Chapter 5

CONTINUITY AND
DIFFERENTIABILITY
The whole of science is nothing more than a refinement
v of
everyday thinking.” — ALBERT EINSTEIN v

5.1 Introduction
This chapter is essentially a continuation of our study of
differentiation of functions in Class XI. We had learnt to
differentiate certain functions like polynomial functions and
trigonometric functions. In this chapter, we introduce the
very important concepts of continuity, differentiability and
relations between them. We will also learn differentiation
of inverse trigonometric functions. Further, we introduce a
new class of functions called exponential and logarithmic
functions. These functions lead to powerful techniques of
differentiation. We illustrate certain geometrically obvious
conditions through differential calculus. In the process, we
will learn some fundamental theorems in this area.
Sir Issac Newton
5.2 Continuity (1642-1727)
We start the section with two informal examples to get a feel of continuity. Consider
the function
≤
1, if 0
x
fx
x
()
2, if 0
=
>
This function is of course defined at every
point of the real line. Graph of this function is
given in the Fig 5.1. One can deduce from the
graph that the value of the function at nearby
points on x-axis remain close to each other
except at x = 0. At the points near and to the
left of 0, i.e., at points like – 0.1, – 0.01, – 0.001,
the value of the function is 1. At the points near
 and to the right of 0, i.e., at points like 0.1, 0.01, 2019-20

Fig 5.1
148 MATHEMATICS

0.001, the value of the function is 2. Using the language of left and right hand limits,
we may say that the left (respectively right) hand limit of f at 0 is 1 (respectively 2).
In particular the left and right hand limits do not coincide. We also observe that the
value of the function at x = 0 concides with the left hand limit. Note that when we
try to draw the graph, we cannot draw it in one stroke, i.e., without lifting pen from
the plane of the paper, we can not draw the graph of this function. In fact, we need
to lift the pen when we come to 0 from left. This is one instance of function being
not continuous at x = 0. Now, consider the function defined as
x
fx x
,
(),
≠
= =

1 0
if
20
if

This function is also defined at every point. Left and the right hand limits at x =
0 are both equal to 1. But the value of the
function at x = 0 equals 2 which does not
coincide with the common value of the left
and right hand limits. Again, we note that we
cannot draw the graph of the function without
lifting the pen. This is yet another instance of
a function being not continuous at x = 0.
Naively, we may say that a function is
continuous at a fixed point if we can draw the
graph of the function around that precisely as follows:
point without lifting the pen from Fig 5.2
the plane of the paper.
Mathematically, it may be phrased

Definition 1 Suppose f is a real function on a subset of the real numbers and let c be
a point in the domain of f. Then f is continuous at c if

x cf
xfc
lim ( ) ( )
→=

More elaborately, if the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the
function at x = c exist and equal to each other, then f is said to be continuous at x =
c. Recall that if the right hand and left hand limits at x = c coincide, then we say that
the common value is the limit of the function at x = c. Hence we may also rephrase
the definition of continuity as follows: a function is continuous at x = c if the
function is defined at x = c and if the value of the function at x = c equals the limit of
the function at x = c. If f is not continuous at c, we say f is discontinuous at c and c is
called a point of discontinuity of f.

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 149

Example 1 Check the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = 2x + 3 at x = 1.

Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 1 and its value
is 5. Then find the limit of the function at x = 1. Clearly
fxx
lim ( ) lim(2 3) 2(1) 3 5
=+=+=
xx
→→
11

lim ( ) 5 (1)
xf x f

→= =
Thus 1
Hence, f is continuous at x = 1.
Example 2 Examine whether the function f given by f(x) = x2 is continuous at x = 0.

Solution First note that the function is defined at the given point x = 0 and its value
is 0. Then find the limit of the function at x = 0. Clearly
22
fxx
lim ( ) lim 0 0
===
→→
xx
00

xfxf
lim ( ) 0 (0)
→= =
Thus 0
Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 3 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f(x) = | x | at x = 0.
Solution By definition

, if 0
f(x) =
−<
 ≥
xx
 xx
, if 0
Clearly the function is defined at 0 and f(0) = 0. Left hand limit of f at 0 is
lim ( ) lim (– ) 0
==
fxx
→ −→ −
xx
00

Similarly, the right hand limit of f at 0 is

lim ( ) lim 0
==
fxx
→ +→ +
xx
00

Thus, the left hand limit, right hand limit and the value of the function coincide
at x = 0. Hence, f is continuous at x = 0.
Example 4 Show that the function f given by

 + ≠ 
 =
3
3, if 0
f(x) =

is not continuous at x = 0.
xx
x
1, if 0 2019-20

150 MATHEMATICS

Solution The function is defined at x = 0 and its value at x = 0 is 1. When x ≠ 0, the

function is given by a polynomial. Hence,
33
→=
xfx
lim ( )
lim ( 3) 0 3 3
0
x +=+=
→ 0
x
Since the limit of f at x = 0 does not coincide with f(0), the function is not
continuous at x = 0. It may be noted that x = 0 is the only point of discontinuity for
this function.
Example 5 Check the points where the constant function f(x) = k is continuous.
Solution The function is defined at all real numbers and by definition, its value at
any real number equals k. Let c be any real number. Then
x cf
x
lim ( )
→ = lim

x ck k
→=

lim
Since f(c) = k =
x c → f(x) for any real number c, the function f is continuous at
every real number.
Example 6 Prove that the identity function on real numbers given by f(x) = x is
continuous at every real number.
Solution The function is clearly defined at every point and f(c) = c for every real
number c. Also,
lim
→=

x cx c
→= x cf x lim ( )

Thus, lim
x c →f(x) = c = f(c) and hence the function is continuous at every real number.
Having defined continuity of a function at a given point, now we make a natural
extension of this definition to discuss continuity of a function.
Definition 2 A real function f is said to be continuous if it is continuous at every
point in the domain of f.
This definition requires a bit of elaboration. Suppose f is a function defined on a
closed interval [a, b], then for f to be continuous, it needs to be continuous at every
point in [a, b] including the end points a and b. Continuity of f at a means
lim ( )
fx
+
→ = f (a)
xa

and continuity of f at b means

lim ( )
fx
→= f(b)
–
xb

−
→
and lim ( )
Observe that lim ( ) +
→ do not make sense. As a
fx consequence x b
xa
fx
of this definition, if f is defined only at one point, it is continuous there, i.e., if the
domain of f is a singleton, f is a continuous function.
 2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 151

Example 7 Is the function defined by f(x) = | x |, a continuous function?

Solution We may rewrite f as

, if 0
f (x) =
−<
 ≥
xx
xx
, if 0
By Example 3, we know that f is continuous at x = 0.
Let c be a real number such that c < 0. Then f(c) = – c. Also

x cf
x
lim ( )
lim ( ) –
→=

x cx c
−=
→ (Why?)
Since lim ( ) ( )
→= , f is continuous at all negative real numbers.

x cf x f c

Now, let c be a real number such that c > 0. Then f(c) = c. Also x

cf x

lim ( )
lim
→=

x cx c
=
→ (Why?)
Since lim ( ) ( )
x cf x f c

→= , f is continuous at all positive real numbers. Hence, f is continuous

at all points.
Example 8 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by f (x) = x3 + x2 – 1.
Solution Clearly f is defined at every real number c and its value at c is c3 + c2 – 1.
We also know that
3232
→= lim ( 1) 1
xxcc
+−=+−
 xc→
x cf x lim ( )
Thus lim ( ) ( )
→= , and hence f is continuous at every real number. This means
x cf
xfc
f is a continuous function.
1 , x ≠ 0.
Example 9 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by f (x) = x
Solution Fix any non zero real number c, we have
11
lim ( ) lim
fx ==
→→
xc
xcxc

Also, since for c ≠ 0, 1

f c( )
c

= , we have lim ( ) ( )
x cf x f c

→= and hence, f is continuous

at every point in the domain of f. Thus f is a continuous function. 2019-20

152 MATHEMATICS

We take this opportunity to explain the concept of infinity. This we do by

1
analysing the function f (x) = x near x = 0. To carry out this analysis we follow the
usual trick of finding the value of the function at real numbers close to 0. Essentially
we are trying to find the right hand limit of f at 0. We tabulate this in the following
(Table 5.1).
Table 5.1

x 1 0.3 0.2 0.1 = 10–1 0.01 = 10–2 0.001 = 10–3 10–n f (x) 1 3.333... 5 10
100 = 102 1000 = 103 10n
We observe that as x gets closer to 0 from the right, the value of f (x) shoots up
higher. This may be rephrased as: the value of f (x) may be made larger than any
given number by choosing a positive real number very close to 0. In symbols, we
write
lim ( )
fx
x
∞0
+
→ = +

(to be read as: the right hand limit of f (x) at 0 is plus infinity). We wish to
emphasise that + ∞ is NOT a real number and hence the right hand limit of f at 0
does not exist (as a real number).
Similarly, the left hand limit of f at 0 may be found. The following table is self
explanatory.
Table 5.2

x – 1 – 0.3 – 0.2 – 10–1 – 10–2 – 10–3 – 10–n f (x) – 1 – 3.333... – 5 – 10 –

102 – 103 – 10n

From the Table 5.2, we deduce that the

value of f(x) may be made smaller than any
given number by choosing a
negative real number very close to 0.
In symbols, we write
−
→ =−∞
lim ( )
fx

x 0

(to be read as: the left hand limit of f(x) at 0 is

minus infinity). Again, we wish to emphasise
that – ∞ is NOT a real number and hence the
left hand limit of f at 0 does not exist (as a real
number). The graph of the reciprocal function
given in Fig 5.3 is a geometric representation
Fig 5.3
of the above mentioned facts. 2019-20

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 153

Example 10 Discuss the continuity of the function f defined by

2, if 1
f (x) =

+≤
 −>
xx
xx
2, if 1

Solution The function f is defined at all points of the real line.

