compared. Ferguson (1959) observed that the use of writing adds another
variety of the language to the community’s repertoire.

Below are some of the assumptions some people have about written language:

1. that written language is often viewed as secondary to spoken language 2. the use of writing
often leads to a folk belief that the written language is real language and speech is a corruption of
it 3. written language is viewed as more conservative, while the spoken language is more
susceptible to language change.

In establishing the writing system of a language, corpus planners have the option of using an
existing system or inventing a new one.
 b. Standardisation

This is the process by which one variety of a language takes precedence over other social and
regional dialects of a language. This variety then becomes the supra-dialectal and the best form
from of the language. For example, standard Yoruba seems to be the recognised one above all
other dialectal varieties. The choice of any language that takes precedence over the others
confers on the speakers certain privileges as a group whose dialect has been chosen or comes
closer to the standard one. For example, the Oyo/Yoruba dialect is closer to the standard written
Yoruba, more than other dialects. The standard form is always imposed upon the less privileged
as the language to emulate. It is taught in the schools and accepted examination and written
assessment in that language.

The choice of such a dialect often reinforces the dominance of the powerful social group and
makes the standard form necessary for socioeconomic mobility and that in practice;
standardisation generally entails increasing the uniformity of the norm as well as the codification
of norms. The standardisation of the English language started when William Caxton introduced
the printing press in England in 1476 with the adoption of the Southeast midlands variety of
English spoken in London as print language. The dialect became the standard one used for
administrative and literary purposes.

c. Modernisation

Modernisation is said to be a form of language planning that occurs when a language needs to
expand its resources to meet certain functions. Modernisation occurs when a language undergoes
a shift in status; for example when country has to change its language education policy. For
instance, Nigeria states in its national policy that apart from the English language, three other
major indigenous languages will be used along with English in conducting most of the affairs of
the nation (Yoruba, Hausa and Igbo). This automatically confers on these languages a social
status that edges out other minority languages.

Modernisation leads to the expansion of the lexicon. Language planners create new list to
describe new technical terms. Rapid lexical expansion is aided by the use of new terms in
textbooks and professional publications and frequent use of these terms among specialists.
Linguistic purism often helps lexical expansion, whether the words are coinages or word
formation from the language or they are borrowed.