Comparative Animal Dissection Lab: The evolution of structure and function

Adapted from the Biology 182L Laboratory Manual; Copyrighted © 2013 by the faculty and staff of the Biology 182L course (University of Arizona)

Demonstrations of the relatedness of all life can be found at all levels, from the universal genetic code for
proteins found in all known organisms to the structural elements that serve related groups in different
ways (sometimes elegantly, sometimes awkwardly). The ability to create phylogenetic “trees” whose “leaves”
represent extant (living) organisms is a direct prediction drawn from the theory of evolution. This type of
thinking is also becoming more and more common in modern medicine – most notably in tracking the
origins of new viruses or determining the provenance of biological weapons.

Perhaps the single most astonishing feature of the biological world is its incredible diversity of organisms
– in terms of both form and lifestyle. We identify literally millions of “kinds” (or species) of living things,
ranging from viruses, bacteria, and fungi to octopuses, insects, orchids, and whales. In some cases,
striking correlations have been observed between native peoples’ identification of kinds and scientific
classification schemes, indicating there is something meaningful in these divisions. Within the diversity,
however, there is myriad evidence of common features in all life, most widely at the cellular level: from
protein components and processes common to all cells to the single genetic code for proteins.

The phylogeny of a group of organisms is their evolutionary ancestry—the history of their descent
back to the common ancestor of all life, and their relatedness to other groups living and extinct. Looking
back through time one can effectively view life on earth in the form of a tree whose branch tips are species.
Some go extinct, others branch to give rise to daughter species, which in turn might go extinct or branch,
and so on. Since all earth life traces back to a common ancestor, the structure resulting from our efforts to
represent all organisms and their relations indeed resembles a tree, and is often referred to using the
evocative term “tree of life” or more technically, a phylogenetic tree. Phylogenetic trees can be assembled
using molecular or morphological data. An example of a phylogenetic tree constructed using morphological
data is shown below.

One primary challenge of evolutionary biology is to correctly perceive relationships on the basis of
observable characteristics. However, the way is fraught with peril. Environmental or behavioral
constraints that are common to different life strategies or physical environments can forge features
that are similar in appearance and function, but not necessarily descended from a common, recent
ancestor. Consider, for example, the eye of a squid (an invertebrate) and a whale (a mammal): both
function as aquatic sight organs, but each structure elaborated independently, as evidenced by stark
differences in originating tissues and final organization. They are therefore homoplasies (“same-
form”). On the other hand, traits that are similar because both are derived from a common ancestor
are termed homologous (“same-source”). For example, a bird’s eye and your own derive from a
common ancestral eye, and a dog’s paw and elephant’s forefoot are homologous as vertebrate forelimbs
(see the illustration below). Note that there is some blur in these distinctions – while the detailed
structures of the squid and mammalian eyes are distinct, they use related proteins for the detection
of light itself (indeed, these proteins are found in insects and bacteria as well). Further, mammals and
insects have been shown to use related proteins for the specification of eyes (as distinct from the
blueprint/construction of them) that are interchangeable. So while these terms refer to critical and
comprehensible concepts, awareness of context is also key.
The importance of distinguishing homoplasies from homologies. Homoplasies, such as the human and squid eye, look
similar and perform similar functions, but upon closer inspection it is obvious they arose through different evolutionary
paths. On the other hand, homologies, such as the dog paw and the elephant foot, may look strikingly different, but
when you study the skeletal structure and observe the function of each, it is clear both likely arose from a common
ancestor.

The natural world becomes a whole lot more interesting as one develops the skill of reading it and the art of
contemplating it. Natural selection has forged organisms such that they have become astoundingly well
 adapted to their environments. It sometimes seems that every structure and organ system is ideally tuned to
its task (though the end product can also fall well short of imaginable ideals). In this lab we will consider how
the bodies and systems of several organisms have been shaped by the requirements of their various niches. We will
compare and contrast various anatomical structures to determine their evolutionary trajectories and relationships.

