Integrated Marketing Communications

The holistic approach

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Relationship Marketing: Strategy and Implementation, Helen Peck, Adrian Payne, Martin
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Services Marketing, Colin Egan
Integrated Marketing
Communications
The holistic approach

Tony Yeshin BSc(Econ), MCIM

Published in association with The Chartered Institute of Marketing

OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

To my family for all their support during the preparation and development of this textbook, and
to the memory of my parents.

Butterworth-Heinemann
Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP
225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801–2041
A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd

A member of the Reed Elsevier plc group

First published 1998

© Tony Yeshin 1998

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to the publishers

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 7506 1923 6

Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Rochester, Kent

Printed and bound in Great Britain
 Contents

Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv

Part One

1 Marketing communications – an overview 3

Aims and objectives 3
The changing nature and role of marketing communications 3
A brief historical perspective 3
The background to marketing communications 4
The growth of marketing communications 6
Blurring of the edges of the tools of marketing communications 8
The strategic challenges facing organizations 9
Strategic marketing communications 11
The expanded marketing communications mix 11
The communications process 12
Achieving integration within the communications mix 14
The philosophy and structure of the book 15
References 15
Additional reading 15

2 Understanding the marketplace 16

Aims and objectives 16
The dimensions of consumer and organizational buying behaviour 16
The consumer market 16
The changing consumer 19
Targeting 20
Positioning 21
Understanding consumer behaviour 21
Organizational buying behaviour 25
The contribution of market research 27
References 34
Additional reading 34
vi Contents

3 Product and service strategies 36

Aims and objectives 36
Managing products and services over the life cycle 36
Branding definitions 37
Strategic importance of branding 38
Strategic brand building 39
The dimensions of branding 39
Branding strategy 44
Brands and consumer perceptions 46
Identifying and building brand values 49
Altering brand imagery 51
The strategic value of brand extensions and brand stretch 53
The roles of marketing communications in branding 55
The challenges facing brands 58
Service brands 64
References 65
Additional reading 66

4 The integration of marketing communications 67

Aims and objectives 67
The impact of external factors on marketing communications 69
The driving forces behind the growth of IMC 73
The impact on marketing communications 74
Relationship marketing 74
The benefits of IMC 75
The process of achieving integration 76
Organizational approaches to integration 79
The barriers to integration 80
References 81
Additional reading 82

5 Managing the marketing communications mix 83

Aims and objectives 83
Organizing for marketing communications 83
The strategic dimension of human resources 84
The brand manager 84
Category management 85
The category manager 85
The use of agencies 86
Establishing the budget 87
Budgeting for integrated marketing communications 93
References 96
Additional reading 96

6 Choosing and using marketing communications agencies 97

Aims and objectives 97
The structure and roles of marketing communications agencies 97
The UK agency scene 97
Contents vii

Agency structures 98
The advertising agency 99
Other services to the agency team 106
Other agency/consultancy structures 106
Regional agencies 107
The changing role of marketing communications 107
The agency/client relationship 109
Agency remuneration 110
The criteria for agency selection 113
References 115
Additional reading 115

Part Two

7 Advertising 119
Aims and objectives 119
The diverse nature of advertising 119
The functions of advertising 120
The advantages and limitations of advertising 122
Types of advertising 123
The advertising process 124
Understanding the advertising process 126
The strategic aspects of advertising planning 130
Brand positioning 132
Implications for strategy development 134
Advertising strategy and the product life cycle 135
Determining the advertising objective 138
Developing the advertising plan 139
Business-to-business advertising 142
References 142
Additional reading 143

8 The development of advertising 144

Aims and objectives 144
The creative brief 144
Creative strategies and tactics 149
The creative challenge 150
Advertising appeals 152
Styles of advertising 153
Using celebrities 156
Music in advertising 157
Non-verbal communications 158
Creativity in advertising 158
Advertising and the brand personality 161
Guidelines for evaluating creative output 161
viii Contents

Measuring advertising effectiveness and campaign evaluation 161

References 166
Additional reading 166

9 Media and media planning 168

Aims and objectives 168
The role of media planning 168
The changing face of the media 169
Access to media and their characteristics 171
The new media 174
The media plan 176
The importance of media strategy 178
Media information sources 179
Identifying target audiences 181
Strategic options 181
Media scheduling issues 182
Alternative approaches to media scheduling 185
Implementing the media plan 187
Other media considerations 188
Contingency planning 189
Evaluation of the media plan 189
The changing face of media implementation 190
References 191
Additional reading 191

10 Sales promotion 192

Aims and objectives 192
The growing role of sales promotion 192
The benefits of sales promotion 194
The limitations of sales promotion 195
The determination of objectives 196
Sales promotion objectives 197
Sales promotion strategy 199
Sales promotion techniques 200
Promoting to consumers 205
Brand franchise 206
Point of purchase communications 207
Strategic dimensions of sales promotion 207
Joint promotions (or cross promotions) 209
The evaluation of sales promotion 210
Research into sales promotion 213
The legal framework for sales promotion 215
The use of sales promotion agencies 216
Selecting promotional agencies 216
The integration of sales promotion activities 218
International sales promotion activity 218
References 218
Additional reading 219
Contents ix

11 Direct marketing 220

Aims and objectives 220
The growth of direct marketing 220
The impact of direct marketing 222
The factors contributing to the growth of direct marketing 222
The advantages of direct marketing techniques 224
The limitations of direct marketing 226
The importance of the database 227
The use of the database 230
The strategic approach to direct marketing 231
The objectives of direct marketing 231
Building relationships 233
The management of direct marketing 235
The planning process 235
Using direct marketing consultancies 237
The use of media 238
The use of market research in direct marketing 239
The use of testing in direct marketing 242
The application of direct marketing 243
Analysing direct marketing results 244
Business-to-business activity 245
Non-profit organizations 246
Relationship marketing 246
Integrating direct marketing 247
International direct marketing activity 248
References 248
Additional reading 249

12 Public relations 250

Aims and objectives 250
A comparison between public relations and advertising 251
Other benefits of public relations 252
The functions of public relations 254
The ’publics’ of public relations 256
The management of public relations 259
Using PR consultancies 260
In-house versus consultancy 261
PR campaign development 261
The identification of public relations problems and opportunities 262
Programme planning 263
Evaluation of public relations 264
The tools of public relations 264
Corporate public relations objectives 265
Financial public relations 266
Charity PR 267
Integration of PR activities 268
International aspects of public relations 268
References 268
Additional reading 269
x Contents

13 Sponsorship and product placement 270

Aims and objectives 270
Event management and business sponsorship 270
Product placement 278
References 280
Additional reading 280

14 Corporate communications 281

Aims and objectives 281
The growth of corporate activity 281
The growing importance of corporate communications 282
Corporate image and identity 283
The objectives of corporate communications 283
The communication of company image 286
The management of corporate communications 287
Audiences for corporate communications 289
The process of establishing a corporate identity 290
Types of corporate identity 291
Corporate communications 292
Measuring corporate communications 293
Key aspects of corporate communications 294
Crisis management: an important dimension of corporate communications 294
Key dimensions of crisis management 297
Handling a crisis 297
References 298
Additional reading 298

15 International marketing communications 299

Aims and objectives 299
The growth of international marketing 299
Multinational versus global marketing 299
The development of global brands 301
Global branding 301
Understanding the international consumer 305
Legal and regulatory requirements 310
Media availability and usage 311
The competitive environment 311
The move to global marketing communications 311
Central or local control of marketing communications 312
The merits and demerits of standardized communications 314
The development of multinational communications agencies 315
The selection of an agency for international business 318
International marketing and marketing communications strategy 320
The development of international advertising 320
The development of international sales promotion 322
The development of international public relations 323
The development of international direct marketing 323
The development of other international communications activities 325
International market research 325
Contents xi

References 326
Additional reading 327

16 Future developments in marketing communications 328

Aims and objectives 328
Changes in the broad environment 328
The impact on the marketing function 331
The changing face of the communications industry 332
References 335
Additional reading 335