Case 1 If c < 1, then f(c) = c + 2. Therefore, lim ( ) lim( 2) 2 f x x c
=+=+
xcxc
→→
Thus, f is continuous at all real numbers less than 1.
Case 2 If c > 1, then f(c) = c – 2. Therefore,
lim ( ) lim
fx = f (c)
= (x – 2) = c – 2
xcxc xx
→→ 11

Thus, f is continuous at all points x Since the left and right hand limits
> 1. Case 3 If c = 1, then the left of f at x = 1 do not coincide, f is not
hand limit of f at x = 1 is continuous at x = 1. Hence

fxx
lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 3
=+=+=
––
xx
→→
11

The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is

lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 1
fxx Fig 5.4
=−=−=−
→ → + +

x = 1 is the only point of discontinuity of f. The graph of the function is given in Fig
+
5.4. Example 11 Find all the points of discontinuity of the function f defined by 

<
=

xx
2, if 1
0, if 1
f (x) = x
x

 − > x 2, if 1

Solution As in the previous example we find that

f is continuous at all real numbers x ≠ 1. The left
hand limit of f at x = 1 is
lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 3
fxx
=+=+=
→ −→
–
xx
11
Since, the left and right hand limits
The right hand limit of f at x = 1 is
of f at x = 1 do not coincide, f is not
lim ( ) lim ( 2) 1 2 1 continuous at x = 1. Hence x = 1 is
fxx the only point of discontinuity of f.
=−=−=− The graph of the function is given
→ +→ +
xx in the Fig 5.5.
11
 Fig 5.5

2019-20
154 MATHEMATICS

Example 12 Discuss the continuity of the function defined by

2, if 0
f(x) =
+<
 − + >
xx
xx
2, if 0

Solution Observe that the function is defined at all real numbers except at 0.
Domain of definition of this function is
D1 ∪ D2 where D1 = {x ∈ R : x < 0} and
D2 = {x ∈ R : x > 0}
= (x + 2)
Case 1 If c ∈ D1, then lim ( ) lim
fx
xcxc
→→
= c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is continuous in D1.
Case 2 If c ∈ D2, then lim ( ) lim
fx = (– x + 2)
xcxc
→→
graph this function we need to lift
= – c + 2 = f (c) and hence f is the pen from the plane
continuous in D2. Since f is
continuous at all points in the
domain of f, we deduce that f is
continuous. Graph of this function
is given in the Fig 5.6. Note that to Fig 5.6
of the paper, but we need to do that only for those points where the function is not
defined.
Example 13 Discuss the continuity of the function f given by

f(x) = 2, if 0

≥
xx
 
<
xx
, if 0
Solution Clearly the function is defined at
every real number. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.7. By inspection, it seems prudent
to partition the domain of definition of f into
three disjoint subsets of the real line.
Let D1 = {x ∈ R : x < 0}, D2 = {0} Fig 5.7
and D3 = {x ∈ R : x > 0}

Case 1 At any point in D1, we have f(x) = x2 and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 2).
Case 2 At any point in D3, we have f(x) = x and it is easy to see that it is continuous
there (see Example 6).

2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 155

Case 3 Now we analyse the function at x = 0. The value of the function at 0 is f(0) =
0. The left hand limit of f at 0 is
22
lim ( ) lim 0 0
===
fxx
→→−
–
xx
00
The right hand limit of f at 0 is
fxx
lim ( ) lim 0
==
→ +→ +
xx
00

Thus This means that f is lim ( ) 0

= = f(0) and hence f is continuous at 0. f x
x → 0
continuous at every point in its domain and hence, f is a continuous
function. Example 14 Show that every polynomial function is continuous.
Solution Recall that a function p is a polynomial function if it is defined by p(x) =
a0 + a1x + ... + anxn for some natural number n, an≠ 0 and ai ∈ R. Clearly this
function is defined for every real number. For a fixed real number c, we have
lim ( ) ( )
x cp x p c
 →=
By definition, p is continuous at c. Since c is any real number, p is continuous at
every real number and hence p is a continuous function.
Example 15 Find all the points of discontinuity of the greatest integer function
defined by f(x) = [x], where [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x.
Solution First observe that f is defined for all real numbers. Graph of the function is
given in Fig 5.8. From the graph it looks like that f is discontinuous at every integral
point. Below we explore, if this is true.

Fig 5.8

2019-20
156 MATHEMATICS

Case 1 Let c be a real number which is not equal to any integer. It is evident from
the graph that for all real numbers close to c the value of the function is equal to [c];
i.e., = = . Also f(c) = [c] and hence the function is continuous at all real
lim ( ) lim [ ] [ ]
fxxc
xcxc
→→

numbers not equal to integers.

Case 2 Let c be an integer. Then we can find a sufficiently small real number r > 0
such that [c – r] = c – 1 whereas [c + r] = c.
This, in terms of limits mean that
−
xc→ f(x) = c – 1, lim
lim
+
xc→f(x) = c
Since these limits cannot be equal to each other for any c, the function is
discontinuous at every integral point.
5.2.1 Algebra of continuous functions
In the previous class, after having understood the concept of limits, we learnt
some algebra of limits. Analogously, now we will study some algebra of
 continuous functions. Since continuity of a function at a point is entirely dictated
by the limit of the function at that point, it is reasonable to expect results
analogous to the case of limits.
Theorem 1 Suppose f and g be two real functions continuous at a real number c.
Then
(1) f + g is continuous at x = c.
(2) f – g is continuous at x = c.
(3) f . g is continuous at x = c.
f
(4) g

  is continuous at x = c, (provided g (c) ≠ 0).
Proof We are investigating continuity of (f + g) at x = c. Clearly it is defined at x
= c. We have

lim( )( )
x cf g x
+ lim [ ( ) ( )]
→ =

x cf x g x
+
→ (by definition of f + g)

lim ( ) lim ( )
=
fxgx
+
(by the theorem on limits)
xcxc
→→

= f(c) + g(c) (as f and g are continuous)

= (f + g) (c) (by definition of f + g)
Hence, f + g is continuous at x = c.
Proofs for the remaining parts are similar and left as an exercise to the reader.

2019-20

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 157

Remarks
(i) As a special case of (3) above, if f is a constant function, i.e., f(x) = λ for some
real number λ, then the function (λ . g) defined by (λ . g) (x) = λ . g(x) is also
continuous. In particular if λ = – 1, the continuity of f implies continuity of –
f.
(ii) As a special case of (4) above, if f is the constant function f(x) = λ, then the λ λ
function λ ()
g defined by ( )
 x
= is also continuous wherever g(x) ≠ 0. In
ggx
1 .
particular, the continuity of g implies continuity of g
The above theorem can be exploited to generate many continuous functions.
They also aid in deciding if certain functions are continuous or not. The following
examples illustrate this:
Example 16 Prove that every rational function is continuous.
Solution Recall that every rational function f is given by
px
fxqx
()
(),()0
=≠
qx
()
where p and q are polynomial functions. The domain of f is all real numbers except
points at which q is zero. Since polynomial functions are continuous (Example 14),
f is continuous by (4) of Theorem 1.
Example 17 Discuss the continuity of sine function.
Solution To see this we use the following facts
lim sin 0
→=

xx
0
We have not proved it, but is intuitively clear from the graph of sin x near 0.
Now, observe that f(x) = sin x is defined for every real number. Let c be a real
number. Put x = c + h. If x → c we know that h → 0. Therefore
lim ( )

→= lim sin
xc
fx →
xc
x

Thus lim x c →
lim sin( )
hc h

→+
=0
lim [sin cos cos sin ]
hc h c h
 →+
=0
lim [sin cos ] lim [cos sin ]
chch
+
= 00
hh
→→
= sin c + 0 = sin c = f(c)
f(x) = f(c) and hence f is a continuous function. 2019-20