1. What is an ecological niche?

2. What is the difference between a realized and fundamental niche?

3. Describe how an organism adapts to its environment. You must demonstrate a critical understanding of
how natural selection effects adaptive evolution.

Today we will consider the specific external and internal traits of several organisms to determine how they have
adapted to their specific ecological niches. The organisms we will study are: (1) crayfish; (2) sea star; (3)
grasshopper; (4) earthworm; (5) perch; (6) mussel; (7) frog; (8) hydra; (9) honeybee; and (10) sponge.

4. First, carefully examine the external morphologies of each organism and complete the following table:

Describe the eyes, Describe the skin/covering

Describe the mouth,
then based on your and provide an explanation Describe the mean of
then indicate whether
discovery, indicate if of why you think this type of locomotion and
Organism you think this organism
you think this is skin/covering helps it describe how this likely
is a carnivore,
organism is a predator survive based on where it helps it survive.
herbivore, or omnivore.
or prey. lives.

Describe the eyes, Describe the mouth, Describe the skin/covering Describe the mean of
then based on your then indicate whether and provide an explanation locomotion and
Organism
discovery, indicate if you think this organism of why you think this type of describe how this likely
you think this is is a carnivore, skin/covering helps it helps it survive.
 organism is a predator survive based on where it
herbivore, or omnivore.
or prey. lives.

5. Based on your understanding of species interactions and competition, which organisms may be direct
competitors? How does direct competition affect the species’ realized niches?
6. How might competition affect species interactions and coexistence? Consider competitive exclusion,
resource partitioning, and character displacement in your answer.

Examine the eyes of the crayfish, grasshopper, and honeybee using a dissecting microscope. You can find more
information about the compound eye here: https://www.biology-pages.info/C/CompoundEye.html
7. Do you think the eyes of these organisms are homologies or homoplasies? Explain your answer.

8. Of the three, which one do you think has the clearest vision? If you need help with this question, go here:
https://www.biology-pages.info/C/CompoundEye.html

9. Consider the niches of these three organisms, why do you think it is adaptive for the _____________ to
have high visual acuity? (In the blank write the name of the one that has the best vision. Then answer the question
in the area below)

Check in with your TA before moving on. For the remaining dissections, please work in groups of three or four.
As a group, you will first dissect an earthworm (all groups will do this dissection), then your group will be assigned
one of the following to dissect and examine: perch, frog, or rat. After all groups have dissected their organism, you
will be given the opportunity to study all dissected specimens to complete this handout. Collaboration is
encouraged, but be sure you carefully study and learn each dissection. Please work efficiently to ensure that you
complete the entire handout.
Dissection 1: Earthworm

Use this guide to dissect your earthworm. http://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/earthworm-

dissection-guide/tr10714.tr
10. Using your dissected specimen, identify the following structures and state their functions in the table
below.

Structure Function

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

You may check your answers AFTER you’ve completed the above table:
http://www.uwlax.edu/Biology/Zoo-lab/Lab-7--Annelids-and-Smaller-Ecdysozoans/ (under #16, earthworm
dissection)

Learn more about the earthworm’s form and locomotion here: https://asknature.org/strategy/a-flexible-body-allows-the-
earthworm-to-burrow-through-soil/

11. Obtain a live earthworm and describe the mechanisms of its locomotion (be sure to explain how different
muscles are used to coordinate movement):
Dissection 2: Perch
Follow the instructions here: https://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/perch-dissection/tr10820.tr to
examine and dissect the perch.

12. On the pictures below, use arrows to label the following parts: operculum, gills, eye, mandible, stomach,
swim bladder, heart, liver, gonads, intestine, lateral line. You can label them on either picture.

13. Describe in detail the functions of the following structures:

Structure Function
Operculum
Gills
Mandible
Swim bladder
Heart
Liver
Gonads
Intestine
Lateral line
After your group has identified the structures (and their functions!), you may check your answers here:
http://www.savalli.us/BIO370/Anatomy/3.PerchDissectionLabel.html

Like other fishes, the perch has a two-chambered heart and a countercurrent exchange respiratory system.
Learn about their physiology here: http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions1/biology/hearts.html; and
http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions1/biology/respiratory/countercurrent.html.