Glossary of terms 337

Index 345
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 Preface

This text has its origins in the workbook The book is divided into two parts. The
which I prepared for the Chartered Institute of first section is designed to provide an over-
Marketing for the Diploma paper Marketing view of the important dynamics of market-
Communications Strategy. Due to the inevita- ing communications, an understanding of
ble constraints imposed on that work, I the consumer, an examination of the role of
wanted to develop a specific and compre- the brand and the process of developing,
hensive textbook examining the nature of managing and integrating marketing com-
marketing communications. This is the munications. The second section provides an
result. in-depth examination of the specific areas of
In a field as fast-moving as this, I have tried the profession and the tools which are avail-
to reflect contemporary views as to the way in able to the marketer.
which the process works and the benefits of I hope that this book will be of interest to a
developing an understanding of integration. variety of audiences, both those who are
Whilst, I hope, soundly based upon academic studying the subject as part of an academic
theory, it also examines the real world applica- programme, both at undergraduate and post-
tions within the broad field of marketing graduate level, as well as those who are
communications. The focus remains the embarking upon a career within the pro-
values of the brand and the contribution fession. Whilst the debate surrounding inte-
which marketing communications can make grated marketing communications continues,
towards their development. To achieve that the imperative is the development of a real
end, we need to develop an enduring under- understanding of all of the tools which are
standing of consumer behaviour, increasingly available to the professional. Only with that
on an international basis, as brands expand understanding will the true potential of inte-
their horizons far beyond national borders. gration begin to be realized.
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 Acknowledgements

Along the way I have been helped by many international chapter; Debi Hayes, a colleague
people who gave up both valuable time and at the University of Greenwich, for suggestions
the result of their long years of practical on direct marketing; Jez Frampton at Saatchi &
experience to help ensure that this work is true Saatchi for his help with the creative brief; and
to the profession which it serves. I would like Sally Ford-Hutchinson, Global Planning Direc-
to thank especially the following who read tor at DMB&B (and also my wife) for painstak-
through the various chapters or otherwise ingly reading through everything I have
provided me with valuable input (I should add written to ease out the bugs. I would also like to
that these are in no particular order): Tim thank the people at Butterworth-Heinemann,
Armes, Media Group Director of MediaVest, and especially Tim Goodfellow and Diane
for his help and assistance on the media Scarlett, for making this book happen.
chapter and for ensuring that the media cost To all of those I have mentioned, and those
information is up-to-date; Nina Mink, Plan- other colleagues past and present who have in
ning Director of IMP, for her comments and some way contributed to this work, I am
suggestions on the sales promotion chapter, extremely grateful. However, such errors as
and especially for providing the guidelines on remain are entirely down to me.
international sales promotion; Mike Dickson,
Director of DMB&B, for reading through the Tony Yeshin
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Part One
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 CHAPTER 1

Marketing communications –
an overview

ensure their ability to meet the challenges of

Aims and objectives the future. The nature of the retail environ-
ment continues to change with the simultane-
• To provide a historical perspective of ous emergence of ever larger stores and the
marketing communications; growth of speciality providers; the prolifera-
• To introduce the study of marketing tion of brand choice renders the consumer
communications and the reasons for its simultaneously able to satisfy individual
growing importance; needs and confused at the array of choice; the
• To consider the impact of the overlap of the pace of technological change is almost diffi-
tools of marketing communications; cult to comprehend, with its twin impacts
• To identify the strategic dimensions of both on the nature of products and services
marketing communications; which are provided to the consumer, and the
• To explain the communications process; means of communicating with them; the
• To define the structure and philosophy of the diversity of media channels available to com-
book. panies brings both an increase in their ability
to reach their targets, yet at a progressively
increased cost.
Yet, within this array of confusion, market-
The changing nature and role ing communications increasingly represents
the single most important opportunity for
of marketing communications companies to convince potential consumers of
the superiority of their products and
Even to the most casual observer of the services.
marketing environment, it will be appreciated
that recent years have witnessed an almost
unprecedented series of changes. Competition
between companies has increased dramat-
A brief historical perspective
ically, both domestically and internationally;
mergers and acquisitions to confront the From the beginnings of time, man has sought
future needs of organizations are common- to communicate. At its basic level, commu-
place, yet at the same time, companies are nications are the most important element of
divesting themselves of non-essential busi- the social interchange between individuals. As
ness, concentrating instead on core areas to time progressed and, importantly, with the
4 Integrated Marketing Communications

development of even rudimentary printing number will continue to grow as the technol-
processes, it became possible to expand com- ogy improves. We have radio on FM, medium
munications to reach a wider audience. Early wave and long wave and, apart from the BBC
printed material provides examples of the stations both national and local, we have three
emergence of a new form of communications national commercial stations (Classic FM,
designed to convey information about the Virgin 1215 on MW, and Atlantic on long
availability of products and services to a wave) and some 180+ regional and local
broader public. The era of marketing commu- commercial radio stations. There are news-
nications had begun. papers, national and regional, morning and
In their earliest form, these communications evening, daily, weekly and Sunday. There are
predominantly took the form of the printed magazines, over 3500 of them, covering every
word and, with the advent of newspapers, form of interest area imaginable. There is a
this style continued. With the development of wide range of outdoor media, not just fixed
industrialization, companies emerged to meet poster sites, but posters on the sides of buses
the expanding demand for consumer goods, and taxi cabs, on the Underground and at
and the growth of transportation meant that railway stations. And many of us have
these companies could serve a wider market. become walking advertisements for the
Moving from a local to a regional or even brands we wear, with our clothes bearing
national basis of sales introduced a new logos for all to see.
element to the process – companies needed to The dramatic explosion in the range of
differentiate their products from those of their media outlets, and the complications that this
competitors – and even by the eighteenth has introduced to the task of media planning,
century, we begin to see the rudimentary can be seen visibly in Figure 1.1, contrasting
emergence of branding. Mostly, this was quite the situation which obtained in 1975 with that
simplistic, consisting only of an association of of 1996.
the proprietor’s name with the products he In 1996, according to the Advertising Asso-
produced. ciation (1997) (Advertising Statistics Year-
book, The Advertising Association/NTC Pub-
lications Ltd, 1997) some £11.9 billion was
spent on advertising in the UK, representing
The background to marketing some 1.89 per cent of our gross domestic
product. This figure has fluctuated somewhat
communications over recent years and currently stands at its
highest level since 1989 (Table 1.1).
Today, consumers are exposed to a vast Of this total, 30 per cent was in the form of
amount of information on a daily basis – press display advertising (£3,645 million),
everything from news reports on television, representing a further decline. In fact, from a
radio and in the press, weather forecasts, high point of 36 per cent in 1987, display
traffic information, store signs, product pack- advertising has fallen progressively over
aging, in-store point of sale material, and so recent years – 36 per cent in 1987, 35 per cent
on. Advertising is just one of the elements in 1989, 33 per cent in 1992 and 1993 and 32
with which the consumer must deal every per cent in 1994 and 1995. A further 23 per
day. cent was in the form of classified advertise-
Recent years have seen an explosion in all ments (£2,768 million). It is interesting to
forms of media. Apart from the land-based examine the pattern of press expenditure
television channels – BBC1, BBC2, ITV, Chan- amongst the various outlets (Table 1.2).
nel 4 and Channel 5 – we have an increasing 28 per cent of total expenditure was on
number of satellite and cable stations, and the television (£3,333 million), which has
Marketing communications – an overview 5