158 MATHEMATICS

Remark A similar proof may be given for the continuity of cosine function.
Example 18 Prove that the function defined by f(x) = tan x is a continuous function.
. This is defined for all real numbers
x
Solution The function f(x) = tan x = sin
such
co
s
x
that cos x ≠ 0, i.e., x ≠ (2n +1)
2π. We have just proved that both sine and cosine
functions are continuous. Thus tan x being a quotient of two continuous functions is
continuous wherever it is defined.
An interesting fact is the behaviour of continuous functions with respect to
composition of functions. Recall that if f and g are two real functions, then (f o g) (x)
= f(g (x))
is defined whenever the range of g is a subset of domain of f. The following theorem
(stated without proof) captures the continuity of composite functions. Theorem 2
Suppose f and g are real valued functions such that (f o g) is defined at c. If g is
continuous at c and if f is continuous at g (c), then (f o g) is continuous at c. The
following examples illustrate this theorem.
Example 19 Show that the function defined by f(x) = sin (x2) is a continuous function.
Solution Observe that the function is defined for every real number. The function f
may be thought of as a composition g o h of the two functions g and h, where g (x) =
sin x and h (x) = x2. Since both g and h are continuous functions, by Theorem 2, it
can be deduced that f is a continuous function.
Example 20 Show that the function f defined by
f(x) = |1 – x + | x | |,

where x is any real number, is a continuous function.

Solution Define g by g (x) = 1 – x + | x| and h by h (x) = | x| for all real x. Then
 (h o g) (x) = h (g (x))
= h (1– x + | x |)
= | 1– x + | x | | = f(x)
In Example 7, we have seen that h is a continuous function. Hence g being a
sum of a polynomial function and the modulus function is continuous. But then f
being a composite of two continuous functions is continuous.

2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 159

EXERCISE 5.1
1. Prove that the function f(x) = 5x – 3 is continuous at x = 0, at x = – 3 and at x =
5. 2. Examine the continuity of the function f(x) = 2x2 – 1 at x = 3. 3. Examine the
following functions for continuity.

(a) f(x) = x – 5 (b) f(x) = 1

,x≠5
x−5
= 25 −
2

(c) f(x) x

+, x ≠ –5 (d) f(x) = | x – 5 | x
5
4. Prove that the function f(x) = xn is continuous at x = n, where n is a positive
integer.
5. Is the function f defined by
≤
xx
, if 1
fx
x
()
5, if > 1
=

continuous at x = 0? At x = 1? At x = 2?
Find all points of discontinuity of f, where f is defined by

| | 3, if 3
+≤−
 
2 3, if 2 fx
6. xx
+≤ = ||
xx  −7. , if 0
()
2 3, if > 2 x
x
  6 2, if 3
≠
xx
xx
= − − <  x
f x x x ( ) 2 , if 3 < 3 + x

≥ <

=  9., if 0
= ()

fxx 1, if 0
8.
0, if 0
x  − ≤
3
xx
 3, if 2
+≥ () fx
xx 1, if 2 x x
1, if 1
fx 10. 2
xx
()
1, if 1

=  −≤
 + <11. 10
xf x xx
| |( ) = 
=  +>2
− ≥
x

12. >
1, if 1
fx () =
x x , if 1
2

13. Is the function defined by

+≤
xx
5, if 1
=
−>
a continuous function?
fx ()
x x 5, if 1

2019-20
160 MATHEMATICS
Discuss the continuity of the function f, where f is defined by
≤≤
 

3, if 0 1
x
2 , if 0  <

 ( ) 4, if 1 3
fxx xx
14. 16. x
−≤− =≤≤
  f x x ( ) 0, if 0 1
2, if 1
x 
= < <  
fxxx
 ≤ ≤15. x
( ) 2 , if 1 1
5, if 3 10 = − < ≤  4 , if > 1
> xx
2, if 1

17. Find the relationship between a and b so that the function f defined by
+≤
ax x
1, if 3
=
+>
fx
bx x
()
3, if 3
is continuous at x = 3.
18. For what value of λ is the function defined by

λ − ≤
2
xxxfx
xx
( 2 ), if 0 ( )
4 1, if 0
= 
+>
continuous at x = 0? What about continuity at x = 1?
19. Show that the function defined by g (x) = x – [x] is discontinuous at all integral
points. Here [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or equal to x. 20. Is the
function defined by f(x) = x2 – sin x + 5 continuous at x = π? 21. Discuss the
continuity of the following functions:
(a) f(x) = sin x + cos x (b) f(x) = sin x – cos x
 (c) f(x) = sin x . cos x
22. Discuss the continuity of the cosine, cosecant, secant and cotangent functions.
23. Find all points of discontinuity of f, where
sin
, if 0
x
x

<
fxx
()

21
24. Determine if f defined 
by ≠xx
= 
+≥xx sin , if 0
1, if 0
fxx
()

is a continuous function?
= 
=x
0, if 0 2019-20

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 161

25. Examine the continuity of f, where f is defined by

−≠
sin cos , if 0
xxx
fx
x
()
1, if 0
=
− =
Find the values of k so that the function f is continuous at the indicated point in
Exercises 26 to 29.
π
kx
x
cos
, if
≠ 22
π− ()
x
 at x =
2π
26. = π  x
=
fx
3, if 
2 

kx x f x
27. x
= 
 ≤  > at x = 2
2, if 2 ( )
3, if 2
1, if
28.
+≤π
kx x
=
 > π at x = π
fx
xx
()
cos , if

1, if 5
29.
+≤
kx x
()
3 5, if 5
fx
xx
=
 − > at x = 5
30. Find the values of a and b such that the function defined by
5, if 2
≤
 x
f x ax b x
( ) , if 2 10
= + < < 
≥
21, if 10
x
is a continuous function.
31. Show that the function defined by f(x) = cos (x2) is a continuous function.
32. Show that the function defined by f(x) = | cos x | is a continuous function.
33. Examine that sin | x | is a continuous function.
34. Find all the points of discontinuity of f defined by f(x) = | x | – | x + 1 |.
5.3. Differentiability
Recall the following facts from previous class. We had defined the derivative of a
real function as follows:
 Suppose f is a real function and c is a point in its domain. The derivative of f at c
is defined by
()()
lim
fchfc
+−
h
→
h0

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162 MATHEMATICS

d
fx

provided this limit exists. Derivative of f at c is denoted by f ′(c) or ( ( )) | c

. The
dx
function defined by
fxhfx
fx
+−
′=
()()
( ) lim
h
→
h0
wherever the limit exists is defined to be the derivative of f. The derivative of f is
d
denoted by f ′(x) or ( ( )) f x

or if y = f(x) by dy or y′. The process of finding

dx dx
derivative of a function is called differentiation. We also use the phrase differentiate
f(x) with respect to x to mean find f ′(x).
The following rules were established as a part of algebra of derivatives:
(1) (u ± v)′ = u′ ± v′
(2) (uv)′ = u′v + uv′ (Leibnitz or product rule)
′
′−′
u u v uv
(3)2
, wherever v ≠ 0 (Quotient rule).


=
vv
The following table gives a list of derivatives of certain standard
 functions: Table 5.3
f (x) xnsin x cos x tan x

f ′(x) nxn – 1 cos x – sin x sec2 x

Whenever we defined derivative, we had put a caution provided the limit exists.
Now the natural question is; what if it doesn’t? The question is quite pertinent and
so is
()()
lim
fchfc
its answer. If h differentiable at c. → h
+− 0
does not exist, we say that f is not
In other words, we say that a function f is differentiable at a point c in its domain if
()()
both lim

fchfc
+− fchfc
and
→
+−
h are finite and equal. A function is
()() said
lim
0 h
h
–
h → +0
to be differentiable in an interval [a, b] if it is differentiable at every point of [a, b].
As in case of continuity, at the end points a and b, we take the right hand limit and
left hand limit, which are nothing but left hand derivative and right hand derivative
of the function at a and b respectively. Similarly, a function is said to be
differentiable in an interval (a, b) if it is differentiable at every point of (a, b).