14. Explain why fish do not need a three-chambered or four-chambered heart for proper circulation.

15. Explain what countercurrent gas exchange is and why it is so efficient.

Dissection 3: Frog
Follow the instructions here: https://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/frog-dissection/tr48203.tr to dissect your
frog. Once you have your frog dissected, identify the structures indicated in the photo below using your specimen.

Carefully remove the three-chambered heart and identify the structures labeled in the illustration above.
16. Describe in detail the differences between an amphibian’s three-chambered heart and a mammal’s four-
chambered heart (http://www.dynamicscience.com.au/tester/solutions1/biology/hearts.html).

17. Besides the lungs, where else does gas exchange occur in the frog? What adaptations are necessary for
this type of gas exchange? For help:
https://www.brown.edu/Departments/Engineering/Courses/En123/MuscleExp/Frog%20Respiration.htm

Examine the frog’s mouth and teeth and note its gape-width. Open up the stomach and note its contents (yum).
Carefully remove the frog’s complete digestive tract (esophagus to the end of the large intestine). Keep it intact!
18. Now calculate the ratio of the length of the digestive tract to the frog’s total body length. Consider all the
information you’ve just learned, do you think frogs are herbivores, carnivores, or omnivores? Explain.
Digestive tract to total body length ratio = _____ : 1

19. Measure the width of the eyeball. Carefully dissect out the eyeball and measure the width of the lens.
Calculate the lens diameter to eyeball diameter ratio. Lens diameter to eyeball diameter ratio = _____ : 1.
Would this ratio be greater for nocturnal or diurnal animals? Explain.
Dissection 4: Rat
Rodents (from the Latin rodere, “to gnaw”) are the largest order of mammals, comprising about 40% of the total
mammalian species. All mammals, including rats and humans, share some common characteristics:
 Body covered with hair, but reduced in some
 Circulatory system with a four-chambered heart
 Homoeothermic (warm blooded)
 Internal fertilization
 Young nourished by milk from mammary glands
For many reasons rats are a much maligned group of animals. They carry and spread disease (the Bubonic Plague or
“Black Death” of the middle 14th century was spread by rats; this pandemic killed 75-200 million people!), and
their toughness, intelligence and tenacity, especially in large numbers, make them extremely difficult to deal with.

First, examine the external anatomy of the rat:

20. What can you tell about this animal’s lifestyle?  Where does it live?  What sort of things does it eat? How is it adapted
to its niche?

21. Describe one similarity you see that was shared between the rat, the perch, and the frog. Do you think this similarity is
the result of homology or homoplasy?

22. Exam the rat’s eyes (http://www.ratbehavior.org/Eyes.htm), then use the cow eye dissection model to discuss the
structure and function of the mammalian eye. Provide as much detail as possible.
Follow the instructions here: https://www.carolina.com/teacher-resources/Interactive/rat-dissection-activity/tr10826.tr to
dissect your rat:

23. Once you have your rat dissected, use your specimen to identify the following structures:
If you need help: https://youtu.be/Azdrf02jhqM

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

1.

2.

3.

4.
If you have a female specimen, identify the following structures:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

If you have a male specimen, identify the following structures:

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.
24. Describe two similarities you see between the rat and the frog. For each, explain why you think these structures are
similar in these two organisms.

25. Describe two differences you see, and explain why these differences allow the organisms to adapt and maximize its
fitness for a particular niche.

26. Rats, like all other mammals, have a four-chambered heart. (A) Discuss the adaptive advantages of a four-chambered
heart. (B) Why do you think mammals evolved to have this type of heart?

27. Examine the quid dissection model and discuss a unique structure that’s not found in the other dissections. Discuss
how that structure (and its function) might have evolved and is adaptive in cephalopods. Cool information about
cephalopods: https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/cephalopods.