Figure 1.1 The media explosion. Adapted and updated from D. O’Donoghue in Cooper, A. (ed.), How to Plan
Advertising, 1997. Statistics from AA Statistics Yearbook, Advertising Association/NTC Publications, 1997

remained at this level for the past five years. It is possible to compare the levels of
Of this total, some £418 million represented advertising across a wide variety of countries.
production costs, at their highest level since Table 1.3 depicts the advertising expenditure
1985. Direct mail represents 12 per cent of the as a percentage of the gross domestic product
total expenditure (£1,404 million), up from the for 1995, the latest year for which comparable
level of 10 per cent which it has held over the figures are available:
previous three years; whilst the ‘all other’ It is in the context of these very consider-
category accounts for a further £843 million or able expenditure levels that marketing com-
7 per cent. Other media represented much munications is considered a vital part of the
lower levels of expenditure. Some £426 mil- marketing function. However, every aspect of
lion was spent on outdoor poster and trans- the marketing communications mix is being
port advertising, £344 million on radio and re-examined to determine whether it makes
£73 million in the cinema. an effective contribution to the continual
6 Integrated Marketing Communications

Table 1.1 UK advertising The growth of marketing

expenditure communications
Total £ billion at % GDP
The latter part of this century has seen
current prices
considerable growth in the use of marketing
communications driven by a wide variety of
1985 5.05 1.64
factors.
1990 8.93 1.86
1991 8.53 1.72
1993 9.14 1.67
1995 10.98 1.82 The growth of manufacturing
1996 11.99 1.89 and services
Source: AA Statistics Yearbook, 1997 There has been a consistent level of growth in
manufacturing output throughout the period.
Increasingly, companies have joined together
well-being of the brand. And it is increas- as a result of mergers and acquisitions which
ingly being recognized that marketing com- have further increased their potential levels of
munications is not merely a set of important production and, in turn, the desire to increase
tools, but rather fulfils a vital and strategic the scale of markets, both domestically and
role for the organization. internationally.

Table 1.2
Total National Regional Consumer Business & Directories Production
newspapers newspapers magazines professional costs
publications

£6,413 m £1,510 m £2,061 m £583 m £1,018 m £692 m £550 m

Table 1.3 Advertising as a percentage of GDP, 1995

Austria Belgium Denmark Finland France Germany Greece Ireland Italy

0.84 0.74 0.85 0.89 0.65 0.91 1.82 0.99 0.5

Japan Netherlands Norway Portugal Spain Sweden Switzerland UK USA

0.84 0.9 0.73 1.19 0.85 0.81 0.96 1.16 1.27

Source: Advertising Statistics Yearbook, 1997

Marketing communications – an overview 7

Improvements in potential consumers. In both cases, the need

for extensive use of marketing communica-
transportation tions is of paramount importance. It repre-
Hitherto, many manufacturers, particularly sents the sole means by which the manu-
those associated with the manufacture of facturer can achieve a dialogue with his
products with comparatively short shelf lives, potential markets.
could only service consumers within easy
reach of the manufacturing base. Increasingly, The relative decline in
the development of refrigeration and other personal selling
transportation components has meant that
products can be rapidly and conveniently Where, previously, sales could be achieved
transported to distant geographic regions through the efforts of the sales force, the
without fear of a deterioration in the quality progressive increase in costs associated with
of the products. this approach to achieving sales has placed
more emphasis on the use of more cost-
effective methods. The need to communicate
The proliferation of brands to substantial numbers of potential consumers
As manufacturers recognize the potential for has encouraged the growth and re-examina-
market segmentation – satisfying the distinct tion of the tools of communication.
needs of different groups of consumers – with
products more closely tailored to meet their The changing face of
particular needs, the consequence has been a distribution
proliferation of separate brands, each with a
distinct positioning within the market cate- Increasingly, the process of distribution has
gory. Importantly, the tools of marketing been concentrated into comparatively few
communications have provided the means of hands. In many markets a small number of
communicating with these disparate groups. companies dominate the retail scene. In the
UK, for example, five companies control 50
per cent of the grocery trade; similarly, five
The increasing separation of companies represent around 25 per cent of the
the manufacturer from the chemist trade. This factor is replicated world-
consumer wide, certainly in the more developed
nations.
Under this heading we can consider several
different but consistent factors. On the one
hand, manufacturers have become increas-
The growth in technology
ingly distant from potential consumers as the Technological improvements have had wide-
chain of distribution has enlarged. Dependent reaching consequences for the marketer. Pro-
upon the nature of these channels, the manu- gressive advances have ensured the achieve-
facturer may come to depend on wholesalers ment of mass production capabilities for
and retailers, franchising operations and other almost all consumer goods. Recent years have
devices between himself and the ultimate seen the dramatic increase in media channels,
consumer of his goods or services. At the and with them the progressive fragmentation
same time, there has been an increased use of of audiences. Simultaneously, technology has
direct marketing techniques in which the provided the means for the establishment of
manufacturer eliminates the use of inter- sophisticated databases, enabling the manu-
mediaries but, instead, establishes a direct line facturer to achieve a greater understanding of
of communications between himself and the needs and wants of potential consumers.
8 Integrated Marketing Communications

The increased use and The wider reach of the media

sophistication of market Today’s consumers have ready access to a
research wide range of media channels – TV, radio,
print media. As we have seen, not only does
The techniques of market research have the increase in the number of media channels
dramatically improved, in parallel with the mean that more consumers can be reached
advances in technology which have provided cost-effectively, they can be targeted with a
the means for far more sophisticated analy- much higher degree of precision.
ses of consumers than has ever existed pre-
viously. Today’s marketers have access to a
variety of inputs from media research, life- A growing understanding of
style and attitude studies, purchasing pro- the use of marketing
files, to name but a few. Each of these
components can be cross-tabulated with any
communications
other to achieve a more enduring under- Our understanding of the various tools of
standing of the underlying nature of con- marketing communications has increased pro-
sumer purchases. gressively, with the consequence that they can
be employed with a far greater degree of
confidence. Equally important, improved
familiarity means that marketers can develop
Increasing improvements in campaigns with a reasonable assurance of
being able to predict the outcomes of their
living standards actions.
Today’s consumer is significantly better edu-
cated and more prosperous than previous
generations. Progressive increases in income
Access to specialist companies
have ensured that a smaller percentage is in the field of marketing
devoted to acquiring the necessities of life and communications
more is available to improve the quality of life.
People are living longer, opening up the Along with the development of the tools of
opportunity for the introduction of new prod- marketing communications, specialist com-
ucts and services specifically designed to meet panies have emerged to provide companies
the needs of an older population with a with dedicated inputs in the areas of strategic
differing lifestyle. planning and implementation. These services
augment the particular skills of the individ-
uals and further enhance their confidence to
employ the various techniques.
Use of credit facilities
The dramatic increase in the percentage of the
population who have access to credit facilities,
Blurring of the edges of the
and specifically credit cards, has opened up tools of marketing
the opportunity for the growth of direct
marketing. Such facilities provide the source
communications
of a ‘charging platform’ – the means by which
consumers can agree to pay for goods and Recent years have seen significant changes
services ordered over the phone or by other in the way that marketing communications
means. campaigns have been developed and
Marketing communications – an overview 9

Figure 1.2

implemented. In the 1960s the primary specialist companies. This ‘blurring’ can be
source for the development of all forms of seen in Figure 1.2.
marketing communications campaigns was
the advertising agency. At the time, separate ‘Discipline overlap is blurring long standing distinctions.
departments provided their clients with It’s increasingly difficult to categorise work as sales
advice in all of the appropriate areas. promotion or direct marketing, for example. Most direct
Since then, two strands of change have marketing offers contain some form of sales promotion
and vice versa. And with the growth of direct response
taken place. On the one hand, the wider
press and TV advertising, direct marketing is moving
appreciation of the techniques, and the need closer to conventional advertising.’ (Cook, 1994)
for specialist personnel, have both resulted in
the creation of specialist companies which
deal with specific areas. The consequence has
been a fragmentation of the provisions within The strategic challenges facing
the area, with the growth of sales promotion,
public relations, direct marketing agencies
organizations
and others, often separate and distinct from
the advertising function. In turn, these too Marketing and, for that matter, marketing
have fragmented further, with companies communications, are being readdressed by
emerging to provide inputs and implementa- major corporations to determine the values
tion in the areas of point of sale, incentive, which they derive from the adoption of their
sponsorship, product placement, and a myr- principles. Indeed, the very nature of these
iad of other areas. principles is being evaluated to determine
On the other, there has been a tendency for their relevance in the context of the challenges
this variety of ‘specialists’ to provide inputs being faced by companies in the late 1990s.
across a wide range of areas, with the con- The evolution of the marketing concept is
sequence that several different companies will well documented, and will not be revisited
have the ability to develop campaigns utiliz- here. However, many are now challenging the
ing the different tools of marketing commu- precepts which have become the basis of
nications. No longer do campaigns feature a marketing planning. Nilson (1992), in his book
single component or element; rather, they may Value Added Marketing, suggests that market-
employ several different devices which pre- ing has ‘lost its way’. Despite employing high-
viously were the domain of dedicated and quality management major organizations
10 Integrated Marketing Communications