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 163

Theorem 3 If a function f is differentiable at a point c, then it is also continuous at

that point.
Proof Since f is differentiable at c, we have
fxfc
fc
()()
lim ( )
−
=′
→
xc
− have
But for x ≠ c, we xc
 ()() fxfc
f(x) – f(c) = .() xc
−
−
xc
−
()()
→− = lim . ( )
−
fxfc
xc
Therefore lim [ ( ) ( )] x cf x f c

−
  →x c
xc
c
fxfc
− x

− ()()
= lim . lim [( )]
lim [ ( )] lim [ ( )](
or
f x f c) f
xcxc
→→
x
−−  
 −→
→
xc
or xcxc

li = f ′(c) . 0 = 0

→= f (c)
xc
Hence f is continuous at x = c.
Corollary 1 Every differentiable function is continuous.
We remark that the converse of the above statement is not true. Indeed we have
seen that the function defined by f(x) = | x | is a continuous function. Consider the
left hand limit
fhfh
+−−
(0 ) (0)
lim 1
==−
→
hh
–
h
0

The right hand limit

 (0 ) (0)
lim 1
fhfh
+−
==
h h → +h
0

(0 ) (0)
Since the above left and right hand limits at 0 are not equal, 0 lim
fhf
+−
→
h h
does not exist and hence f is not differentiable at 0. Thus f is not a differentiable
function.
5.3.1 Derivatives of composite functions
To study derivative of composite functions, we start with an illustrative example.
Say, we want to find the derivative of f, where
f (x) = (2x + 1)3

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164 MATHEMATICS

One way is to expand (2x + 1)3 using binomial theorem and find the derivative
as a polynomial function as illustrated below.

d dx 
() f x
d +
(2 1) x

3
dx =
d
=3 2 (8 12 6 1) x x x

dx+ + +
2
= 24x + 24x + 6
= 6 (2x + 1)2
Now, observe that f(x) = (h o g) (x)
where g(x) = 2x + 1 and h(x) = x3. Put t = g(x) = 2x + 1. Then f(x) = h(t) = t3. Thus df

2 2 2
dx = 6 (2x + 1) = 3(2x + 1) . 2 = 3t . 2 = dh dt
⋅
dt dx
The advantage with such observation is that it simplifies the calculation in
finding the derivative of, say, (2x + 1)100. We may formalise this observation in the
following theorem called the chain rule.
Theorem 4 (Chain Rule) Let f be a real valued function which is a composite of
 dt dv
two functions u and v; i.e., f = v o u. Suppose t = u(x) and if both dx and dt exist,
we have
df dv dt
=⋅
dx dt dx
We skip the proof of this theorem. Chain rule may be extended as follows.
Suppose f is a real valued function which is a composite of three functions u, v and
w; i.e., f = (w o u) o v. If t = v (x) and s = u (t), then

df d w u dt dw ds dt ( o )
=⋅=⋅⋅
dx dt dx ds dt dx
provided all the derivatives in the statement exist. Reader is invited to formulate
chain rule for composite of more functions.

Example 21 Find the derivative of the function given by f(x) = sin (x2).

Solution Observe that the given function is a composite of two functions. Indeed, if
t = u(x) = x2 and v(t) = sin t, then
f(x) = (v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(x2) = sin x2

2019-20

dv
t
Put t = u(x) = x2. Observe that cos
dt
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 165 x

dt= and 2

dx= exist. Hence, by chain rule

df
dv dt
dx = cos 2 tx
⋅=⋅
dt dx
It is normal practice to express the final result only in terms of x. Thus
df
2
dx =
cos 2 2 cos t x x x ⋅ =
Alternatively, We can also directly proceed as follows:

y = sin (x2) ⇒dy d

= (sin x2)
dx dx
2d (x
= cos x dx 2) = 2x cos x2
Example 22 Find the derivative of tan (2x + 3).
Solution Let f(x) = tan (2x + 3), u (x) = 2x + 3 and v(t) = tan t. Then
(v o u) (x) = v(u(x)) = v(2x + 3) = tan (2x + 3) = f(x)
dv
t
=
Thus f is a composite of two functions. Put t = u(x) = 2x + 3. Then 2 dt and

sec

dt

dx= exist. Hence, by chain rule

2

df dv dt
2sec (2 3) x
2
=⋅=+
dx dt dx
Example 23 Differentiate sin (cos (x2)) with respect to x.
Solution The function f(x) = sin (cos (x2)) is a composition f(x) = (w o v o u) (x) of
the three functions u, v and w, where u(x) = x2, v(t) = cos t and w(s) = sin s. Put
dt
t = u(x) = x2 and s = v(t) = cos t. Observe x
that cos , sin dw ds
= = − and 2
st dw ds dt
ds dt
exist for all real x. Hence by a dx=
generalisation of chain rule, we have df

=⋅⋅
= (cos s) . (– sin t) . (2x) = – 2x sin x2 . cos (cos x2) dx ds dt dx

2019-20
166 MATHEMATICS

Alternatively, we can proceed as follows:

y = sin (cos x2)

Thereforedy d
d
= sin (cos x2) = cos (cos x2) dx (cos x2)
dx dx
d
= cos (cos x2) (– sin x2) dx (x2)
= – sin x2 cos (cos x2) (2x)
= – 2x sin x2 cos (cos x2)

EXERCISE 5.2
Differentiate the functions with respect to x in Exercises 1 to 8.

4. sec (tan ( ))
1. sin (x2 + 5) 2. cos (sin x) 3. sin (ax + b) x

5.
sin ( )

ax b
+
6. cos x3
+ . sin2 (x5)
cos ( )
cx d

7. ( ) 2

2 cot x 8. cos( x )
9. Prove that the function f given by
f(x) = | x – 1|, x ∈ R
is not differentiable at x = 1.
10. Prove that the greatest integer function defined by
f(x) = [x], 0 < x < 3
is not differentiable at x = 1 and x = 2.

5.3.2 Derivatives of implicit functions

Until now we have been differentiating various functions given in the form y = f(x).
But it is not necessary that functions are always expressed in this form. For
example, consider one of the following relationships between x and y:
x–y–π=0
x + sin xy – y = 0
In the first case, we can solve for y and rewrite the relationship as y = x – π. In
the second case, it does not seem that there is an easy way to solve for y.
Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the dependence of y on x in either of the cases.
When a relationship between x and y is expressed in a way that it is easy to solve for
y and write y = f(x), we say that y is given as an explicit function of x. In the latter
case it

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 167

is implicit that y is a function of x and we say that the relationship of the second
type, above, gives function implicitly. In this subsection, we learn to differentiate
implicit functions.

dy
Example 24 Find dx if x – y = π.
Solution One way is to solve for y and rewrite the above as
y=x–π
dy
But then dx = 1
Alternatively, directly differentiating the relationship w.r.t., x, we have
d
dx− = dxπ
d
() xy

d π
Recall that dx means to differentiate the constant function taking value π
everywhere w.r.t., x. Thus

()()dd
xy
−=0
dx dx
which implies that
dy dx

dx = 1

dx=
dy , if y + sin y = cos x.
Example 25 Find dx
Solution We differentiate the relationship directly with respect to x,
dy d
i.e., (sin ) y

d
+ = (cos ) x
dx dx chain rule dy dy
which implies using dx
 + ⋅ = – sin x
cos y
dx dx
dy
This gives dx =sin
x
−
+
1 cos y
where y ≠ (2n + 1) π 2019-20

168 MATHEMATICS

5.3.3 Derivatives of inverse trigonometric functions

We remark that inverse trigonometric functions are continuous functions, but we
will not prove this. Now we use chain rule to find derivatives of these functions.
Example 26 Find the derivative of f given by f(x) = sin–1 x assuming it exists.
Solution Let y = sin–1 x. Then, x = sin y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

dy
1 = cos y dx
dy
which implies that dx = 1
11
−
=
cos y cos(sin ) x

ππ
,
Observe that this is defined only for cos y ≠ 0, i.e., sin–1 x ≠ 2 2
− , i.e., x ≠ – 1, 1,

i.e., x ∈ (– 1, 1).
To make this result a bit more attractive, we carry out the following
manipulation. Recall that for x ∈ (– 1, 1), sin (sin–1 x) = x and hence
cos2 y = 1 – (sin y)2 = 1 – (sin (sin–1 x))2 = 1 – x2

ππ
 −
,
Also, since y ∈ 2 2
2
 , cos y is positive and hence cos y =
1− x

Thus, for x ∈ (– 1, 1),

 ==
dy
11
dx y
x
−
cos 2
1

Example 27 Find the derivative of f given by f(x) = tan–1 x assuming it exists.