have, in many instances, seemed unable to • It encourages creativity at the expense of

face the challenges which they face in the business sense and experience.
broader environment. Growth has come • It is based on market growth rather than
more from acquisition than from brand defending brand share in a stagnating market.
development. The consequence of the inexo-
rable process of chasing niche markets has Several of these principles are reflected in
been the continued and growing failure of Frederick Webster’s 1996 paper on the new
new products to attract substantial and prof- marketing concept. He suggests that com-
itable audiences. The continued growth of panies need to adopt a value-delivery strategy
private label products in a wide variety of in order to ensure success in the future. The
market sectors evidences the fact that retail- implication is that marketing will no longer be
ers are often more successful in the identi- the province of the marketing department.
fication and satisfaction of consumer needs. Indeed, he contends that ‘a large marketing
New and innovative competitors have stolen department will be seen as the antithesis of a
share from the large multinational FMCG market driven organisation, especially if it is
companies despite their comparative smaller part of a hierarchical, bureaucratic structure
scale, which should have precluded their dominated by rules, policies and procedures’.
entry into the market. The imperative will be a commitment to
Nilson argues that the inability of market- continuous improvement and development
ing to achieve significant results stems from throughout the organization, designed to ach-
four key factors: ieve customer focus.
This same view is expressed somewhat
• It tends to be reactive rather than pro-active. differently by Hugh Davidson (1997): ‘Inte-
• It is often slow to respond to changes, rather grated marketing means that every part of
than fast. the business combines to deliver superior

Table 1.4
The departmental approach Integrated approach

Set overall five-year sales and profit targets Review future markets, needs, technologies and
competences
Develop individual supporting strategies Establish vision, priorities, competences, needed to
and plans by department win tomorrow
Combine departmental plans Develop key strategies for value, innovation,
competences, attitudes
Adjust five-year sales and profit targets Convert into sales, profit and investment targets,
and individual department strategy and plans
Characteristics of approach:
Financially driven Market and competence-driven
Department-based Cross-departmental

Source: Davidson, H., Even More Offensive Marketing, 1997

Marketing communications – an overview 11

customer value at minimum cost.’ Davidson than just the content of the message itself.
contrasts the different approaches reflecting Close attention needs to be paid to the context
the past (departmental approach) with the of the message (the vehicle used to commu-
future (integrated marketing) in Table 1.4. nicate with the target audience) as well as the
The essential requirement of the ‘new mar- timing and tone of that message. An imper-
keting’ approach is the development of a close ative is the identification of clear, concise and
customer focus throughout the organization measurable communications objectives which
which, in turn, demands an understanding of will enable the selection of the appropriate
customers as individuals in order to appre- communications tools to achieve the goals
ciate their perceptions, expectations, needs set.
and wants. In this context, an important role By developing an understanding of the
of marketing is the provision of information, identity of the consumer and their particular
in order that decisions are based on contem- needs and wants, we can determine the nature
porary, relevant and accurate information of the behaviour which the communications
about the marketplace, considering both com- programme will seek to reinforce or change –
petitors and customers. This implies, in many and, in turn, the specific nature of the message
instances, the establishment of an effective which will affect that behaviour, and the
database system which, if properly devel- means by which we can reach them.
oped, becomes a key strategic resource of the The strategic role that marketing commu-
organization. The information provided will nications can play is increasingly evidenced
enable far more sophisticated market segmen- by the impact of specific campaigns. These not
tation, targeting and positioning, all of which only affect the way in which consumers think
are essential ingredients of the development about the particular products and services
of effective marketing communications. which are offered to them, but the very way in
which they consider the categories in which
those products and services exist. The Virgin
Airline campaign has resulted in business-
Strategic marketing people re-evaluating the in-flight experience;
First Direct have made consumers consider
communications the fundamental requirement of being able to
access their bank account at times which suit
Shultz, Tannenbaum and Lauterborn (1992) them; the AA has moved people’s thinking
argue that marketing communications often from the need to make a broken-down car go
presents the only real differentiating feature again towards the company’s ability to
that can be offered to potential consumers. By resolve personal emergencies, and so on.
recognizing the fact that everything a com-
pany does consists, in some form, as part of
the communication which takes place
between itself and its customers, it becomes The expanded marketing
aware of the increasingly important role of
marketing communications as a strategic
communications mix
tool.
Just as the premise of the ‘new marketing’ As we have already seen, the expanded
places the consumer at the centre of all marketing communications mix has moved
activity, so too marketing communications our thinking way beyond the simple distinc-
must be considered from the essential per- tions between advertising, public relations,
spective of understanding consumer behav- sales promotions and similar categorizations
iour. This implies a consideration of more of the various tools available to us. Not only are
12 Integrated Marketing Communications

the tools themselves significantly enhanced a simple idea is rarely easy. It is important,
with the availability of new and emergent therefore, that communicators gain a detailed
forms of media, associating devices such as understanding of the way in which meaning
product placement and sponsorship, but their is transmitted in order to be able to develop
application has changed with the development effective communications strategies. The
of the Internet, electronic point of sale, virtual process of communications is explained visu-
advertising and ambient media. ally using the model developed by Wilbur
We have at our disposal an ever increasing Schramm in 1955. Although somewhat sim-
array of means of reaching our target con- plistic, it depicts the basic components essen-
sumers in a cost-effective manner, but this tial to any form of communication (see
demands an increasing understanding of the Figure 1.3).
relevance and application of these tools and
their individual contribution to the commu-
nications process.

Figure 1.3

The process reflects the need of the sender,

The communications process who might be an individual or company,
wishing to communicate with some third
Understanding the basic process of commu- party, the receiver, by sending a message.
nications is fundamental to the development However, the model fails to acknowledge
of an appreciation of how marketing commu- several other important elements upon
nications might function. It is important to which the communications process is
identify how people extract information from dependent and which, more importantly,
the environment in which they live and, may affect the receiver’s interpretation of
importantly, how they interpret this informa- that message.
tion to assist them in their daily lives. A great Subsequent work by Schramm and Roberts
deal of work has been conducted in the field (1971) and Dominick (1990) and others
of psychology and the social sciences to gain provides us with models which are some-
knowledge of the processes involved, and what more realistic and depicts some of the
some readers might wish to read a dedicated additional complexities of the process
text in the area to assist them in their (Figure 1.4).
understanding. As in the simple model, the process com-
According to Foxall and Goldsmith (1994) mences with the sender, sometimes referred
some 90 per cent of the stimuli that indi- to as the source or communicator. However,
viduals perceive comes to them as a result these models recognize that the message
of sight. Much of the remaining 10 per cent itself is often sent in an ‘encoded’ form. This
results from hearing. It should come as no is a reflection of the fact that, in many
surprise, therefore, that advertising relies instances, the message is of an abbreviated
heavily on these stimuli. However, because nature, as in the case of a 30-second commer-
of possible distortions in the perception of cial, in which the sender uses a variety of
a given message, what the consumer verbal and visual devices to communicate
receives may not be what the advertiser with the intended audience. The encoding
intended. process may assume prior knowledge on the
The task of communication is to exchange part of the receiver, or use different mecha-
information and convey meaning to others. nisms which assist the receiver to recall other
However, it is apparent that conveying even relevant information.
Marketing communications – an overview 13

Figure 1.4

Once the message has been created, the The response which the receiver makes will
sender will use one or more of a variety of vary according to the nature of the message
channels of communication. These may be and the impact of these and other extraneous
commercial channels such as television, radio, factors. In some instances, the intention of the
print media or posters, or the communication message may be to convey information. At
may consist of a letter, mailing or phone call. other times, there may be a specific injunction
An important consideration here is the way in to make a purchase. Needless to say, the
which the chosen medium may impact on the sender of the message will be keen to under-
message itself. Since some channels of com- stand the way in which the receiver has
munication have a high level of credibility, the responded to it.
messages they carry will be enhanced. Con- Some communications will have feedback
versely, some channels may have a negative mechanisms built in from the outset. This may
impact on the message. In this context, it is consist of a telephone number which the
worth remembering the words of Marshall receiver is invited to call, or a coupon to be
McLuhan when he said, ‘The medium is the returned. In other cases, the various tools of
message’. market research will be utilized to gain an
A critical aspect of the communications understanding of how the consumer interprets
process is the intervention of what is com- the message and responds to it. It should be
monly known as ‘noise’ or ‘interference’. clear that the nature of the message itself is
The individual is bombarded with informa- only one of the key components. If the medium
tion on a daily basis – news and weather selected to convey the message is poorly
broadcasts, a wide variety of advertising targeted; if the impact of the surrounding noise
messages, apart from interpersonal commu- causes distractions; or if the intended receiv-
nications, to name but a few – and all of er’s prior experience distorts the meaning of
which may interfere with the ability to hear the message, then the communications process
clearly the message sent by the particular has failed.
advertiser. The inevitable consequence is Communication may be considered to be a
that the decoding process, in which the hierarchical process in which potential con-
receiver of the message interprets its mean- sumers are taken through a sequence of stages
ing, can often become confused. The in order, hopefully, to convince them to
intended recipient may only see part of a purchase a product or service. Various models,
commercial, or mishear some of the spoken of which the best known are AIDA, DAGMAR
words. He or she will bring their own views (Colley, 1961), Lavidge and Steiner (1961) and
and beliefs to the interpretation process, Ray (1973), depict the stages through which the
which may also affect the way in which the consumer passes en route to purchase. The
message is understood. important stages are shown in Figure 1.5.
14 Integrated Marketing Communications

Achieving integration within

the communications mix

The thinking initiated by Shultz, Tannen-

baum and Lauterborn (1992), referred to
above, has brought about a sea change in the
business of marketing communications. Wit-
nessed by the plethora of journal articles on
the topic, ‘integration’ has become the buzz
word of the 1990s. Moreover, it has been
reflected in the increasing number of market-
ing communications companies attempting
to achieve integration within their own
organizations.
For many years, the various tools of mar-
keting communications have been considered
as, essentially, separate elements planned
Figure 1.5
and implemented individually, often without
consideration for the impact of one tool on
the workings of another. The underlying
requirement of integrated marketing commu-
At the outset, potential consumers may be nications (IMC) is to force all aspects of the
completely unaware of the product or service, communication programme to deliver a sin-
and the role of marketing communications gle-minded and unified message to the target
will be to provide them with relevant knowl- consumer. The imperative has become one of
edge to transfer them to the next stage of ensuring that each and every communica-
awareness. Having achieved that goal, the tions tactic serves to reinforce the work of
objective will be to provide them with appro- the other parts of the communications
priate knowledge and understanding of the programme.
product or service in order that they can make This new thinking, of course, has a series of
an informed comparison with the offerings of important impacts both on the planning and
competitors. Following this, the intention will implementation process. To begin with, it
be to create favourable impressions and, demands that the planning of campaigns is
subsequently, to create a preference for the considered holistically rather than, as in the
product versus other alternatives. The penul- past, as a series of individual components.
timate stage is the establishment of beliefs that Moreover, it requires a series of new skills,
the product is one that is appropriate for both on the part of those determining the
purchase. It is the final stage of the model strategy and tactics, as well as those responsi-
which translates the previous activity into an ble for the implementation of the resulting
actual purchase. campaign. In order to achieve effective inte-
The importance of gaining an understand- gration, there must be a comprehensive
ing of the way in which potential consumers understanding of the contribution that can be
interpret communications messages is vital to made by each of the elements – and, further,
the development of effective communications an understanding of the way in which those
strategies. All of these considerations will be elements may affect the overall communica-
explored in the chapters which follow. tions process.
Marketing communications – an overview 15

The philosophy and structure References

Colley, R., Defining Advertising Goals for Meas-
of the book ured Advertising Effects, Association of
National Advertisers, 1961
The premise of this text is to recognize and Cook, ‘The End of the Line’, Marketing, Vol. 24,
reflect the new thinking in the field of market- February, 1994
ing communications. It is no longer sufficient Davidson, H., Even More Offensive Marketing,
to be an expert in a single area of communica- Penguin Books, 1997
tions, such as advertising or public relations. Dominick, J. R., The Dynamics of Mass Commu-
For the future, those charged with the respon- nications, Random House, 1990
sibility for the development and implementa- Foxall, G. R. and Goldsmith, R. E., Consumer
tion of marketing communications campaigns Psychology for Marketing, Routledge, 1994
will need to achieve a comprehensive under- Lavidge, R. J. and Steiner, G. A., ‘A Model for
standing of each of the component parts. This the Predictive Measurements of Advertising
text has been designed to provide that level of Effectiveness’, Journal of Marketing, October
understanding. 1961
The book is divided into two parts. The first Nilson, T. S., Value Added Marketing, McGraw-
considers the broader issues which impact on Hill, 1992
the planning process. As such, there is an Ray, M., Marketing Communication and the
examination of aspects of both consumer and Hierarchy of Effects, in Clark, P. (ed.), New
organizational buying behaviour; the con- Models for Communications Research, Sage
tribution of market research; issues surround- Publications, 1973
ing the development of brands and market Schramm, W. (ed.), The Process and Effects of
segmentation; a detailed consideration of inte- Mass Communication, University of Illinois
gration; the framework for the management of Press, 1955
marketing communications; and the process Schramm, W. and Roberts, D., The Process and
of selecting partners in the communications Effects of Mass Communications, University
process. of Illinois Press, 1971
In the second part of the book, individual Shultz, D., Tannenbaum, S. I. and Lauterborn,
chapters deal with each of the separate tools R. F., Integrated Marketing Communications,
of communications. The intention is to pro- NTC Business Books, 1992
vide an in-depth understanding of both the Webster, F. E., ‘Executing the New Marketing
theory and practice of developing those Concept’, Marketing Management, Vol. 3, No.
devices. These cover advertising and its 1, 1996
development; media and media planning;
sales promotion; direct marketing; public Additional reading
relations; sponsorship and product place-
ment; and corporate communications. The following texts will help develop an
Reflecting the increasing move towards the understanding of the topics considered in this
creation of campaigns for international, chapter:
rather than simply domestic, implementa- Fill, Chris, Marketing Communications: Frame-
tion, Chapter 15 deals specifically with the works, Theories and Applications, 1995, Pren-
associated issues. The text concludes with a tice Hall
brief ‘future-gazing’ exercise in which the Rossiter, John R. and Percy, Larry, Advertising,
author attempts to anticipate some of the Communications and Promotion Management,
important factors likely to affect the field of 2nd international edition, 1997, McGraw-
communications. Hill
References

1 1. Marketing communications – an
overview

Colley, R., Defining Advertising Goals for Measured

Advertising Effects, Association of National Advertisers,
1961

Cook, ‘The End of the Line’, Marketing, Vol. 24, February,

1994

Davidson, H., Even More Offensive Marketing, Penguin Books,

1997

Dominick, J. R., The Dynamics of Mass Communications,

Random House, 1990

Foxall, G. R. and Goldsmith, R. E., Consumer Psychology for

Marketing, Routledge, 1994

Lavidge, R. J. and Steiner, G. A., ‘A Model for the

Predictive Measurements of Advertising Effectiveness’,
Journal of Marketing, October 1961