Solution Let y = tan–1 x. Then, x = tan y.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get

dy
1 = sec2 y dx
which implies that
dy
1111====
dx y y x x −
2 2 1 2 2 sec 1 tan 1 (tan (tan )) 1
+++

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 169

Finding of the derivatives of other inverse trigonometric functions is left as

exercise. The following table gives the derivatives of the remaining inverse
trigonometric functions (Table 5.4):
Table 5.4

f (x) cos–1x cot–1x sec–1x cosec–1x

− − 1
1 1 2
2 2 x x −1
1x 1x
− +

−
1
f ′(x) 2 x x 1
−
Domain of f ′ (–1, 1) R (–∞, –1) ∪ (1, ∞) (–∞, –1) ∪ (1, ∞)

EXERCISE 5.3
dy
Find dx in the following:
 1. 2x + 3y = sin x 2. 2x + 3y = sin y 3. ax + by2 = cos y 4. xy + y2 = tan x + y 5.
x2 + xy + y2 = 100 6. x3 + x2y + xy2 + y3 = 81
x
2

+
7. sin y + cos xy = κ 8. sin x + cos y = 1 9. y = sin 2
2 2 2 –1

1
x

 11
−
−
3
3
,
10. y = tan–1 − < <x
xx
2
13 x 33

−  −
1 x
11. +
,
cos 0 1
1
= <<
yx 

2
1 x

−  −
1 x
12. +
,
sin 0 1
1
= <<
yx 

2
1 xx
2

− 
,
cos 1 1
1
13. 2
yx
= −<<
 +
1 x
11 ,
12 sin 2 1 2 2
14. ( )
yxxx−
=−−<<

15. 121 1
− 
,
sec 0
yx
= <<
 −
212
x

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170 MATHEMATICS

5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Till now we have learnt some aspects of different classes of functions like
polynomial functions, rational functions and trigonometric functions. In this section,
we shall learn about a new class of (related)
functions called exponential functions and
logarithmic functions. It needs to be
emphasized that many statements made
in this section are motivational and precise
proofs of these are well beyond the scope
of this text.
The Fig 5.9 gives a sketch of
y = f1(x) = x, y = f2(x) = x2, y = f3(x) = x3
and y = f4(x) = x4. Observe that the curves
get steeper as the power of x increases.
Steeper the curve, faster is the rate of
growth. What this means is that
Fig 5.9
for a fixed increment in the
value of x (> 1), the
increment in the value of y = fn (x) increases as n increases for n = 1, 2, 3, 4. It is
conceivable that such a statement is true for all positive values of n, where fn (x) = xn.
Essentially, this means that the graph of y = fn (x) leans more towards the y-axis as n
increases. For example, consider f10(x) = x10 and f15(x) = x15. If x increases from 1 to
2, f10 increases from 1 to 210 whereas f15 increases from 1 to 215. Thus, for the same
increment in x, f15 grow faster than f10.
Upshot of the above discussion is that the growth of polynomial functions is
dependent on the degree of the polynomial function – higher the degree, greater is
the growth. The next natural question is: Is there a function which grows faster than
any polynomial function. The answer is in affirmative and an example of such a
function is
y = f(x) = 10x.
Our claim is that this function f grows faster than fn(x) = xn for any positive
integer n. For example, we can prove that 10x grows faster than f100 (x) = x100. For
large values of x like x = 103, note that f100 (x) = (103)100 = 10300 whereas f(103) = 3
10 = 101000
10 .
3
Clearly f(x) is much greater than f100 (x). It is not difficult to prove that for all x > 10 ,
f(x) > f100 (x). But we will not attempt to give a proof of this here. Similarly, by
choosing large values of x, one can verify that f(x) grows faster than fn (x) for any
positive integer n.

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 171

Definition 3 The exponential function with positive base b > 1 is the

function y = f(x) = bx
The graph of y = 10x is given in the Fig 5.9.
It is advised that the reader plots this graph for particular values of b like 2, 3
and 4. Following are some of the salient features of the exponential functions: (1)
Domain of the exponential function is R, the set of all real numbers. (2) Range of
the exponential function is the set of all positive real numbers. (3) The point (0, 1) is
always on the graph of the exponential function (this is a restatement of the fact that
b0 = 1 for any real b > 1).
(4) Exponential function is ever increasing; i.e., as we move from left to right, the
graph rises above.
(5) For very large negative values of x, the exponential function is very close to 0.
In other words, in the second quadrant, the graph approaches x-axis (but never
meets it).
Exponential function with base 10 is called the common exponential function. In
the Appendix A.1.4 of Class XI, it was observed that the sum of the series
11
1 ...
+++
1! 2!
is a number between 2 and 3 and is denoted by e. Using this e as the base we obtain
an extremely important exponential function y = ex.
This is called natural exponential function.
It would be interesting to know if the inverse of the exponential function exists
and has nice interpretation. This search motivates the following definition.
Definition 4 Let b > 1 be a real number. Then we say logarithm of a to base b is x if
bx = a.
Logarithm of a to base b is denoted by logb a. Thus logb a = x if bx = a. Let us
work with a few explicit examples to get a feel for this. We know 23 = 8. In terms of
logarithms, we may rewrite this as log2 8 = 3. Similarly, 104 = 10000 is equivalent to
saying log10 10000 = 4. Also, 625 = 54 = 252 is equivalent to saying log5 625 = 4 or
log25 625 = 2.
On a slightly more mature note, fixing a base b > 1, we may look at logarithm as
a function from positive real numbers to all real numbers. This function, called the
logarithmic function, is defined by
logb : R+ → R
x → logbx = y if by = x

2019-20
172 MATHEMATICS function to any base b > 1 are
listed below:
As before if the base b = 10, we
say it is common logarithms and
if b = e, then we say it is natural
logarithms. Often natural
logarithm is denoted by ln. In this
chapter, log x denotes the
logarithm function to base e, i.e.,
ln x will be written as simply log
x. The Fig 5.10 gives the plots of
logarithm function to base 2, e
and 10.
Some of the important
observations about the logarithm Fig 5.10
(1) We cannot make a meaningful definition of logarithm of non-positive numbers
and hence the domain of log function is R+.
(2) The range of log function is the set of all real numbers.
(3) The point (1, 0) is always on the graph of the log function.
(4) The log function is ever increasing,
i.e., as we move from left to right
the graph rises above.
(5) For x very near to zero, the value
of log x can be made lesser than
any given real number. In other
words in the fourth quadrant the
graph approaches y-axis (but never
meets it).
(6) Fig 5.11 gives the plot of y = ex and
y = ln x. It is of interest to observe
that the two curves are the of ‘log’ functions are proved
mirror below:
images of each other reflected Fig 5.11
in the line y = x. Two properties
 (1) There is a standard change of base rule to obtain logap in terms of logbp. Let
logap = α, logbp = β and logb a = γ. This means aα = p, bβ = p and bγ = a.
Substituting the third equation in the first one, we have
(bγ)α = bγα = p
Using this in the second equation, we get
bβ = p = bγα

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 173

β
which implies β = αγ or α = γ. But then
b
b
logap a
p
log
=log
(2) Another interesting property of the log function is its effect on products. Let
logb pq = α. Then bα = pq. If logb p = β and logb q = γ, then bβ = p and bγ = q.
But then bα = pq = bβbγ = bβ + γ
which implies α = β + γ, i.e.,
logb pq = logb p + logb q
A particularly interesting and important consequence of this is when p = q. In
this case the above may be rewritten as
logb p2 = logb p + logb p = 2 log p
An easy generalisation of this (left as an exercise!) is
logb pn = n log p
for any positive integer n. In fact this is true for any real number n, but we will
not attempt to prove this. On the similar lines the reader is invited to verify
x = log
logb y bx – logby

Example 28 Is it true that x = elog x for all real x?

Solution First, observe that the domain of log function is set of all positive real
numbers. So the above equation is not true for non-positive real numbers. Now, let y
= elog x. If y > 0, we may take logarithm which gives us log y = log (elog x) = log x . log
e = log x. Thus y = x. Hence x = elog x is true only for positive values of x.
One of the striking properties of the natural exponential function in differential
calculus is that it doesn’t change during the process of differentiation. This is
captured in the following theorem whose proof we skip.
Theorem 5*
d (e
(1) The derivative of ex w.r.t., x is ex; i.e., dx x) = ex.
 1 ; i.e., d (log x) = 1 .
(2) The derivative of log x w.r.t., x is x dx x

* Please see supplementary material on Page 286.