Nilson, T. S., Value Added Marketing, McGrawHill, 1992

Ray, M., Marketing Communication and the Hierarchy of

Effects, in Clark, P. (ed.), New Models for Communications
Research, Sage Publications, 1973

Schramm, W. (ed.), The Process and Effects of Mass

Communication, University of Illinois Press, 1955

Schramm, W. and Roberts, D., The Process and Effects of

Mass Communications, University of Illinois Press, 1971

Shultz, D., Tannenbaum, S. I. and Lauterborn, R. F.,

Integrated Marketing Communications, NTC Business Books,
1992

Webster, F. E., ‘Executing the New Marketing Concept’,

Marketing Management, Vol. 3, No. 1, 1996 Additional
reading

The following texts will help develop an

understanding of the topics considered in this

chapter:
Fill, Chris, Marketing Communications: Frameworks, Theories
and Applications, 1995, Prentice Hall

Rossiter, John R. and Percy, Larry, Advertising,

Communications and Promotion Management, 2nd international
edition, 1997, McGrawHill
2 2. Understanding the marketplace

Baker, C. (ed), ‘Jeans Sans Frontie`res’, Advertising Works

7, Institute of Practitioners in Advertising/NTC, 1993
Engel, J. F., Kollat, D. T. and Blackwell, R. D., Consumer
Behaviour, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968 Hedges, A.,
Testing to Destruction, 2nd edition, revised by
Ford-Hutchinson, S. and HunterStewart, M., IPA), 1998
Howard, J. A. and Sheth, J. N., The Theory of Buyer
Behaviour, Wiley, 1969 Katona, G. in Koch, S. (ed.),
Psychology: A Study of a Science, McGraw-Hill, 1963
Nicosia, F., Consumer Decision Processes: Marketing and
Advertising Implications, Prentice Hall, 1966 Plummer, J.,
‘The Concept and Application of Lifestyle Segmentation’,
Journal of Marketing, January 1974 Shultz, D., Tannenbaum,
S. I. and Lauterborn, R. F., Integrated Marketing
Communications, NTC Business Books, 1992 Solomon, M. R.,
Consumer Behaviour, 3rd edition, Prentice Hall
International, 1996 Upshaw, L. B., Building Brand Identity
– A Strategy for Success in a Hostile Marketplace, John
Wiley & Sons, 1995 Webster, F. and Wind, Y., ‘A General
Model for Understanding Organisational Buying Behaviour’,
Journal of Marketing, No. 2, 1973 Additional reading To
gain a deeper understanding of issues relating to consumer
and organizational behaviour, students may wish to consider
the following texts: Evans, Martin J., Moutinho, Luiz and
Van Raaij, W. Fred, Applied Consumer Behaviour, 1996,
Addison-Wesley Chisnall, Peter M., Consumer Behaviour, 3rd
edition, 1994, McGraw-Hill Engel, James F., Blackwell,
Roger D. and Miniard, Paul W., Consumer Behaviour, 8th
international edition, 1995, The Dryden Press Solomon,
Michael R., Consumer Behaviour, 3rd edition, 1996, Prentice
Hall

To provide knowledge in the fields of segmen

tation and the marketing environment, two

texts will assist:

McDonald, Malcolm and Dunbar, Ian, Market Segmentation,

1995, Macmillan Press

Palmer, Adrian and Hartley, Bob, The Business and Marketing

Environment, 2nd edition, 1996, McGraw-Hill

In the field of marketing research, the follow

ing will add to an understanding of the key

issues:

Crouch, Sunny and Housden, Matthew, Marketing Research for

Managers, 2nd edition, 1996, Butterworth-Heinemann Crimp,
Margaret and Wright, Len Tiu, The Marketing Research
Process, 4th edition, 1995, Prentice Hall More specific
texts in the field of marketing communications research
include: Fletcher, Alan D. and Bowers, Thomas A.,
Fundamentals of Advertising Research, 4th edition, 1991,
John Wiley and Sons Haskins, Jack and Kendrick, Alice,
Successful Advertising Research Methods, 1993, NTC Business
Books
3 3. Product and service strategies

Howard D., ‘Stretching a Point’, Admap, March 1997

King, S., ‘Brand Building in the 1990s’, Journal of

Marketing Management, Vol. 7, 1991

King, S., in Haigh, D., ‘Brands’, Marketing Business, March

1996

Kotler, P. and Armstrong, G., The Principles of Marketing,

7th edition, 1996, Prentice Hall

Macrae, C., ‘Branding – A Core Business Process’, Journal

of Brand Management, April 1995

Macrae, C., World Class Brands, 1991, Addison-Wesley

Marketing magazine, ‘Sleeping with the Enemy, 5 June 1977

Mihailovic, P., ‘Time to Scrap the Rules’, Journal of Brand

Management, August, 1995

Miles, L., ‘Metamorphosis in Marketing’, Marketing

magazine, July/August 1993

Ogilvy, D., Ogilvy on Advertising, 1995, Prion

Onkvisit. S. and Shaw, J. J., ‘The International Dimension

of Branding’, International Marketing Review, No. 6, 1989

O’Shaughnessy, J., Competitive Marketing – A Strategic

Approach, 3rd edition, Routledge, 1995

Sampson, P., ‘Better Way to Measure Brand Image’, Admap,

July/August 1993 Sergeant, J., ‘Own Label: Taking Stock in
1997’, Admap, March 1997 Southgate, P., Total Branding by
Design, Kogan Page, 1994 Trout, J. and Rivkin, S., The New
Positioning, McGraw-Hill, 1996 Uncles, M., ‘Branding – The
Marketing Advantage’, Journal of Brand Management, August
1995 Additional reading There are several excellent books
on branding and related issues, including: de Chernatony,
Leslie and McDonald, Malcolm, Creating Powerful Brands, 2nd
edition (1998) Butterworth Heinemann Aaker, David A.,
Building Strong Brands, 1996, The Free Press Hankinson,
Graham and Cowking, Philippa, Branding in Action, 1993,
McGraw-Hill Gilmore, Fiona (ed.), Brand Warriors, Corporate
Leaders Share their Winning Strategies, 1997, HarperCollins
Business
4 4. The integration of marketing
communications

O’Donoghue, D., Account Planning and Media Planning, in

Cooper, A. (ed.), How to Plan Advertising, Cassell, 1997

Shultz, D., Tannenbaum, S. and Lauterborn, R., Integrated

Marketing Communications, NTC Business Books, 1992

Shultz, D., Tannenbaum, S. and Lauterborn, R., The

Marketing Paradigm – Integrated Marketing Communications,
NTC Business Books, 1995

Smith, P., ‘Benefits and Barriers to Integrated

Communications’, Admap, February 1996

Yeshin, T., The Development and Implications of Integrated

Marketing Communications, Private Study, DMB&B, 1996
Additional reading Undoubtedly, the foremost book in the
field is: Schultz, Don E., Tannenbaum, Stanley, I. and
Lauterborn, Robert F., Integrated Marketing Communications:
Putting It Together and Making It Work, 1992, NTC Business
Books For a contemporary view of integration, students are
recommended to consult the various academic journals
referenced in this chapter.
5 5. Managing the marketing
communications mix

Arnold, D., The Handbook of Brand Management, Century

Business–The Economist Books, 1992

Broadbent, S., The Advertising Budget, IPA/ NTC Business

Books, 1989

Cleland, K., ‘Few Wed Marketing Communications’,

Advertising Age, 27 February 1995

Nielsen, Category Management, 1992 NTC Business Books

Rossiter, J. R. and Percy, L., Advertising, Communications

and Promotion Management, 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1997
Additional reading

To understand the interface between market

ing communications and the broader issues of

marketing management, the following will

aid understanding:

Arnold, David, The Handbook of Brand Management, 1992,

Century Business

Lancaster, Geoff and Massingham, Lester, Marketing

Management, 1993, McGraw-Hill

Doyle, Peter, Marketing Management and Strategy, 1994,

Prentice Hall

Broadbent, Simon, The Advertising Budget: The Advertiser’s

Guide to Budget Determination, 1989, IPA/NTC Business Books
6 6. Choosing and using marketing
communications agencies

This Page Intentionally Left Blank

7 7. Advertising

Woods, R., ‘Why Has Advertising Gone Blank’, Brandweek, 22

February 1993

Yeshin, T. (ed.), Inside Advertising, Institute of

Practitioners in Advertising, 1993 Additional reading

Parente, Donald, Vanden Bergh, Bruce, Barban, Arnold and

Marra, James, Advertising Campaign Strategy: A Guide to
Marketing Communication Plans, 1996, The Dryden Press

McDonald, Colin, How Advertising Works: A Review of Current

Thinking, 1992, The Advertising Association/NTC
Publications Ltd Aaker, David, Batra, Rajeev and Myers,
John G., Advertising Management, 4th edition, 1992,
Prentice Hall Students should also consult the superb
Advertising Works books, representing a compilation of the
successful papers in the IPA Effectiveness Awards produced
biannually. The 1992 and 1994 volumes were both edited by
Chris Baker, with the latest edition, Volume 9, 1996,
edited by Gary Duckworth
8 8. The development of advertising

Baker, C., Admap, December 1994a

Baker, C. (ed). ‘Jeans Sans Frontie`res’, Advertising

Works, IPA/NTC, 1994b

Baker, C., Advertising Works, Vol 8, IPA/NTC, 1994c

Bartle, J., The Advertising Contribution, in Butterfield,

L. (ed.), Excellence in Advertising, Butterworth-Heinemann,
1997

Bovee, C., Thill, J., Dovel, G. and Wood, M., Advertising

Excellence, McGraw-Hill, 1995

Branthwaite, A. and Ware, R., ‘The Role of Music in

Advertising’, Admap, July/August 1997

Cooper, A. (ed.), How to Plan Advertising, 2nd edition,

Cassell, 1997

de Mooij, M., Advertising Worldwide, Prentice Hall, 2nd

edition, 1994

Drake, M., ‘The Basics of Creative Development Research’,

International Journal of Advertising, 1984

Duckworth, G., Advertising Works, Vol 9, IPA/ NTC, 1997

Dyer, G., Advertising as a Communication, Methuen, 1982

Fletcher, W., A Glittering Haze: Strategic Advertising in

the 1990s, NTC Publications, 1992

Fletcher, W., ‘The Advertising High Ground’, Admap,

November 1994

Franzen, G., Advertising Effectiveness, NTC Publications,

1994

Gatfield, S., ‘Brand Building and the Agency’, Admap,

January 1995

Goodyear, M., ‘Keeping Up With The Jones’, Admap, September

1994

Gordon, W., ‘Advertising Research’, Admap, June 1992

Gunn, D., ‘Do Creative Commercials Sell’, Campaign, 22

September 1995 Hegarty, J., ‘Factors Behind Success: The
1994 IPA Award Winners’, Admap, December 1994 Hegarty, J.,
BBH in ‘The Bottom Line’, Culture magazine, Sunday Times,
26 November 1995 Holstius, K., ‘Measuring Sales Response to
Advertising’, International Journal of Advertising, No 1,
1990 Jones, J. P., ‘Advertising’s Woes and Advertising
Accountability’, Admap, September 1994 Lillien, G. L. and
Kotler, P., Marketing Models, Prentice Hall, 1993 McDonald,
C., How Advertising Works, Advertising Association NTC
Publications, 1992 Ogilvy, D., Confessions of An
Advertising Man , Longman 1964 Ogilvy, D. and Raphaelson,
J., ‘Research on Advertising Techniques that Work and Don’t
Work’, Harvard Business Review, July/ August 1982, 18
Poiesz, B. C. and Robben, H. S. J., ‘Individual Reactions
to Advertising’, International Journal of Advertising, 1994
Prue, T., Advertising Works, Vol 6, IPA/NTC, 1994a Prue,
T., ‘How Advertising Works: the 1994 IPA Advertising
Effectiveness Awards’, Admap, November 1994b Saatchi and
Saatchi, Developing Effective Creativity, 1995 Shultz, D.
E. and Tannenbaum, S. I., Essentials of Advertising
Strategy, 2nd edition, NTC Business Books, 1989 White, H.
How to Produce Effective TV Commercials, 3rd edition, NTC
Business Books, 1994 Wilkins, J., TV or not TV?, MRS
Conference Paper, March 1997 Additional reading Schultz,
Don E. and Tannenbaum, Stanley I., Essentials of
Advertising Strategy, 2nd edition, 1994, NTC Business Books
Schultz, Don E., Strategic Advertising Campaigns, 3rd
edition, 1994, NTC Business Books

Bovee, Courtland, Thill, John, Dovel, George and Wood,

Marian, Advertising Excellence, 1995, McGraw-Hill

Davis, Martyn P., Successful Advertising: Key Alternative

Approaches, 1997, Cassell

Trout, J. and Rivkin, S., 1996, The New Positioning,

McGraw-Hill Cooper, Alan (ed.), How to Plan Advertising,
2nd edition, 1997, Cassell Butterfield, Leslie (ed.),
Excellence in Advertising, 1997, Butterworth-Heinemann
Franzen, Giep, Advertising Effectiveness, 1994, NTC
Publications
9 9. Media and media planning

Belch, G. E. and Belch, M. A., Introduction to Advertising

and Promotion, Irwin, Homewood, Ill, 1993

Bulman, J., MD of B&J Media Services in Campaign, 16

September 1994

Engel, J. F. et al., Promotional Strategy, 8th edition,

Irwin, 1994 Jacob, I., Making the Most of Media, in
Butterfield, L., Excellence in Advertising,
Butterworth-Heinemann, 1997 Jones, J. P., Advertising’s
Impact on Sales and Profitability, IPA Conference Paper,
March 1995 Kaufman, C. and Lane, P., ‘In Pursuit of the
Nomadic Viewer’, Journal of Consumer Marketing, 1994
Krugman, H. E., ‘Why Three Exposures May Be Enough’,
Journal of Advertising Research, 12, 1972 Sissors, J. L.
and Bumba, L. Advertising Media Planning, 4th edition, NTC
Business Books, 1993 Wilkins, J., TV or Not TV?, MRS
Conference Paper, March 1997 Additional reading Bogart,
Leo, Strategy in Advertising: Matching Media and Messages
to Markets and Motivations, 2nd edition, 1990, NTC
Publications Broadbent, Simon and Jacobs, Brian, Spending
Advertising Money, 4th edition, Business Books, 1994
Butterfield, Leslie (ed.), Excellence in Advertising, 1997,
Butterworth-Heinemann Table 9.7 Top ten media specialists
by billings, 1996 Media agency Associated advertising
agency Billings (£m) Zenith Media Saatchi & Saatchi 554.29
TMD Carat 400.66 MediaVest DMB&B 357.69 BMP DDB (Optimum)
BMP DDB 311.07 Mediaopolis Y&R, RSCG, WCRS 233.03 CIA
Medianetwork 230.36 New PHD Abbott Mead Vickers BBDO 227.66
Initiative Media Lintas 226.94 Universal McCann McCann
Erickson 220.78 The Network (O&M) 211.15 Source: A. C.
Nielsen – MEAL, published in Campaign, 10 July 1997
10 10. Sales promotion

There are several texts which will provide a

deeper understanding of the nature and scope

of sales promotion:

Brown, Chris, The Sales Promotion Handbook, 1995, Kogan Page

Quelch, John A., Sales Promotion Management, 1989, Prentice

Hall Robinson, William and Hauri, Christine, Promotional
Marketing: Ideas and Techniques for Success in Sales
Promotion, 1991, NTC Business Books Schultz, Don E.,
Robinson, William A. and Petrison, Lisa A., Sales Promotion
Essentials, 1993, NTC Business Books Toop, Alan, European
Sales Promotion: Great Campaigns in Action, 1992, Kogan
Page
11 11. Direct marketing