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174 MATHEMATICS

Example 29 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:

(i) e–x(ii) sin (log x), x > 0 (iii) cos–1 (ex) (iv) ecos x

Solution
(i) Let y = e– x. Using chain rule, we have
dy
x
dx = d
−
⋅ (– x) = – e– x
e
dx
(ii) Let y = sin (log x). Using chain rule, we have
dy
cos (log )
dx = cos (log ) (log ) d x
xx
⋅=
dx x
–1 x
(iii) Let y = cos (e ). Using chain rule, we have
de
dy x
x
⋅=
1
−− () e

dx = 2 2
dx
ee
xx
1()1
−−
(iv) Let y = ecos x. Using chain rule, we have
dy
cos cos
dx = ( sin ) (sin ) x x
exxe⋅−=−

EXERCISE 5.4
Differentiate the following w.r.t. x:

e e−3.3
x
 x2.
1

sin x x
e
1.sin

4. sin (tan–1 e–x) 5. log (cos ex) 6.2 5

xxx
eee+++
...
cos x
e x > 8. log (log x), x > 1 9. ,0 x

>0
7. , 0 x log
5.5. Logarithmic
10. cos (log x + ex), x
Differentiation x>

In this section, we will learn to differentiate certain special class of functions given
in the form
y = f(x) = [u(x)]v (x)
By taking logarithm (to base e) the above may be rewritten as
log y = v(x) log [u(x)]

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CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 175

Using chain rule we may differentiate this to get

11
dy
vx
. .
⋅ = ⋅ u′(x) + v′(x) log [u(x)]
()
()
y dx u x
which implies that
()
[] ( ) ( ) log ( )
dy v x

=⋅′+′⋅

yuxvxux
dx u x
()

The main point to be noted in this method is that f(x) and u(x) must always be
positive as otherwise their logarithms are not defined. This process of differentiation
is known as logarithms differentiation and is illustrated by the following examples:

2
( 3) ( 4)
xx
Example 30 −+
Differentiate

+ + w.r.t. x. 2
xx
3452

Solution Let
=
( 3) ( 4) ++
xx 2

−+ (3 4 5)
y
xx
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
1 [log (x – 3) + log (x2
log y = 2 + 4) – log (3x2 + 4x + 5)]
Now, differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we get
11264
+
1 dy +−

xx
⋅ = 2 2 2 ( 3) 4 3 4 5
+++
− 
y dx
xxxx

yxx+1264

dy
or dx = 2 2
+−

xxxx
2 ( 3) 4 3 4 5
+++
− 
2
1 ( 3)( 4) 1 2 6 4
xxxx
−++
+−

=
222
2 3 4 5 ( 3) 4 3 4 5 x x x x x x
 ++ +++
− 
Example 31 Differentiate ax w.r.t. x, where a is a positive constant.
Solution Let y = ax. Then
log y = x log a
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dy

y dx = log a

2019-20
176 MATHEMATICS

dy
or dx = y log a

Thus ( ) d x
a
x
dx = a log a

Alternatively ( ) d x
log log
dx = ( ) ( log ) d x a x a d
a
eexa
=
dx dx
x log a
=e . log a = axlog a.
Example 32 Differentiate xsin x, x > 0 w.r.t. x.
Solution Let y = xsin x. Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log y = sin x log x
1
Therefore .dy

y dx = sin (log ) log (sin ) d d

xxxx
+
dx dx

or1 dy
y dx =1
(sin ) log cos x x x

x+
 dy sin
or dx = cos log x

yxx
+

x


sin sin x
= cos log x

xxx
+

x

=sin 1 sin sin cos log x x
x x x x x −⋅ + ⋅

dy , if yx y x b
Example 33 Find dx +x +x =a.
Solution Given that yx + xy + xx = ab.
Putting u = yx, v = xy and w = xx, we get u + v + w = ab
du dv dw

Therefore 0
+ + = ... (1)
dx dx dx
x
Now, u = y . Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log u = x log y
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have

2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 177

1 du
⋅
= (log ) log ( ) d d
xyyx
u dx dy x y
+ ⋅+⋅
1
dx dx = log 1 y dx

du
So dx = log log x dy x dy x
 
uyyy
+=+


    ... (2)
y dx y dx
y
Also v = x
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log v = y log x
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dv
⋅ = (log ) log d dy
yxx
v dx yx
+ ⋅+⋅
1
dx dx = log dy x dx

dv log
So dx = y dy

vx
+

x dx

log y
= y dy

xx
+
  ... (3)
x dx
x
Again w = x
Taking logarithm on both sides, we have
log w = x log x.
Differentiating both sides w.r.t. x, we have
1 dw
⋅
= (log ) log ( ) d d
xxxx
w dx
dx dx =1

x x log 1

x⋅ + ⋅
i.e.dw
+⋅
 dx = w (1 + log x)
= xx (1 + log x) ... (4) 2019-20

178 MATHEMATICS

From (1), (2), (3), (4), we have

x
log log x dy y y dy

yyxx
+ + +      x
  + x (1 + log x) = 0
y dx x dx
dy
or (x . yx – 1 + xy . log x) x y–1 x
dx = – x (1 + log x) – y . x – y log y x y x
−
dy 1
Therefore dx =
−+++
[ log . (1 log )]
yyyxxx
xy
− 1
xyxx
. log
+

EXERCISE 5.5

Differentiate the functions given in Exercises 1 to 11 w.r.t. x. 1.

cos x . cos 2x . cos 3x 2.( 1) ( 2)

xx
−−
( 3) ( 4) ( 5)
xxx
−−−
3. (log x)cos x 4. xx – 2sin x

x +
1
11
 ++
  
5. (x + 3)2 . (x + 4)3 . x x x
(x + 5)4 6. x
 7. (log x)x + xlog x 8. (sin x)x + sin–1x
2
x
x+
xxx 1
cos
10. 1 1
9. xsin x + (sin x)cos x
+
−2

+
x
11. (x cos x) ( sin ) x x
x

dy of the functions given in Exercises 12 to 15.

Find dx
12. xy + yx = 1 13. yx = xy
14. (cos x)y = (cos y)x 15. xy = e(x – y)
16. Find the derivative of the function given by f(x) = (1 + x) (1 + x2) (1 + x4) (1 +
x8) and hence find f ′(1).
17. Differentiate (x2 – 5x + 8) (x3 + 7x + 9) in three ways mentioned below: (i)
by using product rule
(ii) by expanding the product to obtain a single polynomial.
(iii) by logarithmic differentiation.
Do they all give the same answer?

2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 179

18. If u, v and w are functions of x, then show that

du v. w + u . dv
dx (u. v. w) = dx dx . w + u . vdw
d
dx
in two ways - first by repeated application of product rule, second by
logarithmic differentiation.
5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms
Sometimes the relation between two variables is neither explicit nor implicit, but
some link of a third variable with each of the two variables, separately, establishes a
relation between the first two variables. In such a situation, we say that the relation
between them is expressed via a third variable. The third variable is called the
parameter. More precisely, a relation expressed between two variables x and y in the
form x = f(t), y = g (t) is said to be parametric form with t as a parameter.
In order to find derivative of function in such form, we have by chain
 rule. dy

dt =dy dx
⋅
dx dt

dy
dy
or dx = whenever 0

dt dx

≠
 
dx
dt

dt

dy ()
Thus dx = as ( ) and ( )
g t dy dx
gtft
′
=′=′
 

′   [provided f ′(t) ≠ 0]
f t dt dt
()

dy , if x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ.
Example 34 Find dx
Solution Given that
x = a cos θ, y = a sin θ
dx dy
Therefore dθ = – a sin θ, dθ = a cos θ
dy
dy cos
Hence dx = cot

da
θθ
==−θ
dx
a
−θ
sin
d
θ

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180 MATHEMATICS

dy , if x = at2
Example 35 Find dx , y = 2at.
2
Solution Given that x = at , y = 2at
dx dy = 2a
So dt = 2at and dt
dy
dy
Therefore dx =2 1

dt a
==
dx
at t
2
dt

dy , if x = a (θ + sin θ), y = a (1 – cos

Example 36 Find dx

θ). dx = a(1 + cos θ), dy

Solution We have dθ dθ =
a (sin θ)
dy
dy sin
Therefore dx = tan

da
θθθ
==
dx θ
a
(1 cos ) 2 +
dθ

Note It may be noted here that dy

A dx is expressed in terms
of parameter only without directly involving the main variables x and y.
222

333 dy
, if xya
Example 37 Find
.
dx+ =
Solution Let x = a cos3 θ, y = a 2 2 3 3 3 3
sin3 θ. Then 2 2
33
xy+== θ
22

( cos ) ( sin ) a a θ +
 θ = a 222

3
223
a (cos (sin ) θ +

Hence, x = a cos3θ, y = a sin3θ is 333

xya+=
parametric equation of
dx dy
Now dθ = – 3a cos θ sin θ and dθ = 3a sin θ cos θ 2019-20
2 2

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 181

dy
dy 2
Therefore dx = 3

day
θθθ
3 sin cos
tan
==−θ=−
dx
ax
2
−θθ
3 cos sin
dθ

EXERCISE 5.6

If x and y are connected parametrically by the equations given in Exercises 1 to 10,

dy .
without eliminating the parameter, Find dx

1. x = 2at2, y = at4 2. x = a cos θ, y = b cos θ 3. x = sin t, y = cos 2t 4.