Callingham, M., ‘Tight Focus for a Close Up View’,

Marketing, 13 July 1995

Forshaw, T., Testing – The Direct Route to Continuous

Improvement, in The Handbook of Direct Marketing, IDM, 1995

Ganesan, S., ‘Determinants of Long Term Orientation in

Buyer/Seller Relationships’, Journal of Marketing, April
1994

Gronroos, C., The Marketing Strategy Continuum: Towards a

Marketing Concept for the 1990s, Management Decision,
29(1), 1991

Lewis, H. G., Direct Marketing Strategies and Tactics,

Dartnell Corporation, 1992

McCorkell, G., ‘Direct Marketing – A New Industry or a New

Idea’, The Practitioners’ Guide to Direct Marketing, The
Institute of Direct Marketing, 1995

Mouncey, P., Using MR for Better Direct Marketing, in The

Direct Marketing Handbook, IDM, 1995

Nash, E.L., The Direct Marketing Handbook, 2nd edition,

McGraw-Hill, 1992

Noordewier, T. G., George, J., Nevin, J. R., ‘Performance

Outcomes of Purchasing Arrangements in Industrial
Buyer/Vendor Relationships’, Journal of Marketing, October
1990

Ogilvy and Mather, Never Sell to a Stranger, DM Information

Pack

Roman, E., Integrated Direct Marketing, NTC Business Books,

1995 Shaver, D., in The Direct Marketing Handbook, Nash, E.
L. (editor in chief), 2nd edition, McGraw-Hill, 1992
Uncles, M., ‘Branding – the Marketing Advantage’, Journal
of Brand Management, August 1995 Additional reading Bird,
Drayton, Commonsense Direct Marketing, 3rd edition, 1993,
Kogan Page The Practitioner’s Guide to Direct Marketing,
1995, The Institute of Direct Marketing Brown, H. E. and
Bruskirk, B., Readings and Cases in Direct Marketing, 1989,
NTC Business Books Nash, Edward L. (ed.), The Direct
Marketing Handbook, 2nd edition, 1992, McGraw-Hill Roman,
E., Integrated Direct Marketing, 1995, NTC Business Books
Fairlie, Robin, Database Marketing and Direct Mail, 1990,
Exley Christopher, Martin, Payne, Adrian and Ballantyne,
David, Relationship Marketing, 1991, Butterworth-Heinemann
McKenna, Regis, Relationship Marketing, 1991, Century
Business Buttle, Francis (ed.), Relationship Marketing:
Theory and Practice, 1996, Paul Chapman Publishing
12 12. Public relations

Watson, T., ‘Evaluating PR Effects’, Admap, June 1992

White, Evaluation in PR Practice, Cranfield/ PRCA, 1990

Additional reading

Hart, Norman A., Strategic Public Relations, 1995,

Macmillan Business Haywood, Roger, All About Public
Relations, 2nd edition, 1990, McGraw-Hill L’Etang, Jacquie
and Pieczka, Magda, Critical Perspectives in Public
Relations, 1996, Thomson Business Press Goldman, Jordan,
Public Relations in the Marketing Mix, 1992, NTC Business
Books Stone, Norman, The Management and Practice of Public
Relations, 1995, Macmillan Business
13 13. Sponsorship and product placement

Baird, R., ‘Sponsors Look at Sporting Chances’, Marketing

Week, 10 April 1997

Belch and Belch (1993) Introduction to Advertising and

Promotion – An Integrated Marketing Communications
Perspective, 2nd edition, Irwin, 1993

Byles, D. and Walford, N., ‘Advertising’s Brother’, Admap,

May 1991

Gamon, J. and Millman, I., Can Broadcast Sponsorship Help

to Build Brands, MRS Conference Paper, March 1997

Jacobson, M. and Mazur, L., Marketing Madness: A survival

guide for a consumer society, Internet web site

Jefkins, F., Public Relations Techniques, 2nd edition,

Butterworth-Heinemann, 1994

Leinster, C., ‘A Tale of Mice and Lens’, Fortune, 28

September 1987

Marsh, H., ‘Bond Product Deals a Licence to Sell’,

Marketing, 16 November 1995

Meenaghan, T., ‘The Role of Sponsorship in the Marketing

Communications Mix’, International Journal of Advertising,
10, 1991

Nicholls, A., ‘Terms of Endorsement’, Media and Marketing

Europe, September 1994

Oliver, B., ‘The Latest Screen Stars’, Marketing, 13 March

1996

Prendergrast, M., For God, Country and Coca Cola, Orion

Books, 1993

Sleight, S., Sponsorship: What It Is and How To Use It,

McGraw-Hill, 1989

Winski, J., ‘Hershey Befriends Extra Terrestrial’,

Advertising Age, 19 July 1982 Additional reading

Sleight, Steve, Sponsorship: What It Is and How To Use It,

1989, McGraw-Hill
14 14. Corporate communications

Aberg, L., ‘Theoretical Model and Praxis of Total

Communications’, International Public Relations Review,
1990

Armstrong, M., How To Be An Even Better Manager, 3rd

edition, Kogan Page, 1990

Bernstein, D., Corporate Image and Reality, Cassell, 1989

Booth, S., Crisis Management Strategy, Routledge, 1993

Dowling, G. R. ‘Managing Your Corporate Image’, Industrial

Marketing Management, 15, 1986

Fill, C., Marketing Communications, Frameworks, Theories

and Applications, Prentice Hall, 1995

Fink, S., Crisis Management 1986, Management Books 2000

Fox, P. MD, Grayling Group, ‘Emergency Services’,

Marketing, October 1995

Hoban, D., ‘Crisis Management’, Certified Accountant, July

1995

Ind, N., The Corporate Image: Strategies for Effective

Identity Programmes, 1990. Kogan Page Mallozzi, C., ‘Facing
the Danger Zone in Crisis Communications’, Risk Management,
January 1994 Ogilvy, D., Ogilvy on Advertising, 1995, Prion
Olins, W., Corporate Identity, Thames & Hudson, 1989
Pearson, C. and Mitroff, I., A Framework for Crisis
Management, Academy of Management Executive, 1993 Pincus,
J. D., Robert, A. P. R., Rayfield, A. and DeBonis, J. N.,
‘Transforming CEOs into Chief Communications Officers’,
Public Relations Journal, 1991 Ray, M. L., Advertising and
Communications Management, Prentice Hall, 1982 Richardson,
W. and Richardson, R., Business Planning – An Approach to
Strategic Management, 2nd edition, 1992, Pitman Seymore,
M., ‘Planning for Crisis’, European Management Journal,
March 1991 Seymour, M., Burson Marsteller, Marketing, 28
July 1994 Troy, K., Managing Corporate Communications in a
Competitive Climate, Conference Board, 1993 Van Riel, C.,
Principles of Corporate Communications, Prentice Hall, 1995
Wisenblit, J., ‘Crisis Management Planning Among US
Corporations’, SAM Advanced Management Journal, Spring 1989
Additional reading Gregory, James R. and Wiechmann, Jack,
Marketing Corporate Image, 1991, NTC Business Books Van
Riel, Cees, Principles of Corporate Communication, 1995,
Prentice Hall Ind, Nicholas, The Corporate Image, 1989,
Kogan Page Bernstein, David, Corporate Image and Reality,
1989, Cassell Booth, Sarah, Crisis Management Strategy,
1993, Routledge
15 15. International marketing
communications

Yates, K., ‘Why BBH Has Decided to Head East instead of

West’, Campaign, 26 April 1996 Additional reading

de Mooij, Marieke, Advertising Worldwide, 2nd edition,

1994, Prentice Hall Usenier, J.-C., Marketing Across
Cultures, 2nd edition, 1996, Prentice Hall Mueller,
Barbara, International Advertising: Communicating Across
Cultures, 1995, Wadsworth–Thomson Publishing Vardar,
Nukhet, Global Advertising: Rhyme or Reason, 1992, Paul
Chapman Publishing
16 16. Future developments in marketing
communications

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