4
x = 4t, y = t
5. x = cos θ – cos 2θ, y = sin θ – sin 2θ
3 3
sin t cos t
y
t
6. x = a (θ – (1 + cos θ) 7. tan =+ =
2t 
cos2
sin θ), y = a cos log cos 2
x = 8.

xat t,

 y = a sin t 9. x = a sec θ, y = b tan θ

10. x = a (cos θ + θ sin θ), y = a (sin θ – θ cos θ)

sin cos tt
, , show that dy y
−−

11. If 1 1
xaya
dx x
===−

5.7 Second Order Derivative

Let y = f(x). Then
dy

dx = f ′(x) ... (1) If f ′(x) is differentiable, we may differentiate (1) again

w.r.t. x. Then, the left hand
d dy
side becomes

  which is called the second order derivative of y
w.r.t. x and dx dx
2
is denoted by
dy
. The second order derivative of f(x) is
dx
denoted by f ″(x). It is also
2

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182 MATHEMATICS

denoted by D2y or y″ or y2 if y = f(x). We remark that higher order derivatives may be

defined similarly.
2
Example 38 Find
dy
, if y = x3
dx + tan x. 2

Solution Given that y = x3 + tan x. Then

dy
2 2
dx = 3x + sec x
2
d
dx = ( )
22
3 sec x x
Therefore 6x + 2 sec2x tan x dy
y
dy2
dx+ = .
dx+
= 6x + 2 sec x . sec x tan x =
2
Example 39 If y = A sin x + B
cos x, then prove that

Solution We have
2
dy
d
dx = dx (A cos x – B sin x)
dy dy
2
dx = A cos x – B sin x
= – A sin x – B cos x = – y
2

20

and
d y dy
25 60 y
Hence
2

dx + y = 0 2
Example 40 If y = 3e2x + 2e3x, 2
prove that dy
2x 3x 2x
dx = 12e + 18e = 6 (2e +
Solution Given that y = 3e2x +
3e3x) 2
3x
2e . Then dy
− + = . dx dx Hence
−
+ 6y = 6 (2e2x + 3e3x)
dx dx

– 30 (e2x + e3x) + 6 (3e2x + 2e3x) =

Therefore 0
2
d y dy
25
2x 3x 2x 3x 2019-20
dx = 6e + 6e = 6 (e + e )
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 183 2

Example 41 If y = sin–1 x, show that (1 – x2) Solution

We have y = sin–1x. Then 20
x
d y dy dx dx
−=.
1
dy

dx = 2
(1 ) − x

(1 ) 1 dy
2
or
−=
x
dx

(1 ) . 0 d dy

So 2
−=
 
x
dx dx

2

(1 ) (1 ) 0 d y dy d
or ( )
22
−⋅+⋅−=
xx
2
dx dx dx
2
d y dy x
2
2
or 2
2
x dx
(1 ) 0 − ⋅ − ⋅ = dx x

2
21
d y dy −
2
xx
2
Hence dx dx
(1 ) 0 − − =

Alternatively, Given that y = sin–1 x, we have

= , i.e., ( )2 21
y 1
1
2 11−=xy
 1 − x

So 2 2
) . 2 (0 2 ) 0 − + − = x y y y x
1 2 1 (1
2
Hence (1 – x ) y2 – xy1 = 0

EXERCISE 5.7
Find the second order derivatives of the functions given in Exercises 1 to
10. 1. x2 + 3x + 2 2. x20 3. x . cos x 4. log x 5. x3 log x 6. ex sin 5x 7. e6x cos
3x 8. tan–1 x 9. log (log x)
10. sin (log x)
+ = 20
11. If y = 5 cos x – 3 sin dx
x, prove that
2
dy
y

2019-20
184 MATHEMATICS 12. If y

2
dy
= cos–1 x, Find in terms of y alone.
dx 2

13. If y = 3 cos (log x) + 4 sin (log x), show that x2 y2 + xy1 + y = 0 2

2( ) 0 d y dy
−++=
14. If y = Aemx + Benx, show 2
that dy
m n mny 249 y
dx dx
15. If y = 500e7x +
600e– 7x, show that dx=

22d y dy

16. If ey(x + 1) = 1, =

show that 2
dx dx
17. If y = (tan–1 x)2, show that (x2 + 1)2 y2 + 2x (x2 + 1) y1 = 2
5.8 Mean Value Theorem
In this section, we will state two fundamental results in Calculus without proof. We
shall also learn the geometric interpretation of these theorems.
Theorem 6 (Rolle’s Theorem) Let f : [a, b] → R be continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b), such that f(a) = f(b), where a and b are some real numbers.
Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that f′(c) = 0.
In Fig 5.12 and 5.13, graphs of a few typical differentiable functions satisfying
the hypothesis of Rolle’s theorem are given.

Fig 5.12 Fig 5.13

Observe what happens to the slope of the tangent to the curve at various points
between a and b. In each of the graphs, the slope becomes zero at least at one point.
That is precisely the claim of the Rolle’s theorem as the slope of the tangent at any
point on the graph of y = f (x) is nothing but the derivative of f (x) at that point.

2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 185

Theorem 7 (Mean Value Theorem) Let f : [a, b] → R be a continuous function on

[a, b] and differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that
()() fbfafc
() ba
−
′=
−
Observe that the Mean Value Theorem (MVT) is an extension of Rolle’s
theorem. Let us now understand a geometric interpretation of the MVT. The graph
of a function y = f(x) is given in the Fig 5.14. We have already interpreted f ′(c) as
the slope of the

tangent to the curve y = f(x) at (c, f(c)). From the Fig 5.14 it is clear that f b f a ( ) ( )
−
ba
−
is the slope of the secant drawn between (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)). The MVT states that
there is a point c in (a, b) such that the slope of the tangent at (c, f(c)) is same as the
slope of the secant between (a, f(a)) and (b, f(b)). In other words, there is a point c
in (a, b) such that the tangent at (c, f(c)) is parallel to the secant between (a, f(a))
and (b, f(b)).
 Fig 5.14

Example 42 Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function y = x2 + 2, a = – 2 and b = 2.

Solution The function y = x2 + 2 is continuous in [– 2, 2] and differentiable in (– 2,

2). Also f(– 2) = f( 2) = 6 and hence the value of f(x) at – 2 and 2 coincide. Rolle’s
theorem states that there is a point c ∈ (– 2, 2), where f′(c) = 0. Since f′(x) = 2x, we
get c = 0. Thus at c = 0, we have f′(c) = 0 and c = 0 ∈ (– 2, 2).
Example 43 Verify Mean Value Theorem for the function f(x) = x2 in the interval [2, 4].

Solution The function f(x) = x2 is continuous in [2, 4] and differentiable in (2, 4) as

its derivative f′(x) = 2x is defined in (2, 4).

2019-20
186 MATHEMATICS

Now, f(2) = 4 and f(4) = 16. Hence

fbfa
( ) ( ) 16 4
6
−−
ba ==
−−
42
MVT states that there is a point c ∈ (2, 4) such that f′(c) = 6. But f′(x) = 2x
which implies c = 3. Thus at c = 3 ∈ (2, 4), we have f′(c) = 6.

EXERCISE 5.8
1. Verify Rolle’s theorem for the function f(x) = x2 + 2x – 8, x ∈ [– 4, 2]. 2.
Examine if Rolle’s theorem is applicable to any of the following functions. Can
you say some thing about the converse of Rolle’s theorem from these example? (i)
f(x) = [x] for x ∈ [5, 9] (ii) f(x) = [x] for x ∈ [– 2, 2]
(iii) f(x) = x2 – 1 for x ∈ [1, 2]
3. If f : [– 5, 5] → R is a differentiable function and if f′(x) does not vanish
anywhere, then prove that f(– 5) ≠ f(5).
 4. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f(x) = x2 – 4x – 3 in the interval [a, b], where a =
1 and b = 4.
5. Verify Mean Value Theorem, if f(x) = x3 – 5x2 – 3x in the interval [a, b], where a
= 1 and b = 3. Find all c ∈ (1, 3) for which f′(c) = 0.
6. Examine the applicability of Mean Value Theorem for all three functions given
in the above exercise 2.

Miscellaneous Examples
Example 44 Differentiate w.r.t. x, the following function:
sec –1
(i)21 3 2 3cos x
(ii)
+ 2
x ++
e + x (iii) log7 (log x) 24
x
Solution
11
(3 2) (2 4) x x−
(i) Let y = 21 3 2
x = x
++ + 2
22+ ++
24

2
Note that this function is defined at all real numbers 3 x > − .
Therefore
dy 22

dx = dx dx
11
11
(3 2) (3 2) (2 4) (2 4)
dd
−−−
 2019-20
11

22 +⋅++−+⋅+
22x xxx

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 187

1
3
1 1
= 23 2 3 22 4 4


  + ⋅
−−

22
()()()x+⋅−xx2
x
32
 = ( )3
−
232
24
x
x
+
+
2
2

2
This is defined for all real numbers 3
x>−.

(ii) Let 2
sec 1
−
3cos x
yex
=+
This is defined at every real number in . Therefore
[ 1,1] −

d x
dx =e dx x

31
dy sec x
(sec ) 
2
2 
⋅+− 1 2
 − 
d x 2
=e x dx x 2 31



sec x
sec (sec )
12 −
⋅ + −  
1

2
x
sec
2sec (sec tan ) 3
= + −  −

xxxe
2
1 1 x
2 sec

x
2

2sec tan 3
= + −  −

xxe
2
1 x
Observe that the derivative of the given function is valid only in (– 1, 1) as the
 derivative of cos–1 x exists only in (– 1, 1).

(iii) Let y = log7 (log x) = log (log )

log 7 base formula).
x
(by change of

The function is defined for all real numbers x > 1. Therefore

1
dx = (log (log ))
dy d
x dx
log 7
11
= (log )
d
⋅ x
log 7 log
x dx

=1
x x log 7 log 2019-20

188 MATHEMATICS

Example 45 Differentiate the following w.r.t. x.


− +

−   + (iii) 1
tan x x
12 +
1 cos x
1 sin Solution
(i) cos– 1 (sin x) (ii) sin
14
x

(i) Let f (x) = cos– 1 (sin x). Observe that this function is defined for all real
numbers. We may rewrite this function as
f(x) = cos–1 (sin x)


 

π
x

 
= cos cos −−
 1
2
π
−
=
2x
Thus f ′(x) = – 1.
–1
(ii) Let f(x) = tan sin x


  +. Observe that this function is defined for all real
1 cos x
numbers, where cos x ≠ – 1; i.e., at all odd multiplies of π. We may rewrite
this function as

1
f(x) = sin
tan x
1 cos x

− +
    
xx
2 sin cos


22
tan
=1 −
2

 2cos2
x  
  

xx =
−   
=1
tan tan
22
x
cos
Observe that we could cancel 2

 in both numerator and denominator as it
1.
is not equal to zero. Thus f ′(x) = 2
 . To find the domain of this function we need to find all
+
x + 1
2
–1 x
(iii) Let sin
f(x) =
14
x
+
2 1
x such that −≤≤
. Since the quantity in the middle is 11
+
always positive,

14
x

2019-20
CONTINUITY DIFFERENTIABIL

x AND ITY 189 1

+

we need to find all x such that

+, i.e., all x such that 2 ≤ 1 + 4 . We
x+1 x
2
1
14 x
≤

1 x x
may rewrite this as 2 ≤ 2 + 2 which is true for all x. Hence the function is
defined at every real number. By putting 2x = tan θ, this function may be
rewritten as

− 
x + 1
12
f(x) =
sin 
14   
   
  +x
x
sin−
= ⋅
1 )
22+(
 12 x 2

2 tan sin
1 tan
−  θ
 
=12 +θ

= sin–1 [sin 2θ] =

2θ = 2 tan– 1 (2x)
x
1 d
2 (2 ) ⋅ ⋅
Thus f ′(x) =
( )2 dx
 12+ x

2
= (2 )log 2
+
14+ x
1

x⋅ x
x
=
2 log 2
14+

Example 46 Find f ′(x) if f(x) = (sin x)sin xfor all 0 < x < π.
Solution The function y = (sin x)sin x is defined for all positive real numbers. Taking
logarithms, we have
log y = log (sin x)sin x = sin x log (sin x)

Then1 dy
d
y dx = dx (sin x log (sin x))
1
= cos x log (sin x) + sin x . (sin )
⋅ d
x
sin
x dx
= cos x log (sin x) + cos x
= (1 + log (sin x)) cos x

2019-20
190 MATHEMATICS

dy sin x
Thus dx = y((1 + log (sin x)) cos x) = (1 + log (sin x)) ( sin x) cos x Example
dy , where
47 For a positive constant a find dx
1
1
a
+

tt y axt ==+
t 

, and
Solution Observe that both y and x are defined for all real t ≠ 0. Clearly
11
log
t
dy td
d
 
dt = ( )1 a dt+ = a t a dt t
t
t

+  +⋅
 
tt
1 aa1
1 log
=
t
+  2

−

dx 1
Similarly dt =
a
d
−
11

+⋅+

att
t dt t
− 1
a

= at
 tt

dx +⋅−
 2
11
1
± 1,
≠ 0 only if t ≠ dy 11
dt

± 1. Thus for t ≠   

1
t
t+

a
ta
dy − −
1
dt
== 2 dx dx
log a


1
11

 ⋅ −


 
at
tt
dt
 +
+
a a log

= 1
2
t
t

a
−
1
1

+
at
t

2 cos x
Example 48 Differentiate sin x w.r.t. e .
/
Solution Let u (x) = sin2 x and v (x) = ecos x. We want to find /
du du dx
. Clearly
=
dv dv dx
du
dv cos x cos x
dx = 2 sin x cos x and dx = e (– sin x) = – (sin x) e

2019-20
CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 191

2sin cos 2cos

xxx
du
Thus dv = cos cos
=−
−
sin x x x e e

Miscellaneous Exercise on Chapter 5

Differentiate w.r.t. x the function in Exercises 1 to 11. 1. (3x2 – 9x +
(x ), 0 ≤ x ≤ 1
5)9 2. sin3x + cos6x 3. (5x)3 cos 2x 4. sin–1 x
1
−
x
27
5.
x
cos
2

− ++−
+, – 2 < x < 2
1
6. 1 sin 1 sin
 xx
,0<x<
+−− 2π
cot
1 sin 1 sin

xx
log x
7. (log x) , x > 1
8. cos (a cos x + b sin x), for some constant a and b. 9.

(sin x – cos x) (sin x – cos x), 3

ππ
<<
x
44
10. xx + xa + ax + aa, for some fixed a > 0 and x > 0
11. ( )2 233
xx
−
+ − , for x > 3
xx
ππ
dy , if y = 12 (1 – cos t), x = 10 (t – sin t),
12. Find dx 22
−<<
t

dy , if y = sin–1
13. Find dx x + sin–1 2

1− x , 0 < x < 1

14. If x y y x 1 1 0 + + + = , for , – 1 < x < 1, prove that

dy
1 ( )2
=−
+
dx
x
1
2 2 2
15. If (x – a) + (y – b) = c , for some c > 0, prove that
3
 +
 
2
dy 2
1 dx 2
dy

2
dx
is a constant independent of a and b.
 2019-20
192 MATHEMATICS = . dx a
sin

16. If cos y = x cos (a + y), with cos a 2

≠ ± 1, prove that 17. If x = a (cos t + t sin t) and y = a
(sin t – t cos t), find
dy
2 .
dx 2
dy a y cos ( )
+
18. If f(x) = | x |3, show that f ″(x) exists for all real x and find it.
d
19. Using mathematical induction prove that ( ) nn1

−
= for all positive
x nx
integers n. dx

20. Using the fact that sin (A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B and the
differentiation, obtain the sum formula for cosines.
21. Does there exist a function which is continuous everywhere but not
differentiable at exactly two points? Justify your answer.
= , prove that a b c
fxgxhx()()() =
22. If ′′′ dx
fxgxhx()()() dy abc
lmn
ylmn

e−, – 1 ≤ x ≤ 1, show that ( )2

23. If y = 1 a x cos 10
2
d y dy dx dx
.
−−−=
22 Summary
xxay

® A real valued function is continuous at a point in its domain if the limit of the
function at that point equals the value of the function at that point. A function is
continuous if it is continuous on the whole of its domain.
® Sum, difference, product and quotient of continuous functions are continuous.
i.e., if f and g are continuous functions, then
(f ± g) (x) = f(x) ± g(x) is continuous.
(f . g) (x) = f(x) . g (x) is continuous.
ffx
()()
()
 =  
  (wherever g(x) ≠ 0) is continuous.
x
ggx
® Every differentiable function is continuous, but the converse is not true.

2019-20

CONTINUITY AND DIFFERENTIABILITY 193

® Chain rule is rule to differentiate composites of functions. If f = v o u, t = u

dt dv
(x) and if both dx and dt exist then
df dv dt
=⋅
dx dt dx
® Following are some of the standard derivatives (in appropriate domains):
1 1 cos
d −
x()1 d sin =−
x()1 −
=
dx dx
x2 x2

1 −1
d
x
d 1
x −
−− 1
( ) 12
−=
+( )
1
2

tan 1
1
d
dx x x
−−
cot
1
1
=
+
dx x
d
x()1

sec ()1 =
−
=
 dx dx
xx2 xx2

cosec
1 − 1 −

1
dx= ( )
d xx d =
() ee log x
dx x
® Logarithmic differentiation is a powerful technique to differentiate
functions of the form f(x) = [u (x)]v (x). Here both f(x) and u(x) need to be
positive for this technique to make sense.
® Rolle’s Theorem: If f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b) such that f(a) = f(b), then there exists some c in (a,
b) such that f ′(c) = 0.
® Mean Value Theorem: If f : [a, b] → R is continuous on [a, b] and
differentiable on (a, b). Then there exists some c in (a, b) such that

()() fbfafc
() ba
−
′=
−

—
v—

2019-20
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